131-683: William Penn (24 October [ O.S. 14 October] 1644 – 10 August [ O.S. 30 July] 1718) was an English writer, religious thinker, and influential Quaker who founded the Province of Pennsylvania during the British colonial era . Penn, an advocate of democracy and religious freedom , was known for his amicable relations and successful treaties with the Lenape Native Americans who had resided in present-day Pennsylvania prior to European settlements in
262-862: A Confederate military expedition landed in Scotland to help Royalists there. The Confederates continued to fight the Parliamentarians in Ireland, and decisively defeated the Covenanter army in the Battle of Benburb . In 1647, the Confederates suffered a string of defeats at Dungan's Hill , Cashel and Knocknanuss . This prompted them to make an agreement with the Royalists, leading to internal divisions which hampered their ability to resist
393-523: A Parliamentarian invasion. In August 1649, a large English Parliamentarian army , led by Oliver Cromwell , invaded Ireland . By May 1652 it had defeated the Confederate–Royalist alliance, although Confederate soldiers continued a guerrilla warfare campaign for a further year. The Irish Catholic Confederation was formed in the aftermath of the 1641 rebellion , both to control the popular uprising and to organise an Irish Catholic war effort against
524-642: A calendar change, respectively. Usually, they refer to the change from the Julian calendar to the Gregorian calendar as enacted in various European countries between 1582 and 1923. In England , Wales , Ireland and Britain's American colonies , there were two calendar changes, both in 1752. The first adjusted the start of a new year from 25 March ( Lady Day , the Feast of the Annunciation ) to 1 January,
655-544: A change which Scotland had made in 1600. The second discarded the Julian calendar in favour of the Gregorian calendar, skipping 11 days in the month of September to do so. To accommodate the two calendar changes, writers used dual dating to identify a given day by giving its date according to both styles of dating. For countries such as Russia where no start-of-year adjustment took place, O.S. and N.S. simply indicate
786-573: A close friend of George Fox , the founder of the Quakers, whose movement started in the 1650s during the tumult of the Cromwellian revolution. The times sprouted many new sects besides Quakers, including Seekers , Ranters , Antinomians , Seventh Day Baptists , Soul sleepers , Adamites , Diggers , Levellers , Behmenists , Muggletonians , and others, as the Puritans were more tolerant than
917-525: A copy of the charges laid against him and the laws he had supposedly broken, but the Recorder of London , Sir John Howel, on the bench as chief judge, refused, although this was a right guaranteed by law. Furthermore, the Recorder directed the jury to come to a verdict without hearing the defense. Despite heavy pressure from Howel to convict Penn, the jury returned a verdict of "not guilty". When invited by
1048-558: A council, overseen by a provincial council made up of two representatives from each county council. The Assembly agreed orders "to be observed as the model of their government". The Assembly elected an executive known as the Supreme Council. The first Supreme Council was elected on or about 14 November. It consisted of 24 members, 12 of whom were to abide always in Kilkenny or wherever else they deemed fitting. The members of
1179-558: A deal with the royalists. Owen Roe O'Neill refused to join the new royalist alliance and fought a brief internal civil war with the royalists and Confederates in the summer of 1648. So alienated was O'Neill by what he considered to be a betrayal of Catholic war aims that he tried to make a separate peace with the English Parliament and was for a short time effectively an ally of the English parliamentary armies in Ireland. This
1310-653: A four-year engagement filled with frequent separations. Penn remained close to home but continued writing his tracts, espousing religious tolerance and railing against discriminatory laws. A minor split developed in the Quaker community between those who favored Penn's analytical formulations and those who preferred Fox's simple precepts. But the persecution of Quakers had accelerated and the differences were overridden; Penn again resumed missionary work in Holland and Germany. Seeing conditions deteriorating, Penn appealed directly to
1441-488: A gathering in the street, which Penn deliberately provoked to test the validity of the 1664 Conventicle Act, just renewed in 1670 , which denied the right of assembly to "more than five persons in addition to members of the family, for any religious purpose not according to the rules of the Church of England". Penn was assisted by his solicitor, Thomas Rudyard , an eminent London Quaker lawyer, and pleaded for his right to see
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#17327723984201572-659: A glowing prospectus, considered honest and well-researched for the time, promising religious freedom as well as material advantage, which he marketed throughout Europe in various languages. Within six months, he parcelled out 300,000 acres (1,200 km) to over 250 prospective settlers, mostly rich London Quakers. Eventually he attracted other persecuted minorities including Huguenots , Mennonites , Amish , Catholics , Lutherans , and Jews from England, France, Holland, Germany, Sweden, Finland, Ireland, and Wales. Old Style and New Style dates Old Style ( O.S. ) and New Style ( N.S. ) indicate dating systems before and after
1703-504: A great friend of William Morris, a leading Quaker figure in Cork , and often stayed with Morris at Castle Salem near Rosscarbery . Between 1671 and 1677, Penn visited Germany on behalf of the Quaker faith, resulting in a German settlement in the Province of Pennsylvania that was symbolic in two ways: It was a German -speaking congregation, and it included religious dissenters. During
1834-459: A letter dated "12/22 Dec. 1635". In his biography of John Dee , The Queen's Conjurer , Benjamin Woolley surmises that because Dee fought unsuccessfully for England to embrace the 1583/84 date set for the change, "England remained outside the Gregorian system for a further 170 years, communications during that period customarily carrying two dates". In contrast, Thomas Jefferson , who lived while
1965-568: A life sentence, Penn was accused of denying the Trinity , though this was a misinterpretation Penn himself refuted in the essay Innocency with her open face, presented by way of Apology for the book entitled The Sandy Foundation Shaken , where he sought to prove the Godhead of Christ. Penn said the rumour had been "maliciously insinuated" by detractors who wanted to create a bad reputation to Quakers. Penn later said that what he really denied were
2096-447: A liking to. When theologian John Owen was fired from his deanery, Penn and other open-minded students rallied to his side and attended seminars at the dean's house, where intellectual discussions covered the gamut of new thought. Penn learned the valuable skills of forming ideas into theory, discussing theory through reasoned debate, and testing the theories in the real world. At this time he also faced his first moral dilemma. After Owen
2227-533: A mature, sophisticated, well-mannered, modish gentleman, though Samuel Pepys noted young Penn's "vanity of the French". Penn had developed a taste for fine clothes, and for the rest of his life would pay somewhat more attention to his dress than most Quakers. The Admiral had great hopes that his son then had the practical sense and the ambition necessary to succeed as an aristocrat. He had young Penn enroll in law school but soon his studies were interrupted. With war with
2358-549: A national council for the whole island. It vowed to punish misdeeds by Confederate soldiers and to excommunicate any Catholic who fought against the Confederation. The synod sent agents to France, Spain and Italy to gain support, gather funds and weapons, and recruit Irishmen serving in foreign armies. Lord Mountgarret was appointed president of the Confederate Supreme Council, and a General Assembly
2489-432: A reclusive scholar. During this time, Penn developed his individuality and philosophy of life. He found that he was not sympathetic with either his father's martial view of the world or his mother's society-oriented sensibilities. "I had no relations that inclined to so solitary and spiritual way; I was a child alone. A child was given to musing, occasionally feeling the divine presence," he later said. Penn returned home for
2620-859: A start-of-year adjustment works well with little confusion for events before the introduction of the Gregorian calendar. For example, the Battle of Agincourt is well known to have been fought on 25 October 1415, which is Saint Crispin's Day . However, for the period between the first introduction of the Gregorian calendar on 15 October 1582 and its introduction in Britain on 14 September 1752, there can be considerable confusion between events in Continental Western Europe and in British domains. Events in Continental Western Europe are usually reported in English-language histories by using
2751-530: A third of their lands. However, those who remained in Ireland throughout the Interregnum generally had their land confiscated, with prisoners of war executed or transported to penal colonies. Confederate Ireland's style of parliament was similar to the landed oligarchy Parliament of Ireland established by the Normans in 1297, but it was not based on a democratic vote. Given their large notional power base,
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#17327723984202882-434: A year. The undogmatic Christian humanist talked of a tolerant, adapting view of religion which appealed to Penn, who later stated, "I never had any other religion in my life than what I felt." By adapting his mentor's belief in free will, Penn felt unburdened of Puritanical guilt and rigid beliefs and was inspired to search out his own religious path. Upon returning to England after two years abroad, he presented to his parents
3013-480: Is 9 February 1649, the date by which his contemporaries in some parts of continental Europe would have recorded his execution. The O.S./N.S. designation is particularly relevant for dates which fall between the start of the "historical year" (1 January) and the legal start date, where different. This was 25 March in England, Wales, Ireland and the colonies until 1752, and until 1600 in Scotland. In Britain, 1 January
3144-460: Is often argued that this split within the Confederate ranks represented a split between Gaelic Irish and Old English . It is suggested that a particular reason for this was that Gaelic Irish had lost much land and power since the English conquest of Ireland and hence had become radical in their demands. However, there were members of both ethnicities on each side. For example, Phelim O'Neill ,
3275-467: The Anglican Church . Children from poorer families had to have a wealthy sponsor to get an education. Penn's education heavily leaned on the classical authors and "no novelties or conceited modern writers" were allowed, including Shakespeare . Running was Penn's favorite sport, and he often ran more than three miles (5 km) from his home to the school, which was cast in an Anglican model and
3406-654: The Baron of Navan . These men would commit their own armed forces to the Confederation and persuaded other rebels to join it. The declared aims of the Confederates were similar to those of Sir Phelim O'Neill , the leader of the early stages of the rebellion in Ulster, who issued the Proclamation of Dungannon in October 1641. On 17 March 1642, these nobles signed the "Catholic Remonstrance" issued at Trim, County Meath that
3537-781: The Commonwealth Navy during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms and was rewarded by Oliver Cromwell with estates in Ireland. The lands given to Penn had been confiscated from Irish Confederates who had participated in the Irish Rebellion of 1641 . Admiral Penn took part in the restoration of King Charles II and was eventually knighted and served in the Royal Navy . At the time of his son's birth, then-Captain Penn
3668-623: The Confederate Oath of Association and called on all Catholics in Ireland to take the oath. Those who took the oath swore allegiance to Charles I and vowed to obey all orders and decrees made by the "Supreme Council of the Confederate Catholics". The rebels henceforth became known as Confederates. The synod re-affirmed that the rebellion was a "just war". It called for the creation of a council (made up of clergy and nobility) for each province , which would be overseen by
3799-530: The Delaware River past earlier Swedish and Dutch riverfront colonies in what is present-day New Castle, Delaware . On this occasion, the colonists pledged allegiance to Penn as their new proprietor , and the first Pennsylvania General Assembly was held. Penn then journeyed further north up the Delaware River and founded Philadelphia on the river's western bank. Penn's Quaker government
3930-504: The Dutch imminent, young Penn decided to shadow his father at work and join him at sea. Penn functioned as an emissary between his father and the King, then returned to his law studies. Worrying about his father in battle he wrote, "I never knew what a father was till I had wisdom enough to prize him... I pray God... that you come home secure." The Admiral returned triumphantly, but London was in
4061-514: The Irish Rebellion of 1641 , the Confederates controlled up to two-thirds of Ireland from their base in Kilkenny ; hence it is sometimes called the "Confederation of Kilkenny". The Confederates included Catholics of Gaelic and Anglo-Norman descent . They wanted an end to anti-Catholic discrimination within the Kingdom of Ireland and greater Irish self-governance; many also wanted to roll back
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4192-639: The Papal States , who supplied them with money and weapons. At various times, Confederate armies fought Royalists , Parliamentarians , Ulster Protestant militia and Scots Covenanters ; these controlled the Pale , parts of eastern and northern Ulster , and the region around Cork . Charles authorised secret negotiations which in September 1643 resulted in a Confederate–Royalist ceasefire and led to further talks, most of which proved unsuccessful. In 1644,
4323-528: The Plantations of Ireland , since this was the only way to retrieve their ancestral lands; however, they were far less united in their demands than the Old English and it has been argued they formed a pressure group, rather than a distinct political philosophy. In September 1643, the Confederates negotiated a " cessation " with James Butler, 1st Duke of Ormonde , Royalist Governor of Ireland , which
4454-609: The Russian Empire and the very beginning of Soviet Russia . For example, in the article "The October (November) Revolution", the Encyclopædia Britannica uses the format of "25 October (7 November, New Style)" to describe the date of the start of the revolution. The Latin equivalents, which are used in many languages, are, on the one hand, stili veteris (genitive) or stilo vetere (ablative), abbreviated st.v. , and meaning "(of/in) old style" ; and, on
4585-490: The U.S. Constitution , which was ratified by the delegates in 1787. A man of deep religious conviction, Penn authored numerous works, exhorting believers to adhere to the spirit of Primitive Christianity . Penn was imprisoned several times in the Tower of London due to his faith, and his book No Cross, No Crown , published in 1669, which he authored from jail, has become a classic of Christian theological literature. Penn
4716-435: The colonial era , Pennsylvania remained the heartland for various branches of Anabaptists , including Old Order Mennonites , Ephrata Cloister , Brethren , and Amish . Pennsylvania quickly emerged as the home for many Lutheran refugees from Catholic provinces, such as Salzburg , and for German Catholics , who were facing discrimination in their home country. In Philadelphia , Francis Daniel Pastorius negotiated
4847-607: The plantations of Ireland . Most Confederates professed loyalty to Charles I of England in the belief they could reach a lasting settlement in return for helping defeat his opponents in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms . Its institutions included a legislative body known as the General Assembly, an executive or Supreme Council, and a military. It minted coins, levied taxes and set up a printing press. Confederate ambassadors were appointed and recognised in France , Spain and
4978-477: The "peace party". The Supreme Council were arrested and the General Assembly voted to reject the deal. After the Confederates rejected the peace deal, Ormonde handed Dublin over to a parliamentarian army under Michael Jones . The Confederates now tried to eliminate the remaining parliamentarian outposts in Dublin and Cork , but in 1647 suffered a series of military disasters. First, Thomas Preston's Leinster army
5109-407: The 17th century. They refused to bow or take off their hats to social superiors, believing all men were equal under God, a belief antithetical to an absolute monarchy that believed the monarch was divinely appointed by God. As a result, Quakers were treated as heretics because of their principles and their failure to pay tithes. They also refused to swear oaths of loyalty to the King believing that this
5240-569: The 19th century, a practice that the author Karen Bellenir considered to reveal a deep emotional resistance to calendar reform. Confederate Ireland Confederate Ireland , also referred to as the Irish Catholic Confederation , was a period of Irish Catholic self-government between 1642 and 1652, during the Eleven Years' War . Formed by Catholic aristocrats, landed gentry , clergy and military leaders after
5371-539: The 4th century , had drifted from reality . The Gregorian calendar reform also dealt with the accumulated difference between these figures, between the years 325 and 1582, by skipping 10 days to set the ecclesiastical date of the equinox to be 21 March, the median date of its occurrence at the time of the First Council of Nicea in 325. Countries that adopted the Gregorian calendar after 1699 needed to skip an additional day for each subsequent new century that
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5502-583: The Boyne was commemorated with smaller parades on 1 July. However, both events were combined in the late 18th century, and continue to be celebrated as " The Twelfth ". Because of the differences, British writers and their correspondents often employed two dates, a practice called dual dating , more or less automatically. Letters concerning diplomacy and international trade thus sometimes bore both Julian and Gregorian dates to prevent confusion. For example, Sir William Boswell wrote to Sir John Coke from The Hague
5633-462: The British Isles and colonies converted to the Gregorian calendar, instructed that his tombstone bear his date of birth by using the Julian calendar (notated O.S. for Old Style) and his date of death by using the Gregorian calendar. At Jefferson's birth, the difference was eleven days between the Julian and Gregorian calendars and so his birthday of 2 April in the Julian calendar is 13 April in
5764-410: The British colonies, changed the start of the year from 25 March to 1 January, with effect from "the day after 31 December 1751". (Scotland had already made this aspect of the changes, on 1 January 1600.) The second (in effect ) adopted the Gregorian calendar in place of the Julian calendar. Thus "New Style" can refer to the start-of-year adjustment , to the adoption of the Gregorian calendar , or to
5895-536: The Catholic interpretations of this theological topic, and the use of unbiblical concepts to explain it. Penn expressly confessed he believed in the Holy Three and the divinity of Christ . In 1668, in a letter to the anti-Quaker minister Jonathan Clapham, Penn wrote: "Thou must not, reader, from my querying thus, conclude we do deny (as he hath falsely charged us) those glorious Three, which bear record in heaven,
6026-527: The Catholic religion, a commitment to repealing Poyning's Law (and therefore to Irish self-government), recognition of lands taken by Irish Catholics during the war, and a commitment to a partial reversal of the Plantation of Ulster . In addition, there was to be an Act of Oblivion, or amnesty for all acts committed during the 1641 rebellion and Confederate wars – in particular the killings of British Protestant settlers in 1641 – combined with no disbanding of
6157-474: The Confederacy's secretary, Richard Bellings . He took with him a large quantity of arms and military supplies and a very large sum of money. These supplies meant that Rinuccini had a big influence on the Confederates' internal politics and he was backed by the more militant Confederates such as Owen Roe O'Neill . At Kilkenny Rinuccini was received with great honours, asserting that the object of his mission
6288-534: The Confederate armies. However, Charles granted these terms only out of desperation and later repudiated them. Under the terms of the agreement, the Confederation was to dissolve itself, place its troops under royalist commanders and accept English royalist troops. Inchiquin also defected from the Parliament and rejoined the royalists in Ireland. However, many of the Irish Catholics continued to reject
6419-587: The Confederates and to the king – as did the Laggan Army of the Scottish settlers living in Ulster. The Jacobite historian Thomas Carte mentioned the financial terms of the Cessation, whereby the Confederates undertook to pay Ormonde £30,000 in stages up to May 1644, half in cash and half in live cattle. In 1644 the Confederates sent around 1,500 men under Alasdair MacColla to Scotland to support
6550-429: The Confederates ultimately failed to manage and reorganise Ireland so as to defend the interests of Irish Catholics. The Irish Confederate Wars and the ensuing Cromwellian conquest of Ireland (1649–53) caused massive loss of life and ended with the confiscation of almost all Irish Catholic-owned land in the 1650s, though some was re-granted in the 1660s. The end of the period cemented the English colonisation of Ireland in
6681-526: The Confederates' Supreme Council in 1643. Pope Innocent X strongly supported Confederate Ireland, over the objections of Cardinal Mazarin and the Queen, Henrietta Maria , who had moved to Paris in 1644. Innocent received the Confederation's envoy in February 1645 and resolved to send a nuncio extraordinary to Ireland, Giovanni Battista Rinuccini , archbishop of Fermo , who embarked from La Rochelle with
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#17327723984206812-457: The English presence in Ireland. They wanted an independent, Catholic Ireland, with the English and Scottish settlers expelled permanently. Many of the militants were most concerned with recovering ancestral lands their families had lost in the plantations. After inconclusive skirmishing with the Confederates, Owen Roe O'Neill retreated to Ulster and did not rejoin his former comrades until Cromwell 's invasion of 1649. This infighting fatally hampered
6943-557: The Father, Word, and Spirit; neither the infinity, eternity and divinity of Jesus Christ; for that we know he is the mighty God." Given writing materials in the hope that he would put on paper his retraction, Penn wrote another inflammatory treatise, No Cross, No Crown . In it, Penn exhorted believers to adhere to the spirit of Primitive Christianity . This work was remarkable for its historical analysis and citation of 68 authors whose quotations and commentary he had committed to memory and
7074-574: The Gaelic Irish instigator of the Rebellion of 1641, sided with the moderates, whereas the predominantly Old English south Wexford area rejected the peace. The Catholic clergy were also split over the issue. The real significance of the split was between those landed gentry who were prepared to compromise with the royalists as long as their lands and civil rights were guaranteed, and those, such as Owen Roe O'Neill, who wanted to completely overturn
7205-568: The Gregorian calendar. For example, the Battle of Blenheim is always given as 13 August 1704. However, confusion occurs when an event involves both. For example, William III of England arrived at Brixham in England on 5 November (Julian calendar), after he had set sail from the Netherlands on 11 November (Gregorian calendar) 1688. The Battle of the Boyne in Ireland took place a few months later on 1 July 1690 (Julian calendar). That maps to 11 July (Gregorian calendar), conveniently close to
7336-466: The Gregorian calendar. Similarly, George Washington is now officially reported as having been born on 22 February 1732, rather than on 11 February 1731/32 (Julian calendar). The philosopher Jeremy Bentham , born on 4 February 1747/8 (Julian calendar), in later life celebrated his birthday on 15 February. There is some evidence that the calendar change was not easily accepted. Many British people continued to celebrate their holidays "Old Style" well into
7467-710: The Irish Catholics and royalists. The pre-war Irish Catholic land-owning class was all but destroyed in this period, as were the institutions of the Roman Catholic Church. Most of the senior members of the Confederation spent the Cromwellian period in exile in France, with the English Royalist Court. After the Restoration , those Confederates who had promoted alliance with the Royalists found themselves in favour and on average recovered about
7598-430: The Julian and Gregorian dating systems respectively. The need to correct the calendar arose from the realisation that the correct figure for the number of days in a year is not 365.25 (365 days 6 hours) as assumed by the Julian calendar but slightly less (c. 365.242 days). The Julian calendar therefore has too many leap years . The consequence was that the basis for the calculation of the date of Easter , as decided in
7729-527: The Julian calendar had added since then. When the British Empire did so in 1752, the gap had grown to eleven days; when Russia did so (as its civil calendar ) in 1918, thirteen days needed to be skipped. In the Kingdom of Great Britain and its possessions, the Calendar (New Style) Act 1750 introduced two concurrent changes to the calendar. The first, which applied to England, Wales, Ireland and
7860-454: The Julian date of the subsequent (and more decisive) Battle of Aughrim on 12 July 1691 (Julian). The latter battle was commemorated annually throughout the 18th century on 12 July, following the usual historical convention of commemorating events of that period within Great Britain and Ireland by mapping the Julian date directly onto the modern Gregorian calendar date (as happens, for example, with Guy Fawkes Night on 5 November). The Battle of
7991-411: The King and the Duke, proposing a mass emigration of English Quakers . Some Quakers had already moved to North America, but the New England Puritans , especially, were as hostile towards Quakers as Anglicans in England were, and some of the Quakers had been banished to the Caribbean . In 1677, a group of prominent Quakers that included Penn purchased the colonial province of West Jersey , comprising
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#17327723984208122-436: The King's behalf, which promised further concessions to Irish Catholics in the future. Being a very wealthy English Catholic royalist, Glamorgan was sent to Ireland in late June 1645 with secret orders from Charles to agree to the Confederates' demands in return for an Irish Catholic army that would fight for the King in England. The plan would be anathema to most English Protestants at the time. A copy of Glamorgan's secret orders
8253-506: The King, and the Crown was freed of a debt to the Admiral of £16,000, equal to roughly £3,167,726 in 2008. Penn first called the area "New Wales", then "Sylvania", which is Latin for "forests" or "woods", which King Charles II changed to "Pennsylvania" in honor of the elder Penn. On 4 March 1681, the King signed the charter and the following day Penn jubilantly wrote, "It is a clear and just thing, and my God who has given it to me through many difficulties, will, I believe, bless and make it
8384-448: The Leinster forces, Garret Barry the Munster forces and John Burke the Connacht forces. Ulick Burke, 1st Marquess of Clanricarde was named head general, as they thought he would sooner or later join the Confederates. The Supreme Council issued an order to raise £30,000 and a levy of 31,700 men in Leinster who were to be trained at once. The Supreme Council also made its own seal, described as follows: "'Twas circular, and in its centre
8515-422: The Lenape included the latter party's retained right to traverse the sold lands for purposes of hunting, fishing, and gathering. Though thoroughly oppressed, getting Quakers to leave England and make the dangerous journey to the New World was his first commercial challenge. Some Quaker families had already arrived in Maryland and New Jersey but the numbers were small. To attract settlers in large numbers, he wrote
8646-436: The Quaker region. Whether from personal sympathy or political expediency, to Penn's surprise, the King granted an extraordinarily generous charter which made Penn the world's largest private non-royal landowner, with over 45,000 square miles (120,000 km). Penn became the sole proprietor of a huge tract of land west of New Jersey and north of the Province of Maryland belonging to Lord Baltimore , and gained sovereign rule of
8777-479: The Quakers had no political agenda (unlike the Puritans) they should not be subject to laws that restricted political action by minority religions and other groups. Sprung from jail because of his family's rank rather than his argument, Penn was immediately recalled to London by his father. The Admiral was severely distressed by his son's actions and took the conversion as a personal affront. His father's hopes that Penn's charisma and intelligence would win him favor at
8908-470: The Rebellion, an equal share in government positions and that these concessions be ratified by a post-war Parliament. In terms of religion, they insisted on toleration of Catholicism and in June 1645 added the stipulation that the Catholic clergy should retain all properties taken from the Church of Ireland since 1641. In reality, these were almost impossible to achieve, since they were asking Charles to make concessions he had refused to make to Parliament, while
9039-444: The Recorder to reconsider their verdict and to select a new foreman, they refused and were sent to a cell over several nights to mull over their decision. The Lord Mayor of London , Sir Samuel Starling, also on the bench, then told the jury, "You shall go together and bring in another verdict, or you shall starve", and not only had Penn sent to jail in Newgate Prison (on a charge of contempt of court for refusing to remove his hat), but
9170-495: The Royalists and Admiral Penn was sent on a secret mission to bring back exiled Prince Charles . For his role in restoring the monarchy, Admiral Penn was knighted and gained a powerful position as Lord Commissioner of the Admiralty . Penn was first educated at Chigwell School , then by private tutors in Ireland , and later at Christ Church at the University of Oxford in Oxford . At the time, there were no state schools and nearly all educational institutions were affiliated with
9301-450: The Supreme Council of the Confederates had come to an agreement with Ormonde, signed on 28 March 1646. Under its terms Catholics would be allowed to serve in public office and to found schools; there were also verbal promises of future concessions on religious toleration. There was an amnesty for acts committed in the Rebellion of 1641 and a guarantee against further seizure of Irish Catholic rebels' land by acts of attainder . However, there
9432-486: The administration imposed stricter religious requirements including daily chapel attendance and required dress. Penn rebelled against enforced worship and was expelled. His father, in a rage, attacked young Penn with a cane and forced him from their home. Penn's mother made peace in the family, which allowed her son to return home but she quickly concluded that both her social standing and her husband's career were being threatened by their son's behavior. So at age 18, young Penn
9563-425: The character of George Fox, in his introduction to the autobiographical Journal of George Fox . In effect, Penn became the first theologian, theorist, and legal defender of Quakerism, providing its written doctrine and helping to establish its public standing. In 1669, Penn traveled to Ireland to deal with his father's estates. While there, he attended many meetings and stayed with leading Quaker families. He became
9694-492: The combination of the two. It was through their use in the Calendar Act that the notations "Old Style" and "New Style" came into common usage. When recording British history, it is usual to quote the date as originally recorded at the time of the event, but with the year number adjusted to start on 1 January. The latter adjustment may be needed because the start of the civil calendar year had not always been 1 January and
9825-581: The conditions for the founding of Pennsylvania, the Admiral wrote to the Duke of York , the heir to the throne. The Duke and the King, in return for the Admiral's lifetime of service to the Crown, promised to protect young Penn and make him a royal counselor. Penn inherited a large fortune, but found himself in jail again for six months. In April 1672, after being released, he married Gulielma Springett following
9956-485: The congregation, Fox not only extended the Protestant Reformation more radically, but he helped extend the most important principle of modern political history – the rights of the individual – upon which modern democracies were later founded. Penn traveled frequently with Fox, through Europe and England. He also wrote a comprehensive, detailed explanation of Quakerism along with a testimony to
10087-502: The court were crushed. Though enraged, the Admiral tried his best to reason with his son but to no avail. His father not only feared for his own position but that his son seemed bent on a dangerous confrontation with the Crown. In the end, young Penn was more determined than ever, and the Admiral felt he had no option but to order his son out of the house and to withhold his inheritance. As Penn became homeless, he began to live with Quaker families. Quakers were relatively strict Christians in
10218-411: The dangers, Penn began to attend Quaker meetings near Cork . A chance re-meeting with Thomas Loe confirmed Penn's rising attraction to Quakerism . Soon Penn was arrested for attending Quaker meetings. Rather than state that he was not a Quaker and thereby avoid any charges, he publicly declared himself a member and finally joined the Quakers at the age of 22 In pleading his case, Penn stated that since
10349-457: The differences between the two groups, there are significant variations in terms of political, religious and economic objectives. In general, the Old English wanted to regain the power and influence they had lost under the Tudors and although they were sincere Catholics, did not support establishing the church as the state religion . Gaelic Irish leaders such as Owen Roe O'Neill wanted to reverse
10480-828: The earlier supporters of colonial unification, Penn wrote and urged for a union of all the English colonies in what, following the American Revolutionary War , later became the United States. The democratic principles that he included in the West Jersey Concessions and set forth in the Pennsylvania Frame of Government inspired delegates to the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia to frame
10611-543: The end of the following December, 1661/62 , a form of dual dating to indicate that in the following twelve weeks or so, the year was 1661 Old Style but 1662 New Style. Some more modern sources, often more academic ones (e.g. the History of Parliament ) also use the 1661/62 style for the period between 1 January and 24 March for years before the introduction of the New Style calendar in England. The Gregorian calendar
10742-433: The extraordinary splendor of the King's restoration ceremony and was a guest of honor alongside his father, who received a highly unusual royal salute for his services to The Crown . Penn's father had great hopes for his son's career under the favor of the King. Back at Oxford, Penn considered a medical career and took some dissecting classes. Rational thought began to spread into science, politics, and economics, which he took
10873-517: The family estate in Ireland to contemplate his future. The reign of King Charles had further tightened restrictions against all religious sects other than the Anglican Church, making the penalty for unauthorized worship imprisonment or deportation. The "Five Mile Act" prohibited dissenting teachers and preachers to come within that distance of any borough. The Quakers were especially targeted and their meetings were deemed undesirable. Despite
11004-469: The fever of battle soon wore off after his father discouraged him, "I can say nothing but advise to sobriety...I wish your youthful desires mayn't outrun your discretion." While Penn was abroad, the Great Fire of 1666 consumed central London. As with the plague, the Penn family was spared. But after returning to the city, Penn was depressed by the mood of the city and his ailing father, so he went back to
11135-412: The first Supreme Council were as follows: James Tuchet, 3rd Earl of Castlehaven , representing the Crown, was the final member of the Supreme Council. The Supreme Council would have power over all military generals, military officers and civil magistrates. Its first act was to name the generals who were to command Confederate forces: Owen Roe O'Neill was to command the Ulster forces, Thomas Preston
11266-401: The full jury followed him, and they were additionally fined the equivalent of a year's wages each. The members of the jury, fighting their case from prison in what became known as Bushel's Case , managed to win the right for all English juries to be free from the control of judges. This case was one of the more important trials that shaped the concept of jury nullification and was a victory for
11397-582: The grip of the Great Plague of 1665. Young Penn reflected on the suffering and the deaths, and the way humans reacted to the epidemic. He wrote that the scourge "gave me a deep sense of the vanity of this World, of the Irreligiousness of the Religions in it." Further he observed how Quakers on errands of mercy were arrested by the police and demonized by other religions, even accused of causing
11528-505: The majority of the General Assembly. Nor was the papal nuncio Rinuccini party to the treaty, which left untouched the objects of his mission; he had induced nine of the Irish bishops to sign a protest against any arrangement with Ormonde or the king that would not guarantee the maintenance of the Catholic religion. Many believed the Supreme Council were unreliable since many of them were related to Ormonde or otherwise bound to him. Besides, it
11659-421: The monarchy had been. Following Oliver Cromwell's death, however, the Crown was re-established and the King responded with harassment and persecution of all religions and sects other than Anglicanism. Fox risked his life, wandering from town to town, and he attracted followers who likewise believed that the "God who made the world did not dwell in temples made with hands." By abolishing the church's authority over
11790-456: The other, stili novi or stilo novo , abbreviated st.n. and meaning "(of/in) new style". The Latin abbreviations may be capitalised differently by different users, e.g., St.n. or St.N. for stili novi . There are equivalents for these terms in other languages as well, such as the German a.St. (" alter Stil " for O.S.). Usually, the mapping of New Style dates onto Old Style dates with
11921-404: The plague. With his father laid low by gout , young Penn was sent to Ireland in 1666 to manage the family landholdings. While there he became a soldier and took part in suppressing a local Irish rebellion. Swelling with pride, he had his portrait painted wearing a suit of armor, his most authentic likeness. His first experience of warfare gave him the sudden idea of pursuing a military career, but
12052-489: The practical skills of a real estate promoter, city planner, and governor for his " Holy Experiment ", the province of Pennsylvania. Besides achieving his religious goals, Penn had hoped that Pennsylvania would be a profitable venture for himself and his family. But he proclaimed that he would not exploit either the natives or the immigrants, "I would not abuse His love, nor act unworthy of His providence, and so defile what came to me clean." To that end, Penn's land purchase from
12183-513: The preparations of the Confederate-royalist alliance to repel the invasion of parliamentarian New Model Army . Oliver Cromwell invaded Ireland in 1649 to crush the new alliance of Irish Confederates and royalists. The Cromwellian conquest of Ireland was the bloodiest warfare that had ever occurred in the country and was accompanied by plague and famine . Kilkenny fell after a short siege in 1650. It ended in total defeat for
12314-525: The purchase of 15,000 acres (61 km ) from his friend William Penn, the proprietor of the province of Pennsylvania, and laid out the settlement of what is the present-day Germantown section of Philadelphia. In 1764, the German Society of Pennsylvania was established, which still functions to this day from its headquarters in Philadelphia. In 1668, Penn published the first of many pamphlets, Truth Exalted: To Princes, Priests, and People . He
12445-452: The remaining English and Scottish armies in Ireland. It was hoped that by doing this, the Irish Catholics could hold off an English or Scottish re-conquest of the country. The initiative for the Confederation came from a Catholic bishop, Nicholas French , and a lawyer named Nicholas Plunkett . They put forth their proposals for a government to Irish Catholic nobles such as Viscount Gormanston , Viscount Mountgarret , Viscount Muskerry and
12576-684: The royalists there under James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose against the Covenanters, sparking a Civil War – their only intervention on the Royalist side in the civil wars in Great Britain. The Confederates received modest subsidies from the monarchies of France and Spain, who wanted to recruit troops in Ireland but their main continental support came from the Papacy. Pope Urban VIII sent Pierfrancesco Scarampi to liaise with and help
12707-611: The seed of a nation." Penn then traveled to America and while there, he negotiated Pennsylvania's first land-purchase survey with the tribe of the Lenape people. Penn purchased the first tract of land under a white oak tree at Graystones on 15 July 1682. Penn drafted a charter of liberties for the settlement creating a political utopia guaranteeing free and fair trial by jury , freedom of religion , freedom from unjust imprisonment and free elections. Having proved himself an influential scholar and theoretician, Penn now had to demonstrate
12838-492: The state. In 1681, King Charles II granted a large piece of his North American land holdings along the North Atlantic Ocean coast to Penn to offset debts he owed Penn's father, the admiral and politician Sir William Penn . The land included the present-day states of Pennsylvania and Delaware . The following year, in 1682, Penn left England for what was then British America , sailing up Delaware Bay and
12969-633: The suburbs to an estate in Essex . The country life made a lasting impression on young Penn, and kindled in him a love of horticulture . Their neighbor was the diarist Samuel Pepys , who was friendly at first but later secretly hostile to the Admiral, perhaps embittered in part by his failed seductions of both Penn's mother and his sister Peggy. After a failed mission to the Caribbean , Admiral Penn and his family were exiled to his lands in Ireland when Penn
13100-488: The territory with all rights and privileges with the exception of the power to declare war. The land of Pennsylvania had belonged to the Duke of York , but he retained the Province of New York and the area around present-day New Castle, Delaware , and the eastern portion of the Delmarva Peninsula . In return, one-fifth of all gold and silver mined in the province, which had virtually none, was to be remitted to
13231-700: The use of the writ of habeas corpus as a means of freeing those unlawfully detained. With his father dying, Penn wanted to see him one more time and patch up their differences. But he urged his father not to pay his fine and free him, "I entreat thee not to purchase my liberty." But the Admiral refused to let the opportunity pass and he paid the fine, releasing his son. His father had gained respect for his son's integrity and courage and told him, "Let nothing in this world tempt you to wrong your conscience." The Admiral also knew that after his death young Penn would become more vulnerable in his pursuit of justice. In an act which not only secured his son's protection but also set
13362-465: The vast majority of his advisors opposed them on the grounds that doing so would fatally undermine the Royalist cause in England and Scotland. The Confederate position was further weakened by divisions between the Old English, mostly descendants of those who arrived during the Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland in 1172, and the native Gaelic Irish. While many historians dispute the extent of
13493-481: The war would have to be returned to Protestant hands and the public practice of Catholicism was not guaranteed. In return for the concessions that were made Irish troops would be sent to England to fight for the royalists in the English Civil War . However, the terms agreed were not acceptable to either the Catholic clergy, the Irish military commanders – notably Owen Roe O'Neill and Thomas Preston – or
13624-525: The western half of present-day New Jersey . The same year, 200 settlers from Chorleywood and Rickmansworth in Hertfordshire , and other towns in nearby Buckinghamshire arrived, and founded the town of Burlington . Fox made a journey to America to verify the potential of further expansion of the early Quaker settlements. In 1682, East Jersey was also purchased by Quakers. With the Province of New Jersey in place, Penn pressed his case to extend
13755-488: The wrongs of the Church and the King. For its part, the Crown continued to confiscate Quaker property and jailed thousands of Quakers. From then on, Penn's religious views effectively exiled him from English society; he was expelled from Christ Church , a college at the University of Oxford, for being a Quaker, and was arrested several times. In 1670, he and William Mead were arrested. Penn was accused of preaching before
13886-458: Was "ashamed to read". In 1668, after writing a follow-up tract, The Sandy Foundation Shaken , Penn was imprisoned in the Tower of London . The Bishop of London ordered that Penn be held indefinitely until he publicly recanted his written statements. The official charge was publication without a licence but the real crime was blasphemy , as signed in a warrant by King Charles II. Placed in solitary confinement in an unheated cell and threatened with
14017-686: Was a critic of all religious groups, except Quakers , which he saw as the only true Christian group at that time in England. He branded the Catholic Church "the Whore of Babylon ", defied the Church of England , and called the Puritans "hypocrites and revelers in God". He lambasted all "false prophets, tithemongers, and opposers of perfection ". Pepys thought it a "ridiculous nonsensical book" that he
14148-550: Was a large cross, the base of which rested on a flaming heart, while its apex was overlapped by the wings of a dove. On the left of the cross was the harp , and on the right the crown." The motto on the seal was Pro Deo, Rege, et Patria, Hiberni Unanimes ( For God, King and Fatherland, Ireland is United ). A National Treasury, a mint for making coins, and a press for printing proclamations were set up in Kilkenny. This first General Assembly sat until 9 January 1643. The last piece of legislation agreed by Charles I and Parliament
14279-460: Was a volatile mix of Cavaliers , sober Puritans, and non-conforming Quakers . The new British government's discouragement of religious dissent gave the Cavaliers license to harass the minority groups. Because of his father's high position and social status, young Penn was firmly a Cavalier but his sympathies lay with the persecuted Quakers. To avoid conflict, Penn withdrew from the fray and became
14410-455: Was able to summon without any reference material at hand. Penn petitioned for an audience with the King, which was denied but which led to negotiations on his behalf by one of the royal chaplains. Penn declared, "My prison shall be my grave before I will budge a jot: for I owe my conscience to no mortal man." He was released after eight months of imprisonment. Penn demonstrated no remorse for his aggressive stance and vowed to keep fighting against
14541-638: Was about 15 years old. During this time, Penn met Thomas Loe, a Quaker missionary who was maligned by both Catholics and Protestants . Loe was admitted to the Penn household, and during his discourses on the Inward Light , young Penn recalled later that "the Lord visited me and gave me divine Impressions of Himself." A year later, Cromwell was dead, the Royalists were resurging, and the Penn family returned to England. The middle class aligned itself with
14672-484: Was addressed to King Charles I. On 22 March, at a synod in nearby Kells chaired by Hugh O'Reilly, Archbishop of Armagh , a majority of the Catholic bishops proclaimed that the rebellion was a just war . On 10 May 1642, Ireland's Catholic clergy held a synod at Kilkenny . Present were the Archbishops of Armagh , Cashel and Tuam , eleven bishops or their representatives, and other dignitaries. They drafted
14803-421: Was altered at different times in different countries. From 1155 to 1752, the civil or legal year in England began on 25 March ( Lady Day ); so for example, the execution of Charles I was recorded at the time in Parliament as happening on 30 January 164 8 (Old Style). In newer English-language texts, this date is usually shown as "30 January 164 9 " (New Style). The corresponding date in the Gregorian calendar
14934-650: Was born in 1644 at Tower Hill , London , the son of English naval officer Sir William Penn , and Dutchwoman Margaret Jasper, who was widow of a Dutch sea captain and the daughter of a rich merchant from Rotterdam . Through the Pletjes-Jasper family, Penn is also said to have been a cousin of the Op den Graeff family , who were important Mennonites in Krefeld and Quakers in Pennsylvania. Admiral Penn served in
15065-596: Was celebrated as the New Year festival from as early as the 13th century, despite the recorded (civil) year not incrementing until 25 March, but the "year starting 25th March was called the Civil or Legal Year, although the phrase Old Style was more commonly used". To reduce misunderstandings about the date, it was normal even in semi-official documents such as parish registers to place a statutory new-year heading after 24 March (for example "1661") and another heading from
15196-443: Was censured again after being fired, students were threatened with punishment for associating with him. However, Penn stood by the dean, thereby gaining a fine and reprimand from the university. The Admiral, despairing of the charges, pulled young Penn away from Oxford, hoping to distract him from the heretical influences of the university. The attempt had no effect and father and son struggled to understand each other. Back at school,
15327-557: Was destroyed by Jones's parliamentarians at the Battle of Dungan's Hill in County Meath . Then, less than three months later, the Confederates' Munster army met a similar fate at the hands of Inchiquin's parliamentarian forces at the battle of Knocknanauss . These setbacks made most Confederates much more eager to come to reach an agreement with the royalists and negotiations were re-opened. The Supreme Council received generous terms from Charles I and Ormonde, including toleration of
15458-637: Was disastrous for the wider aims of the Confederacy, as it coincided with the outbreak of the second civil war in England. The Papal Nuncio, Rinuccini, endeavoured to uphold Owen Roe O'Neill by excommunicating all who in May 1648 took part in the Inchiquin Truce with the Royalists; but he could not get the Irish Catholic Bishops to agree on the matter. On 23 February 1649, he embarked at Galway, in his own frigate, to return to Rome. It
15589-545: Was fixed for October that year. The first Confederate General Assembly was held in Kilkenny on 24 October 1642, where it set up a provisional government . The Assembly was a parliament in all but name. Present at the first Assembly were 14 Lords Temporal and 11 Lords Spiritual from the Parliament of Ireland , along with 226 commoners. The Confederate's constitution was written by a Galway lawyer named Patrick D'Arcy . The Assembly resolved that each county should have
15720-487: Was following the command of Jesus not to swear. The basic ceremony of Quakerism was silent worship in a meeting house, conducted in a group. There was no ritual and no professional clergy, and many Quakers disavowed the concept of original sin . God's communication came to each individual directly, and if so moved, the individual shared his revelations, thoughts, or opinions with the group. Penn found all these tenets to sit well with his conscience and his heart. Penn became
15851-549: Was implemented in Russia on 14 February 1918 by dropping the Julian dates of 1–13 February 1918 , pursuant to a Sovnarkom decree signed 24 January 1918 (Julian) by Vladimir Lenin . The decree required that the Julian date was to be written in parentheses after the Gregorian date, until 1 July 1918. It is common in English-language publications to use the familiar Old Style or New Style terms to discuss events and personalities in other countries, especially with reference to
15982-615: Was no reversal of Poynings' Law , which meant that any legislation due to be presented to the Parliament of Ireland must first be approved by the English Privy Council, no reversal of the Protestant majority in the Irish House of Commons and no reversal of the main plantations, or colonisation , in Ulster and Munster. Moreover, regarding the religious articles of the treaty, all churches taken over by Catholics in
16113-460: Was not viewed favorably by the previous Dutch , Swedish and English settlers in what is now Delaware, and in addition to this, the land was claimed for half a century by the neighboring Province of Maryland 's proprietor family, the Calverts. In 1704, the three southernmost counties of provincial Pennsylvania were granted permission to form a new, semi-autonomous Delaware Colony . As one of
16244-672: Was pointed out that the English Civil War had already been decided in the English Parliament's favour and that sending Irish troops to the royalists would be a futile sacrifice. On the other hand, many felt after O'Neill's Ulster army defeated the Scots at the battle of Benburb in June 1646 that the Confederates were in a position to re-conquer all of Ireland. Furthermore, those who opposed the peace were backed, both spiritually and financially, by Rinuccini, who threatened to excommunicate
16375-738: Was publicised by the Long Parliament , and to preserve his support in Protestant England the King had to deny his link and even proclaimed Glamorgan as a traitor. To deter the use of Confederate Irish soldiers in England the Long Parliament passed the Ordinance of no quarter to the Irish in October 1644. The nuncio considered himself the virtual head of the Confederate Catholic party in Ireland. In 1646
16506-606: Was sent to Paris to get him out of view, improve his manners, and expose him to another culture. In Paris at the court of young Louis XIV , Penn found French manners far more refined than the coarse manners of his countrymen, but he did not like the extravagant display of wealth and privilege he saw in the French. Though impressed by Notre Dame and the Catholic ritual, he felt uncomfortable with it. Instead, he sought out spiritual direction from French Protestant theologian Moise Amyraut , who invited Penn to stay with him in Saumur for
16637-449: Was signed at Jigginstown, near Naas . This ended hostilities ceased between the Confederates and Ormonde's royalist army based in Dublin . However, Murrough O'Brien, 1st Earl of Inchiquin , a rare Gaelic Irish Protestant who commanded the Royalist garrison of Cork , objected to the ceasefire and declared his allegiance to Parliament in England. The Scottish Covenanters had also landed an army in Ulster in 1642, which remained hostile to
16768-453: Was strict, humorless, and somber. The school's teachers had to be pillars of virtue and provide sterling examples to their pupils. Penn later opposed Anglicanism on religious grounds, but he absorbed many Puritan behaviors, and was known later for his own serious demeanor, strict behavior, and lack of humor. In 1660, Penn arrived at the University of Oxford, where he was enrolled as a gentleman scholar with an assigned servant. The student body
16899-702: Was the 1642 Adventurers' Act , which provided funds to suppress the 1641 Rebellion by confiscating "rebel" lands. In order to keep their estates, in the context of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms the Confederates claimed to be Royalists loyal to the king, which made reaching an agreement with him a matter of primary importance. As a result, the Confederacy never claimed to be an independent government and since only Charles could legally call Parliament , their General Assembly never claimed to be one, although this did not prevent it enacting legislation. Confederate political demands included Irish self-government, secure tenure of their lands, amnesty for any acts committed during
17030-410: Was to sustain the King, but above all to help the Catholic people of Ireland in securing the free and public exercise of the Catholic religion, and the restoration of the churches and church property, but not any former monastic property. The Supreme Council put great hope in a secret treaty they had concluded with Edward Somerset, 2nd Marquess of Worcester , under his new title of Earl of Glamorgan, on
17161-480: Was twenty-three and an ambitious naval officer in charge of blockading ports held by Confederate forces. Penn grew up during the rule of Oliver Cromwell, who succeeded in leading a Puritan rebellion against King Charles I ; the king was beheaded when Penn was four years old. Penn's father was often at sea. Young William caught smallpox , and lost all his hair from the disease; he wore a wig until he left college. Penn's smallpox also prompted his parents to move from
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