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122-570: High Street is a common street name for the primary business street of a city, town, or village, especially in the United Kingdom and Commonwealth . It implies that it is the focal point for business, especially shopping . It is also a metonym for the retail sector. While many streets, such as Camden High Street (in London). bear this name, streets with similar function but different names are often referred to as "high street". With

244-522: A House of Commons committee concluded that the loss of small shops on high streets in favor of chain stores contributes to the formation of clone towns , leading to "a loss of sociability ". In 2011, business consultant Mary Portas , best known for the TV series Mary Queen of Shops , was commissioned by the UK government to provide an independent review of High Street shopping. The report provided evidence for

366-486: A grid plan , the streets are named to indicate their location on a Cartesian coordinate plane . For example, the Commissioners' Plan of 1811 for Manhattan provided for numbered streets running parallel to the minor axis of the island and numbered and lettered avenues running parallel to the long axis of the island, although many of the avenues have since been assigned names for at least part of their courses. In

488-976: A highway ). In most cities the main business and shopping area is rather referred to as Innenstadt (downtown) or by the specific street name. In Cologne the Hohe Straße (literally, High Street) is the main shopping street, but was named after a gate at its southern end (the Hohe Pforte , or High Gate). The term High Street is far less commonly used in Ireland. There, like in the United States, Main Street tends to be used instead. Neither of Dublin's two main shopping streets ( Grafton Street and Henry Street ) carry this name, for example, nor does its main thoroughfare ( O'Connell Street ). While Dublin has street named High Street near Christchurch , formerly

610-689: A change in official language. After the death of Francisco Franco , the Spanish transition to democracy gave Catalonia the status of an autonomous community , with Catalan as a co- official language . While some street names in Catalonia were changed entirely, most were merely given the Catalan translations of their previous Castilian names; for example, Calle San Pablo (Saint Paul Street) in Barcelona became Carrer Sant Pau . In most cases, this

732-634: A changing or previously unrecognized ethnic community or to honour politicians or local heroes. In towns such as Geneva , Brussels , Namur and Poznań initiatives have recently been taken to name or rename more streets and other public spaces after women. A changed political regime can trigger widespread changes in street names – many place names in Zimbabwe changed following their independence in 1980, with streets named after British colonists being changed to those of Zimbabwean nationalist leaders. After Ukraine 's pro-Western revolution in 2014,

854-471: A direction (the cardinal points east, west, north, south, or the quadrants NW, NE, SW, SE) especially in cities with a grid-numbering system. Examples include "E Roosevelt Boulevard" and "14th Street NW". These directions are often (though not always) used to differentiate two sections of a street. Other qualifiers may be used for that purpose as well. Examples: upper/lower, old/new, or adding "extension". " Main Street " and " High Street " are common names for

976-536: A farmer was described as "hot and exhausting". "Everyone says the farmer works the hardest but gets the least amount of money". In an effort to counter this impression, the Agriculture Department of Thailand is seeking to promote the impression that farming is "honorable and secure". However, in Thailand, urbanization has also resulted in massive increases in problems such as obesity. Shifting from

1098-513: A fixed equilibrium. However, a significant increase in the percentage of the global urban population can be traced in the 1st millennium BCE. With the onset of the British Agricultural Revolution and Industrial Revolution in the late 18th century, this relationship was finally broken and an unprecedented growth in urban population took place over the course of the 19th century, both through continued migration from

1220-458: A greater risk for obesity, diabetes and related chronic disease. Overall, body mass index and cholesterol levels increase sharply with national income and the degree of urbanization. [40] Food deserts in the United States are most commonly found in low-income and predominately African American neighbourhoods. One study on food deserts in Denver , Colorado found that, in addition to minorities,

1342-656: A grid, such as Arlington County, Virginia , a grid-based naming system is still sometimes used to give a semblance of order. Often, the numbered streets run east–west and the numbered avenues north–south, following the style adopted in Manhattan, although this is not always observed. In some cases, streets in "half-blocks" in between two consecutive numbered streets have a different designator, such as Court or Terrace, often in an organized system where courts are always between streets and terraces between avenues. Sometimes yet another designator (such as "Way", "Place", or "Circle")

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1464-535: A grocery store are associated with higher rates of obesity and other health disparities. Food deserts in developed countries often correspond to areas with a high density of fast food chains and convenience stores that offer little to no fresh food. Urbanization has been shown to be associated with the consumption of less fresh fruits, vegetables, and whole grains and a higher consumption of processed foods and sugar-sweetened beverages. Poor access to healthy food and high intakes of fat, sugar and salt are associated with

1586-451: A growing increase for addressing other areas of life cycle consumption has occurred from initial stage reduction to heat recovery and recycling of materials. For example, concerns for mass consumption and fast fashion have moved to the forefront of the urban consumers' priorities. Aside from environmental concerns (e.g. climate change effects), other urban concerns for waste management are public health and land access. Urbanization can have

1708-459: A higher content of meat, sugars, refined grains and fats. Urban residents typically have reduced time available for at-home food preparation combined with increased disposable income, facilitating access to convenience foods and ready-to-eat meals. One such effect is the formation of food deserts . Nearly 23.5 million people in the United States lack access to supermarkets within one mile of their home. Several studies suggest that long distances to

1830-462: A huge street renaming campaign began in the early 20th century, changing almost all of the street names into numbers, in accordance with the adoption of a new unified house numbering scheme. Some New York City Subway stations retained their names, instead of changing with their corresponding street(s). A few examples survive today, such as 33rd Street–Rawson Street station . Sometimes street renaming can be controversial, because of antipathy toward

1952-573: A large effect on biodiversity by causing a division of habitats and thereby alienation of species, a process known as habitat fragmentation . Habitat fragmentation does not destroy the habitat, as seen in habitat loss , but rather breaks it apart with things like roads and railways This change may affect a species ability to sustain life by separating it from the environment in which it is able to easily access food, and find areas that they may hide from predation With proper planning and management, fragmentation can be avoided by adding corridors that aid in

2074-399: A major shopping street named High Street ( Irish : An tSráid Ard ), including Killarney , Galway , Wexford , Ballinrobe , Westport , Bagenalstown , Macroom , Tuam , Wicklow , Trim , Monaghan , Kilkenny , and Kilrush . Bantry, County Cork is an interesting variant; the main shopping street is called High Street in its western part and Main Street in its eastern part. The same

2196-473: A more acidic environment. Rapid growth of communities creates new challenges in the developed world and one such challenge is an increase in food waste also known as urban food waste. Food waste is the disposal of food products that can no longer be used due to unused products, expiration, or spoilage. The increase of food waste can raise environmental concerns such as increase production of methane gases and attraction of disease vectors . Landfills are

2318-584: A negative impact on population health particularly affecting people's susceptibility to asthma. In low and middle income countries many factors contribute to the high numbers of people with asthma. Similar to areas in the United States with increasing urbanization, people living in growing cities in low income countries experience high exposure to air pollution, which increases the prevalence and severity of asthma among these populations. Links have been found between exposure to traffic-related air pollution and allergic diseases. Children living in poor, urban areas in

2440-407: A number of different variables. Research has highlighted the ongoing challenges faced by towns and cities and suggested that "[t]he town centre serves not only social, utilitarian or hedonic shopping purposes but also supports out-of-hours entertainment and leisure services. The way that consumers perceive and use town centres has also fundamentally changed." In order to address the issues threatening

2562-551: A particular theme. One example is Philadelphia , where the major east–west streets in William Penn 's original plan for the city carry the names of trees: from north to south, these were Vine, Sassafras, Mulberry, High (not a tree), Chestnut, Walnut, Locust, Spruce, Pine, Lombard and Cedar. (Sassafras, Mulberry, High and Cedar have since been renamed to Race, Arch, Market [the main east–west street downtown] and South.) Other examples of themed streets: In many cities laid out on

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2684-584: A preponderance of stores selling luxury branded goods. In the United Kingdom, geographic concentration of goods and services (including at industrial estates and out of town shopping centres) has reduced the share of the economy contributed to by workers in the high street. High Street refers to only a part of commerce. The town centre in many British towns combines a group of outdoor shopping streets (one or more of which may be pedestrianised ), with an adjacent indoor shopping centre. High Streets through

2806-551: A railway. Many roads are given the name of the place to which they lead, while others bear the names of distant, seemingly unrelated cities. As a road approaches its stated destination, its name may be changed. Hartford Avenue in Wethersfield, Connecticut , becomes Wethersfield Avenue in Hartford, Connecticut , for example. A road can switch names multiple times as local opinion changes regarding its destination: for example,

2928-646: A result of individual, collective and state action. Living in a city can be culturally and economically beneficial since it can provide greater opportunities for access to the labour market, better education, housing, and safety conditions, and reduce the time and expense of commuting and transportation. Conditions like density, proximity, diversity, and marketplace competition are elements of an urban environment that deemed beneficial. However, there are also harmful social phenomena that arise: alienation, stress, increased cost of living, and mass marginalization that are connected to an urban way of living. Suburbanization , which

3050-408: A rural environment to an urbanized community also caused a transition to a diet that was mainly carbohydrate-based to a diet higher in fat and sugar, consequently causing a rise in obesity. City life, especially in modern urban slums of the developing world, is certainly hardly immune to pestilence or climatic disturbances such as floods, yet continues to strongly attract migrants. Examples of this were

3172-491: A specific condition at a set time (e.g. the proportion of total population or area in cities or towns), or as an increase in that condition over time. Therefore, urbanization can be quantified either in terms of the level of urban development relative to the overall population, or as the rate at which the urban proportion of the population is increasing. Urbanization creates enormous social, economic and environmental challenges, which provide an opportunity for sustainability with

3294-447: A street is named after a landmark that was destroyed to build that very street. For example, New York's Canal Street takes its name from a canal that was filled in to build it. New Orleans' Canal Street was named for the canal that was to be built in its right-of-way. While names such as Long Road or Nine Mile Ride have an obvious meaning, some road names' etymologies are less clear. The various Stone Streets, for example, were named at

3416-513: A street named "Park Avenue" need not have the characteristics of an avenue in the generic sense. Some street names have only one element, such as "The Beeches" or "Boulevard". In the 19th and early 20th centuries, it was common when writing a two-part street name (especially in Britain) to link the two parts with a hyphen and not capitalise the generic (e.g. Broad-street, London-road). This practice has now died out. A street name can also include

3538-697: A street named after Patrice Lumumba in Kyiv was renamed the street of John Paul II . In Portugal , both the Republican Revolution in 1910 and the Carnation Revolution in 1974 triggered widespread changes in street names to replace references to the deposed regimes (the Monarchy and Estado Novo respectively) with references to the revolutions themselves, as well as to figures and concepts associated with them. In response to

3660-479: A street where the most important shops and businesses were located. In Britain, the term 'high street' has both a generic and a specific meaning: people refer to 'shopping on the high street' both when they mean the main retail area, as well as the specific street of that name. Many former British colonies, including Canada, Australia, New Zealand and the US region known as New England (especially Massachusetts ), adopted

3782-712: A term used in smaller towns and villages in Scotland , while in North East England Front Street is common. In Cornwall , some places in Devon and some places in the North of England, the equivalent is Fore Street; in some parts of the UK Market Street is also used, although sometimes this may be a different area where street markets are currently (or were historically) held. Following

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3904-427: A time when the art of building paved (stone) Roman roads had been lost. The main road through Old Windsor , UK, is called "Straight Road", and it is straight where it carries that name. Many streets with regular nouns rather than proper nouns, are somehow related to that noun. For example, Station Street or Station Road, do connect to a railway station, and many "Railway Streets" or similar do end at, cross or parallel

4026-403: A typical high street to differentiate them from more specialised, exclusive and expensive outlets (often independent stores) – for example, "High Street banks " (instead of the less-common private or investment banks ) or "High Street shops" (instead of boutiques ). The phrase "High Street banks" is used to refer to the retail banking sector in the United Kingdom. Alongside High Street ,

4148-543: A vector to spread to humans. An example of this could be dengue fever. Urbanization has also been associated with an increased risk of asthma as well. Throughout the world, as communities transition from rural to more urban societies, the number of people affected by asthma increases. The odds of reduced rates of hospitalization and death from asthmas has decreased for children and young adults in urbanized municipalities in Brazil. This finding indicates that urbanization may have

4270-463: A waiting period of ten years or more. A dozen streets in San Francisco 's North Beach neighborhood were renamed in 1988 after deceased local writers; in 1994, the city broke with tradition, honoring Lawrence Ferlinghetti by renaming an alley after the poet within his own lifetime. Naming a street for a person is very common in many countries, often in the honorand's birthplace. However, it

4392-478: Is a common effect of urbanization. Precipitation from rooftops, roads, parking lots and sidewalks flows to storm drains , instead of percolating into groundwater . The contaminated stormwater in the drains is typically untreated and flows to nearby streams, rivers or coastal bays. Eutrophication in water bodies is another effect large populations in cities have on the environment. When rain occurs in these large cities, it filters CO 2 and other pollutants in

4514-614: Is also the most controversial type of naming, especially in cases of renaming. Two main reasons streets are renamed are: (1) to commemorate a person who lived or worked in that area (for example, Avenue Victor Hugo in Paris , where he resided); or (2) to associate a prominent street in a city after an admired major historical figure even with no specific connection to the locale (for example, René Lévesque Boulevard in Montreal , formerly Dorchester Boulevard). Similarly, hundreds of roads in

4636-530: Is characterized by distant bloodlines, unfamiliar relations, and competitive behaviour. This unprecedented movement of people is forecast to continue and intensify during the next few decades, mushrooming cities to sizes unthinkable only a century ago. As a result, the world urban population growth curve has up till recently followed a quadratic-hyperbolic pattern. From the development of the earliest cities in Indus valley civilization , Mesopotamia and Egypt until

4758-411: Is compulsory to promote a fair society. Furthermore, urbanization improves environmental eminence through superior facilities and standards in urban areas as compared to rural areas. Lastly, urbanization curbs pollution emissions by increasing innovations. In his 2009 book Whole Earth Discipline , Stewart Brand argues that the effects of urbanization are primarily positive for the environment. First,

4880-542: Is equivalent to approximately 3 billion urbanites by 2050, much of which will occur in Africa and Asia . Notably, the United Nations has also recently projected that nearly all global population growth from 2017 to 2030 will be by cities, with about 1.1 billion new urbanites over the next 10 years. In the long term, urbanization is expected to significantly impact the quality of life in negative ways. Urbanization

5002-497: Is found in Athlone and Birr, County Offaly . In Jamaica, the main commercial district is Front Street (especially in cities located alongside a waterway). In Norway, the main commercial and administrative street is most often 'Storgaten/Storgata' (Grand Street) In Sweden, the main street is often 'Storgatan' (Grand Street), but as common is 'Drottninggtan' (Queen's street) and 'Kungsgatan' (King's Street)' The equivalent in

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5124-510: Is frequently used in Quebec towns, and "a village where the main street is still Main Street" is a phrase that is used in respect for small towns. In some sections of Canada, the main commercial district is Front Street (especially in cities located alongside a waterway). In Germany , the equivalent is Hauptstraße (Main Street), though this can also refer to a road with a lot of traffic (i.e.,

5246-476: Is happening in the cities of the largest developing countries, may be regarded as an attempt to balance these harmful aspects of urban life while still allowing access to the large extent of shared resources. In cities, money, services, wealth and opportunities are centralized. Many rural inhabitants come to the city to seek their fortune and alter their social position. Businesses, which provide jobs and exchange capital, are more concentrated in urban areas. Whether

5368-540: Is in York . The unusual etymologies of quite a few street names in the United Kingdom are documented in Rude Britain , complete with photographs of local signage . In the past, many streets were named for the type of commerce or industry found there. This rarely happens in modern times, but many such older names are still common. Examples are London's Haymarket ; Barcelona's Carrer de Moles (Millstone Street), where

5490-649: Is named after a locally famous physician whose clinic was located there. Many streets named after saints are named because they lead to, or are adjacent to, churches dedicated to them. Naming a street after oneself as a bid for immortality has a long pedigree: Jermyn Street in London was named by Henry Jermyn, 1st Earl of St Albans , who developed the St. James's area for Charles II of England . Perhaps to dissuade such posterity-seeking, many jurisdictions only allow naming for persons after their death, occasionally with

5612-569: Is named after the Estudis Generals, a university building demolished in 1843, and the Rambla de Sant Josep, the Rambla dels Caputxins, and the Rambla de Santa Monica are each named after former convents. Only the convent of Santa Monica survives as a building, and it has been converted to a museum. London's Crystal Palace Parade takes its name from a former exhibition centre that stood adjacent to it, destroyed by fire in 1936. Sometimes

5734-472: Is not merely a modern phenomenon, but a rapid and historic transformation of human social roots on a global scale, whereby predominantly rural culture is being rapidly replaced by predominantly urban culture . The first major change in settlement patterns was the accumulation of hunter-gatherers into villages many thousands of years ago. Village culture is characterized by common bloodlines, intimate relationships, and communal behaviour, whereas urban culture

5856-406: Is relevant to a range of disciplines, including urban planning , geography , sociology , architecture , economics , education , statistics , and public health . The phenomenon has been closely linked to globalization , modernization , industrialization , marketization , administrative/institutional power , and the sociological process of rationalization . Urbanization can be seen as

5978-814: Is used across various types of settlements; from densely populated inner suburbs of Dublin such as Ranelagh , to satellite suburbs of the capital such as Swords , and also in villages and small towns throughout the country. For example, the OSI North Leinster Town Maps book lists sixteen "Main Streets" and only two "High Streets" in its thirty-town index of street names. Similarly, the OSI Dublin Street Guide (covering all of Dublin City and County Dublin) lists twenty "Main Streets" and only two "High Streets". Some Irish towns do have

6100-419: Is used for streets which go at a diagonal or curve around, and hence do not fit easily in the grid. In many cases, the block numbers correspond to the numbered cross streets; for instance, an address of 1600 may be near 16th Street or 16th Avenue. In a city with both lettered and numbered streets, such as Washington, D.C., the 400 block may be between 4th and 5th streets or between D and E streets, depending on

6222-404: Is whether this is due to agglomeration effects or whether cities simply attract those who are more productive. Urban geographers have shown that there exists a large productivity gain due to locating in dense agglomerations. It is thus possible that agents locate in cities in order to benefit from these agglomeration effects. The dominant conurbation (s) of a country can get more benefits from

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6344-430: The 2011 Thailand floods and 2007 Jakarta flood . Urban areas are also far more prone to violence , drugs , and other urban social problems. In the United States, industrialization of agriculture has negatively affected the economy of small and middle-sized farms and strongly reduced the size of the rural labour market. – Madhura Swaminathan, economist at Kolkata's Indian Statistical Institute Particularly in

6466-506: The Great Fire of London (1666), the city of London was completely rebuilt. New planning laws, governing rebuilding, designated four types of street based on the size of their carriageways and the types of buildings. Shops were permitted in the principal street or 'high street', but not in the by-lanes or back streets. This may have been based on the need for high visibility in order to regulate retail trade, as well as to avoid congestion in

6588-536: The Industrial Revolution , the department store became a common feature in major High Streets across Britain, with Harding, Howell & Co. , opened in 1796 on Pall Mall , London, a contender for the first department store. Founded in London in 1792, bookseller and stationers WHSmith is the world's oldest national retail chain . The 19th century was a "golden era" for High Street shops. The rise of

6710-660: The Overseas Development Institute have proposed policies that encourage labour-intensive to make use of the migration of less skilled workers. One problem these migrant workers are involved with is the growth of slums . In many cases, the rural-urban unskilled migrant workers are attracted by economic opportunities in cities. Unfortunately, they cannot find a job and or pay for houses in urban areas and have to live in slums. Urban problems, along with developments in their facilities, are also fuelling suburb development trends in less developed nations, though

6832-745: The United Nations General Assembly Resolution 3379 , Israel renamed streets called "UN Avenue" in Haifa, Jerusalem, and Tel Aviv to "Zionism Avenue". Some international causes célèbres can attract cities around the world to rename streets in solidarity; for example a number of streets with South African embassies were renamed honouring Nelson Mandela during his imprisonment. Street names can also be changed to avoid negative associations, like Malbone Street in Brooklyn , New York City , renamed Empire Boulevard after

6954-588: The United States is Main Street . In some sections of the United States, the main commercial district is Front Street (especially in cities located alongside a waterway). Street name Names are often given in a two-part form: an individual name known as the specific , and an indicator of the type of street, known as the generic . Examples are "Main Road", "Fleet Street" and "Park Avenue". The type of street stated, however, can sometimes be misleading:

7076-470: The proportion of the total national population living in areas classified as urban, whereas urban growth strictly refers to the absolute number of people living in those areas. It is predicted that by 2050 about 64% of the developing world and 86% of the developed world will be urbanized. This is predicted to generate artificial scarcities of land, lack of drinking water, playgrounds and so on for most urban dwellers. The predicted urban population growth

7198-561: The rapid increase in consumer expenditure the number of High Streets in England grew from the 17th century and reached a peak in Victorian Britain where, drawn to growing towns and cities spurred on by the Industrial Revolution , the rate of urbanisation was unprecedented. Since the latter half of the 20th century, the prosperity of High Streets has been in decline due to the growth of out-of-town shopping centres , and, since

7320-405: The working class out of the market, including officials and employees of the local districts. For example, Eric Hobsbawm 's book The age of revolution: 1789–1848 (published 1962 and 2005) chapter 11, stated "Urban development in our period was a gigantic process of class segregation, which pushed the new labouring poor into great morasses of misery outside the centres of government, business, and

7442-578: The "potential to use resources much less or more efficiently, to create more sustainable land use and to protect the biodiversity of natural ecosystems." However, current urbanization trends have shown that massive urbanization has led to unsustainable ways of living. Developing urban resilience and urban sustainability in the face of increased urbanization is at the centre of international policy in Sustainable Development Goal 11 "Sustainable cities and communities." Urbanization

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7564-438: The 18th century, an equilibrium existed between the vast majority of the population who were engaged in subsistence agriculture in a rural context, and small centres of populations in the towns where economic activity consisted primarily of trade at markets and manufactures on a small scale. Due to the primitive and relatively stagnant state of agriculture throughout this period, the ratio of rural to urban population remained at

7686-605: The Earth's atmosphere as emissions increase with the rise in urban development. In fact, the ocean absorbs a quarter of the CO 2 produced by humans. This helps to lessen the harmful effects of greenhouse gases. But it also makes the ocean more acidic. A drop in pH the prevents the proper formation of calcium carbonate, which sea creatures need to build or keep shells or skeletons. This is especially true for many species of molluscs and coral. However, some species have been able to thrive in

7808-566: The United Kingdom , with the balance shifting towards the latter. In the early 21st century, bricks and mortar retailers confronted another major threat from online retailers operating in a global marketplace. To confront this threat, High Street precincts have been forced to evolve; some have become smaller as shops shut their doors, while others have become more like social spaces with a concentration of retail services including cafes, restaurants and entertainment venues while yet others have positioned themselves as more up-market shopping precincts with

7930-491: The United States were named with variations of Martin Luther King Jr. , in the years after his 1968 assassination . Conversely, renaming can be a way to eliminate a name that proves too controversial. For example, Hamburg Avenue in Brooklyn, New York became Wilson Avenue after the United States entered World War I against Germany (see below). In Riverside , California, a short, one-way street named Wong Way

8052-582: The United States now have an increased risk of morbidity due to asthma in comparison to other low-income children in the United States. In addition, children with croup living in urban areas have higher hazard ratios for asthma than similar children living in rural areas. Researchers suggest that this difference in hazard ratios is due to the higher levels of air pollution and exposure to environmental allergens found in urban areas. Exposure to elevated levels of ambient air pollutants such as nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ), carbon monoxide (CO), and particulate matter with

8174-488: The United States, most streets are named after numbers, landscapes, trees (a combination of trees and landscapes such as "Oakhill" is used often in residential areas), or the surname of an important individual (in some instances, it is just a commonly held surname such as Smith). Some streets, such as Elm Street in East Machias, Maine , have been renamed due to features changing. Elm Street's new name, Jacksonville Road,

8296-509: The affected neighbourhoods also had a high proportion of children and new births. In children, urbanization is associated with a lower risk of under-nutrition but a higher risk of being overweight . Urbanization has also been linked to the spread of communicable diseases, which can spread more rapidly in the favourable environment with more people living in a smaller area. Such diseases can be respiratory infections and gastrointestinal infections. Other infections could be infections, which need

8418-415: The aforementioned chemicals. In these ideal conditions, they choke surface water, blocking sunlight and nutrients from other life forms. Overgrowth of algal blooms makes water worse overall and disrupts the natural balance of aquatic ecosystems. Furthermore, as algal blooms die, CO 2 is produced. This makes the ocean more acidic, a process called acidification. The ocean's surface can absorb CO 2 from

8540-408: The air onto the ground. These chemicals are washed directly into rivers, streams, and oceans, making water worse and damaging ecosystems in them. Eutrophication is a process which causes low levels of oxygen in water and algal blooms that may harm aquatic life. Harmful algal blooms make dangerous toxins. They live best in nitrogen- and phosphorus-rich places which include the oceans contaminated by

8662-450: The birth rate of new urban dwellers falls immediately to replacement rate and keeps falling, reducing environmental stresses caused by population growth. Secondly, emigration from rural areas reduces destructive subsistence farming techniques, such as improperly implemented slash and burn agriculture. Alex Steffen also speaks of the environmental benefits of increasing the urbanization level in "Carbon Zero: Imagining Cities that can save

8784-573: The capital, are normal cities instead. A conurbation's dominance can be measured by output, wealth, and especially population, each expressed as a percentage of the entire country's. Greater Seoul is one conurbation that dominates South Korea. It is home to 50% of the entire national population. Though Greater Busan-Ulsan (15%, 8 million) and Greater Osaka (14%, 18 million) dominate their respective countries, their populations are moving to their even more dominant rivals, Seoul and Tokyo respectively. As cities develop, costs will skyrocket. This often takes

8906-457: The centre of the medieval city, it is not a shopping street. The city of Cork 's main shopping street is St Patrick's Street . The city's oldest streets are named North Main Street and South Main Street. Limerick 's principal thoroughfare, like Dublin, is also O'Connell Street (the name is used in a number of other Irish towns in honour of Daniel O'Connell ). The term Main Street ( Irish : An tSráid Mhór , literally "The Big/Great Street")

9028-403: The centuries The popularity of shopping malls in the mid-20th century, combined with the rise of online retail at the turn of the century has threatened the viability of high street retail precincts. Initiatives to preserve the traditional British High Street are evident. Research into the customer's shopping preferences and patterns reveals that the continued vitality of towns is predicated on

9150-714: The city plan for Washington, D.C. , north–south streets were numbered away from the United States Capitol in both directions, while east–west streets were lettered away from the Capitol in both directions and diagonal streets were named after various States of the Union. As the city grew, east–west streets past W Street were given two-syllable names in alphabetical order, then three-syllable names in alphabetical order, and finally names relating to flowers and shrubs in alphabetical order. Even in communities not laid out on

9272-798: The combination of ill-health and poverty entrenches disadvantage over time." Many of the urban poor have difficulty accessing health services due to their inability to pay for them; so they resort to less qualified and unregulated providers. While urbanization is associated with improvements in public hygiene , sanitation and access to health care , it also entails changes in occupational, dietary , and exercise patterns. It can have mixed effects on health patterns, alleviating some problems, and accentuating others. Traditionally, rural populations have tended to eat plant-based diets rich in grains, fruits and vegetables, and with low fat content. However, rural people migrating to urban areas often shift towards diets that rely more on processed foods characterized by

9394-741: The connection of areas and allow for easier movement around urbanized regions. Depending on the various factors, such as level of urbanization, both increases or decreases in "species richness" can be seen. This means that urbanization may be detrimental to one species but also help facilitate the growth of others. In instances of housing and building development, many times vegetation is completely removed immediately in order to make it easier and less expensive for construction to occur, thereby obliterating any native species in that area. Habitat fragmentation can filter species with limited dispersal capacity. For example, aquatic insects are found to have lower species richness in urban landscapes. The more urbanized

9516-500: The corresponding decrease in the proportion of people living in rural areas, and the ways in which societies adapt to this change. It can also mean population growth in urban areas instead of rural ones. It is predominantly the process by which towns and cities are formed and become larger as more people begin living and working in central areas. Although the two concepts are sometimes used interchangeably, urbanization should be distinguished from urban growth . Urbanization refers to

9638-409: The countryside and due to the tremendous demographic expansion that occurred at that time. In England and Wales , the proportion of the population living in cities with more than 20,000 people jumped from 17% in 1801 to 54% in 1891. Moreover, and adopting a broader definition of urbanization, while the urbanized population in England and Wales represented 72% of the total in 1891, for other countries

9760-401: The county adopted a uniform addressing and street-naming system, which the county did in 1932. In 1906, Cleveland, Ohio renamed streets to a numbered system. For an example Erie Street became East 9th Street, Bond Street became East 6th Street, and so forth. In Cleveland and its suburbs, all north–south streets are numbered from Cleveland's Public Square and east–west streets are numbered from

9882-591: The deadly Malbone Street Wreck ; Cadieux Street in Montreal renamed De Bullion because the original name became infamous by the former presence of many bordellos; and several streets in the German Village area of Columbus, Ohio which were renamed with more "American" sounding names around World War I due to popular anti-German sentiments. Similarly, Hamburg Avenue in Brooklyn was renamed Wilson Avenue during World War I. Street names also can change due to

10004-475: The decline of High Street precincts such as data indicating that retail spending in High Street shops had fallen to below 50 per cent. Her final report set out a vision for High Streets and a number of recommendations. However, her plan has failed to stem the number of High Street store closures, leaving authorities in a quandary about how to proceed. The term "High Street" is used to describe stores found on

10126-550: The developing world, conflict over land rights due to the effects of globalization has led to less politically powerful groups, such as farmers, losing or forfeiting their land, resulting in obligatory migration into cities. In China, where land acquisition measures are forceful, there has been far more extensive and rapid urbanization (54%) than in India (36%), where peasants form militant groups (e.g. Naxalites ) to oppose such efforts. Obligatory and unplanned migration often results in

10248-587: The developing world, urbanization does not translate into a significant increase in life expectancy . Rapid urbanization has led to increased mortality from non-communicable diseases associated with lifestyle, including cancer and heart disease . Differences in mortality from contagious diseases vary depending on the particular disease and location. Urban health levels are on average better in comparison to rural areas. However, residents in poor urban areas such as slums and informal settlements suffer "disproportionately from disease, injury, premature death, and

10370-511: The development of public transport systems , which facilitated commutes of longer distances to the city centre for the working class . Urbanization rapidly spread across the Western world and, since the 1950s, it has begun to take hold in the developing world as well. At the turn of the 20th century, just 15% of the world population lived in cities. According to the UN , the year 2007 witnessed

10492-453: The direction in which the street in question runs. However, addresses in Manhattan have no obvious relationship to cross streets or avenues, although various tables and formulas are often found on maps and travel guides to assist in finding addresses. Examples of grid systems : In languages that have grammatical cases , the specific part of a road name is typically in the possessive or genitive case , meaning "the road of [Name]". Where

10614-541: The early 21st century, the growth of online retailing, forcing many shop closures and prompting the UK government to consider initiatives to reinvigorate and preserve the High Street. High Street is the most common street name in the UK, which according to a 2009 statistical compilation has 5,410 High Streets, 3,811 Station Roads and 2,702 Main Streets. In Middle English the word "high" denoted superior rank (" high sheriff ", " Lord High Chancellor ", " high society "). "High" also applied to roads as they improved: " highway "

10736-746: The enacting of the Charter of the French Language continues to press English-majority communities to further gallicise ( francize ) their street names (for example, what was once "Lakeshore Road" was changed to " Chemin Lakeshore" in the 1970s, with the Office québécois de la langue française pressuring a further change to " Chemin du Bord-du-Lac ", completely calquing the English name into French). Sometimes, when communities are consolidated,

10858-619: The figure was 37% in France , 41% in Prussia and 28% in the United States . As labourers were freed up from working the land due to higher agricultural productivity they converged on the new industrial cities like Manchester and Birmingham which were experiencing a boom in commerce, trade, and industry. Growing trade around the world also allowed cereals to be imported from North America and refrigerated meat from Australasia and South America . Spatially, cities also expanded due to

10980-489: The growing population of urban regions, according to UN experts, will strain basic sanitation systems and health care, and potentially cause a humanitarian and environmental disaster. Urban heat islands have become a growing concern over the years. An urban heat island is formed when industrial areas absorb and retain heat. Much of the solar energy reaching rural areas is used to evaporate water from plants and soil. In cities, there are less vegetation and exposed soil. Most of

11102-611: The inconvenience of trips across them frequently combine to make marketplace competition harsher in cities than in rural areas. In many developing countries where economies are growing, the growth is often random and based on a small number of industries. Youths in these nations lack access to financial services and business advisory services, cannot get credit to start a business, and have no entrepreneurial skills. Therefore, they cannot seize opportunities in these industries. Making sure adolescents have access to excellent schools and infrastructure to work in such industries and improve schools

11224-472: The issue is more political can be "co-naming", when the old name is fully retained but the street is also given a second subsidiary name, which may be indicated by a smaller sign underneath the 'main' name. (See section below on " Multiple names for a single street ".) Urbanisation Urbanization (or urbanisation in British English ) is the population shift from rural to urban areas ,

11346-488: The major street in the middle of a shopping area in the United States and the United Kingdom , respectively. The most common street name in the US is "2nd" or "Second". Streets are normally named, and properties on them numbered, by decision of the local authority , which may adopt a detailed policy. For instance the city of Leeds , UK, provides that: The etymology of a street name is sometimes very obvious, but at other times it might be obscure or even forgotten. In

11468-497: The middle class in Victorian England contributed to a more favourable attitude to shopping and consumption. Shopping centres became places to see and be seen, for recreational shopping, and for promenading . By the 20th century, however, the viability of High Streets began to decline. In the second half of the 20th century, traditional British High Street precincts came under pressure from out-of-town shopping centres in

11590-486: The narrow lanes and back streets. Accordingly, from the 17th century, the term "High Street" gradually assumed a narrower meaning and came to describe thoroughfares with significant retail in large villages and towns. With the rapid increase in consumer expenditure , in the late 17th and 18th centuries the number of High Streets in England increased markedly. Britain also saw an unprecedented growth in urbanisation with people flocking to growing towns and cities. Nurtured by

11712-469: The new name, the overturning of a respected traditional name, or confusion from the altering of a familiar name useful in navigation. A proposal in 2005 to rename 16th Street, N.W. , in Washington, D.C., "Ronald Reagan Boulevard" exemplified all three. Issues of familiarity and confusion can be addressed by the street sign showing the current name and, in smaller writing, the old name. One compromise when

11834-565: The newly specialized residential areas of the bourgeoisie. The almost universal European division into a 'good' west end and a 'poor' east end of large cities developed in this period." This is probably caused by the south-west wind which carries coal smoke and other pollutants down, making the western edges of towns better than the eastern ones. Similar problems now affect less developed countries, as rapid development of cities makes inequality worse. The drive to grow quickly and be efficient can lead to less fair urban development. Think tanks such as

11956-665: The northernmost point in Cuyahoga County , which is in the City of Euclid . Bedford , Berea , and Chagrin Falls do not adhere to the grid rules of Cleveland. After World War I , Cleveland renamed a numbered street to Liberty Boulevard, to commemorate Cleveland area soldiers who had been killed in the Great War; in 1981, this street was renamed to Martin Luther King Jr. Drive. In the New York City borough of Queens ,

12078-593: The opportunity to join, develop, and seek out social communities. Urbanization also creates opportunities for women that are not available in rural areas. This creates a gender-related transformation where women are engaged in paid employment and have access to education. This may cause fertility to decline. However, women are sometimes still at a disadvantage due to their unequal position in the labour market, their inability to secure assets independently from male relatives and exposure to violence. People in cities are more productive than in rural areas. An important question

12200-552: The planet",. However, existing infrastructure and city planning practices are not sustainable. In July 2013 a report issued by the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs warned that with 2.4 billion more people by 2050, the amount of food produced will have to increase by 70%, straining food resources, especially in countries already facing food insecurity due to changing environmental conditions. The mix of changing environmental conditions and

12322-546: The rapid growth of slums. This is also similar to areas of violent conflict, where people are driven off their land due to violence. Cities offer a larger variety of services, including specialist services not found in rural areas. These services require workers, resulting in more numerous and varied job opportunities. Elderly people may be forced to move to cities where there are doctors and hospitals that can cater to their health needs. Varied and high-quality educational opportunities are another factor in urban migration, as well as

12444-515: The relative overall quality of life is very subjective, and may certainly surpass that of the city. Farm living has always been susceptible to unpredictable environmental conditions, and in times of drought , flood or pestilence, survival may become extremely problematic. – Iam Thongdee, Professor of Humanities, Mahidol University in Bangkok In a New York Times article concerning the acute migration away from farming in Thailand, life as

12566-773: The road between Oxford and Banbury changes name five times from the Banbury Road to the Oxford Road and back again as it passes through villages. Some streets are named after the areas that the street connects. For example, Clarcona Ocoee Road links the communities of Clarcona and Ocoee in Orlando, Florida , and Jindivick–Neerim South Road links the towns of Jindivick and Neerim South in Victoria , Australia. Some roads are named after their general direction, such as " Great North Road ". Bypasses are often named after

12688-532: The same things cities offer, attracting the rural population and urban and suburban populations from other cities. Dominant conurbations are quite often disproportionately large cities , but do not have to be. For instance Greater Manila is a conurbation instead of a city. Its total population of 20 million (over 20% national population) make it a primate city, but Quezon City (2.7 million), the largest municipality in Greater Manila, and Manila (1.6 million),

12810-518: The source is trade or tourism, it is also through the ports or banking systems, commonly located in cities, that foreign money flows into a country. Many people move into cities for economic opportunities, but this does not fully explain the very high recent urbanization rates in places like China and India. Rural flight is a contributing factor to urbanization. In rural areas, often on small family farms or collective farms in villages, it has historically been difficult to access manufactured goods, though

12932-645: The specific is an adjective (as in "High Street"), however, it is inflected to match the generic. Street names are usually renamed after political revolutions and regime changes for ideological reasons. In postsocialist Romania, after 1989, the percentage of street renaming ranged from 6% in Bucharest , and 8% in Sibiu , to 26% in Timișoara . Street names can be changed relatively easily by municipal authorities for various reasons. Sometimes streets are renamed to reflect

13054-456: The stonecutters used to have their shops; and Cannery Row in Monterey, California. Some streets are named for landmarks that were in the street, or nearby, when it was built. Such names are often retained after the landmark disappears. Barcelona's La Rambla is officially a series of streets. The Rambla de Canaletes is named after a fountain that still stands, but the Rambla dels Estudis

13176-635: The streets are renamed according to a uniform system. For example, when Georgetown became part of Washington, D.C., the streets in Georgetown were renamed as an extension of Washington's street-naming convention. Also, when leaders of Arlington County, Virginia, asked the United States Post Office Department to place the entire county in the "Arlington, Virginia" postal area, the Post Office refused to do so until

13298-652: The sun's energy is instead absorbed by buildings and asphalt; leading to higher surface temperatures. Vehicles, factories, and heating and cooling units in factories and homes release even more heat. As a result, cities are often 1 to 3 °C (1.8 to 5.4 °F) warmer than other areas near them. Urban heat islands also make the soil drier and absorb less carbon dioxide from emissions. A Qatar University study found that land-surface temperatures in Doha increased annually by 0.65 °C from 2002 to 2013 and 2023. Urban runoff , polluted water created by rainfall on impervious surfaces,

13420-464: The surrounding of habitat is, the fewer species can reach the habitat. Other times, such as with birds, urbanization may allow for an increase in richness when organisms are able to adapt to the new environment. This can be seen in species that may find food while scavenging developed areas or vegetation that has been added after urbanization has occurred i.e. planted trees in city areas – Jack Finegan, Urban Programme Specialist at UN-Habitat In

13542-422: The sustainability of towns it is increasingly important to consider Consumer behaviour and customer experience . This is in line with research that proposes that for high street retail to thrive in spite of the growth threat of eCommerce , the sensual hedonic experiences (e.g. scent, feel, etc.) need to be presented to visitors while allowing for discovery of hidden experiences in the built environment. In 2006,

13664-418: The term Main Street is also used in smaller towns and villages. The Dutch equivalent is Hoogstraat , or in villages Dorpsstraat ("village street'). Alongside the term High Street , the terms Main Street or "Central Avenue" are also used. In Canada, east of Lake Superior, King Street and Queen Street are often major streets; rue Principale , as the literal French language equivalent of Main Street

13786-401: The term to refer to retail shopping areas. Main street is used in the island of Ireland. In Britain, some 3,000 streets called High Street and about 2,300 streets with variations on the name (such as Upper High Street, High Street West) have been identified, giving a grand total of approximately 5,300. Of these, more than 600 High Streets are located in London's boroughs. Main Street is

13908-470: The third leading cause of the release of methane, causing a concern on its impact to our ozone and on the health of individuals. Accumulation of food waste causes increased fermentation, which increases the risk of rodent and bug migration. An increase in migration of disease vectors creates greater potential of disease spreading to humans. Waste management systems vary on all scales from global to local and can also be influenced by lifestyle. Waste management

14030-524: The town they route traffic around, for example the Newbury bypass . Some streets are named after famous or distinguished individuals, sometimes people directly associated with the street, usually after their deaths. Bucharest's Şoseaua Kiseleff was named after the Russian reformer Pavel Kiselyov who had the road built while Russian troops were occupying the city in the 1830s; its Strada Dr. Iuliu Barasch

14152-539: The trend for core cities in said nations tends to continue to become ever denser. Development of cities is often viewed negatively, but there are positives in cutting down on transport costs, creating new job opportunities, providing education and housing, and transportation. Living in cities permits individuals and families to make use of their closeness to workplaces and diversity. While cities have more varied markets and goods than rural areas, facility congestion, domination of one group, high overhead and rental costs, and

14274-539: The turning point when more than 50% of the world population were living in cities, for the first time in human history . Yale University in June 2016 published urbanization data from the time period 3700 BC to 2000 AD, the data was used to make a video showing the development of cities on the world during the time period. The origins and spread of urban centres around the world were also mapped by archaeologists . Urbanization occurs either organically or planned as

14396-477: Was a new term taken up by the church and their vestries during the 17th century as a term for all public roads between settlements. From the 19th century, which saw a proliferation in the number of public roads, the term "highway" lost its specific meaning, and was legally defined as any public road (e.g., the Highway Code regulates UK public roads). The term "high street" assumed a different meaning, that of

14518-493: Was a reversion to Catalan names from decades earlier, before the beginning of the Franco dictatorship in 1939. In a similar way, English street names were changed to French in Quebec during the 1970s, after French was declared the sole language for outdoor signage. This was met with hurt and anger by many of the province's Anglophones , who wished to retain their traditional placenames. The government body responsible for overseeing

14640-480: Was chosen because it leads to the village of Jacksonville. Its former name was chosen because of elm trees; it was renamed when all of the trees along the street succumbed to Dutch elm disease . The Shambles , derived from the Anglo-Saxon term fleshammels ("meat shelves" in butchers' stalls), is a historical street name which still exists in various cities and towns around England . The best-known example

14762-570: Was not a primary concern until after the Industrial Revolution. As urban areas continued to grow along with the human population, proper management of solid waste became an apparent concern. To address these concerns, local governments sought solutions with the lowest economic impacts which meant implementing technical solutions at the very last stage of the process. Current waste management reflects these economically motivated solutions, such as incineration or unregulated landfills. Yet,

14884-771: Was renamed to a more respectful Wong Street, as well as spelled out in Chinese characters to honor the historical Chinatown that once occupied the area. In a case of a street named after a living person becoming controversial, Lech Wałęsa Street in San Francisco was renamed to Dr. Tom Waddell Place in 2014 after Wałęsa made a public remark against gay people holding major public office. There are public benefits to having easily understood systems of orderly street names, such as in sequences: A 1950 American Planning Association report supports use of these systems. Groups of streets in one area are sometimes named using

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