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129-431: The 4th-century Gandharan brothers, Asaṅga and Vasubandhu , are considered the classic founders of Indian Yogacara school. The East Asian branch of the tradition was founded through the work of scholars like Bodhiruci , Paramārtha , Xuanzang and his students Kuiji , Woncheuk and Dōshō . In Chinese Buddhism , the overall Yogācāra tradition is mostly called Wéishí (Ch: 唯識 , Ko . yusik; Jp . yuishiki), which

258-412: A Buddhist Avadana , Aspavarma and a Saka noble, Jhadamitra, engaged in discussions concerning the establishment of accommodation for monks during the rainy seasons, displaying that he was a patron of Buddhism . A reliquary inscription dedicated to 50 CE, by a woman named Ariasrava, describes that her donation was made during the reign of Gondophares nephew, Abdagases I , and Aspavarma , describing

387-592: A bulwark against the expansion of the Persian Achaemenid Empire into Gandhara. This hypothesis posits that the army which Nearchus claimed Cyrus had lost in Gedrosia had been defeated by Pukkusāti's Gāndhārī kingdom. Therefore, following Prakash's position, the Achaemenids would have been able to conquer Gandhāra only after a period of decline after the reign of Pukkusāti, combined with

516-721: A division of the Vinaya Pitaka. Buddhist traditions in East Asia typically follow the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya lineage of the pratimokṣa, and this is standard for the following Buddhist traditions: Some traditions of Buddhism in Japan and Korea also carry out full monastic ordination, but most do not. Instead, these traditions have priests and monastics who take the Bodhisattva Precepts instead of

645-410: A figure of significance. Aspavarman, a preceding Apracharaja contemporaneous with Gondophares , was succeeded by Sasan , after having ascended from a subordinate governance role to a recognized position as one of Gondophares's successors. He assumed the position following Abdagases I . The Kushan ruler Vima Takto is known through numismatic evidence to have overstruck the coins of Sasan , whilst

774-480: A fortnight at a meeting of the sangha during which confession would traditionally take place. A number of prātimokṣa codes are extant, including those contained in the Theravāda , Mahāsāṃghika , Mahīśāsaka , Dharmaguptaka , Sarvāstivāda and Mūlasarvāstivāda vinayas . Pratimokṣa texts may also circulate in separate pratimokṣa sūtras , which are extracts from their respective vinayas. The Pratimokṣa belongs to

903-715: A fragmented manner until the last independent Greek king, Strato II , disappeared around 10 CE. Around 125 BCE, the Greco-Bactrian king Heliocles , son of Eucratides, fled from the Yuezhi invasion of Bactria and relocated to Gandhara, pushing the Indo-Greeks east of the Jhelum River . The last known Indo-Greek ruler was Theodamas , from the Bajaur area of Gandhara, mentioned on a 1st-century CE signet ring, bearing

1032-770: A monk after becoming a disciple of the Buddha . The annexation under Cyrus was limited to the Western sphere of Gandhāra as only during the reign of Darius the Great did the region between the Indus River and the Jhelum River become annexed. However Megasthenes Indica , states that the Achaemenids never conquered India and had only approached its borders after battling with the Massagetae , it further states that

1161-591: A new philosophical system. The Consciousness-Only teachings were transmitted to Japan as "Hossō-shū" (法相宗, Japanese for "Faxiang School"), and they made considerable impact. There were various key figures who established early Hossō in Japan. One of them was Dōshō 道昭 (629–749), a student of Xuanzang from 653 to 660. Dōshō and his students Gyōki and Dōga followed the "orthodox" texts and teachings of Xuanzang's school and transmitted these to Japan at Gangōji Temple. Other important figures who also studied under Xuanzang were Chitsu and Chitatsu. Together with Dōshō they defended

1290-611: A number of important commentaries on the Yogācāra texts and further developed the influence of this doctrine in China, and was recognized by later adherents as the first true patriarch of the school. His Cheng weishi lun shuji (成唯識 論述記; Taishō no. 1830, vol. 43, 229a-606c) is a particularly important text for the Weishi school. After Xuanzang, the second patriarch of the Weishi school was Hui Zhao. According to A.C. Muller "Hui Zhao 惠沼 (650-714),

1419-522: A numismatic hoard had found coins of Sasan together with smaller coins of Kujula Kadphises It has also been discovered that Sasan overstruck the coins of Nahapana of the Western Satraps , this line of coinage dating between 40 and 78 CE. It was noted by Philostratus and Apollonius of Tyana upon their visit with Phraotes in 46 AD, that during this time the Gandharans living between

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1548-597: A population coming from Inner Asia Mountain Corridor , which carried Steppe ancestry, sometime between 1900 and 1500 BCE. According to Rigvedic tradition , Yayati was the progenitor of the prominent Udichya (Gandhara and Vahika tribes) and had numerous sons, including Anu, Puru, and Druhyu. The lineage of Anu gave rise to the Madra , Kekaya , Sivi and Uśīnara kingdoms, while the Druhyu tribe has been associated with

1677-493: A rebellion among the locals of Taxila to which according to the Ashokavadana , he dispatched Ashoka to quell the uprising. Upon entering the city, the populace conveyed that their rebellion was not against Ashoka or Bindusara but rather against oppressive ministers. In Ashoka's subsequent tenure as emperor, he appointed his son as the new governor of Taxila . During this time, Ashoka erected numerous rock edicts in

1806-645: A resurgence under the Turk Shahis and Hindu Shahis . Gandhara was known in Sanskrit as Gandhāraḥ ( गन्धारः ) and in Avestan as ' Vaēkərəta . In Old Persian , Gandhara was known as Gadāra ( 𐎥𐎭𐎠𐎼 , also transliterated as Ga dāra since the nasal "n" before consonants were omitted in Old Persian). In Chinese , Gandhara was known as Jiāntuóluó, kɨɐndala, Jìbīn , and Kipin. In Greek , Gandhara

1935-907: A tributary to the Achaemenids. During the Wars of Alexander the Great , the region was split into two factions with Taxiles , the king of Taxila , allying with Alexander the Great , while the Western Gandharan tribes, exemplified by the Aśvaka around the Swat valley , resisted. Following the Macedonian downfall, Gandhara became part of the Mauryan Empire with Chandragupta Maurya receiving an education in Taxila under Chanakya and later assumed control with his support. Subsequently, Gandhara

2064-491: A wagon-load of Buddhist texts, including important Yogācāra works such as the Yogācārabhūmi-śastra . In total, Xuanzang had procured 657 Buddhist texts from India. Upon his return to China, he was given government support and many assistants for the purpose of translating these texts into Chinese . As an important contribution to East Asian Yogācāra, Xuanzang composed the treatise Cheng Weishi Lun , or "Discourse on

2193-413: Is Wŏnhyo (元曉 617–686). While he usually seen as a Huayan scholar, he also wrote many works on Yogācāra and according to Charles Muller "if we look at Wŏnhyo’s oeuvre as a whole, along with accounts of his life, his involvement in Yogācāra studies looms large, and in fact, in terms of sheer quantity, forms the largest portion of his work." His work was influential on later Chinese figures like Fazang. With

2322-451: Is a translation of "Consciousness Only" ( Sanskrit : vijñapti-mātratā ). The consciousness-only view is the central philosophical tenet of the school. It may also be referred to as Yújiāxíng Pài (瑜伽行派), a translation of Yogācāra ("Yogic praxis"). The term Fǎxiàng (dharma characteristics) was first applied to this tradition by the Huayan scholar Chengguan , who used it to characterize

2451-477: Is also noted by Kalhana that Brahmins of Gandhara accepted from Mihirakula gifts of Agraharams . Kalhana also noted in his Rajatarangini how Mihirakula oppressed local Brahmins of South Asia and imported Gandharan Brahmins into Kashmir and India and states that he had given thousands of villages to these Brahmins in Kashmir. The Turk Shahis ruled Gandhara until 843 CE when they were overthrown by

2580-469: Is immanent in all sentient beings like a jewel in a trash heap. Other important figures of the southern school were Huiguangʼs disciple Fashang (法上, 495–580), and Fashangʼs disciple Jingying Huiyuan (淨影慧遠, 523–592). This school's doctrine was later passed on to the Huayan school via Zhiyan. An important founding figure of the southern Dilun, Huiguang (468–537) was the leading disciple of Ratnamati, who composed various commentaries, including: Commentary on

2709-471: Is it immovable? Does the Absolute have anything to do with the phenomenal world? According to the interpretation of the final teaching of Mahayana (i.e. Faxingzong), the Absolute and phenomena can be described with the 'water and wave' metaphor. Due to the wind of ignorance, waves of phenomena rise and fall, yet they are not different in essence from the water of the Absolute. In contrast with this explanation,

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2838-505: Is needed to support this, though during the rule of Alexander the Great the kingdom of Taxila stretched to the Hydaspes (Jhelum river). The term Greater Gandhara describes the cultural and linguistic extent of Gandhara and its language, Gandhari . In later historical contexts, Greater Gandhara encompassed the territories of Jibin and Oddiyana which had splintered from Gandhara proper and also extended into parts of Bactria and

2967-410: Is not a basis for the defilements (unlike the ālayavijñāna ), but rather is a basis for the noble path ( āryamārga ). Thus, the immaculate consciousness is the purifying counteragent to all the defilements. According to Paramārtha, at the moment of enlightenment, one experiences a “transformation of the basis” ( āśrayaparāvṛtti ) which leads to the cessation of the storehouse consciousness, leaving only

3096-454: Is presumed to have gained the throne in c. 2 BCE after succeeding Visnuvarma, with a reign of three decades lasting til c. 32 CE before being succeeded by his son Indravasu and then further by Indravasu's grandson Indravarma II in c. 50 CE. The Indo-Scythians were descended from the Sakas (Scythians) who migrated from Central Asia into South Asia from the middle of the 2nd century BCE to

3225-574: Is that the alaya has a pure untainted aspect (which is buddha-nature) as well as an impure aspect. The schools which were more aligned with the "Dharma-nature" position (like Huayan, Tiantai and Chan) also affirmed the ultimate truth of the one vehicle, while the Xuanzang school affirms the difference among the three vehicles. They also reject Xuanzang's view that states that there is a certain class of very deluded beings called icchantikas who can never become Buddhas. The Xuanzang school also maintained

3354-707: Is the schema of the three natures (三性). The central canonical texts of Weishi Buddhism are the classic Indian sutras associated with Yogācāra, such as the Saṃdhinirmocana-sūtra and the Daśabhūmikasūtra , as well as the works associated with Maitreya , Asanga and Vasubandhu , including the Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra , Mahāyānasaṃgraha , Viṃśatikā , Triṃśikā , and the Xianyang shengjiao lun (顯揚聖教論, T 1602.31.480b-583b). Besides these Indic works,

3483-682: The Brāhmaṇa s , according to which they received Brahmanic consecration, but their family's attitude towards ritual is mentioned negatively, with the royal family of Gandhāra during this period following non-Brahmanical religious traditions. According to the Jain Uttarādhyayana-sūtra , Nagnajit, or Naggaji, was a prominent king who had adopted Jainism and was comparable to Dvimukha of Pāñcāla , Nimi of Videha , Karakaṇḍu of Kaliṅga , and Bhīma of Vidarbha ; Buddhist sources instead claim that he had achieved paccekabuddhayāna . By

3612-760: The Gandhara kingdom. The first mention of the Gandhārīs is attested once in the Ṛigveda as a tribe that has sheep with good wool. In the Atharvaveda , the Gandhārīs are mentioned alongside the Mūjavants, the Āṅgeyas and the Māgadhīs in a hymn asking fever to leave the body of the sick man and instead go those aforementioned tribes. The tribes listed were the furthermost border tribes known to those in Madhyadeśa ,

3741-542: The Chéng Wéishì Lùn (成唯識論 , The Demonstration of Consciousness-only ) compiled by Xuanzang is also a key work of the tradition. There are different sub-sects of the East Asian Weishi, including the early "Dharma-nature" schools such as Dilun and Shelun, the school of Xuanzang, as well as Korean and Japanese branches of Weishi. Translations of Indian Yogācāra texts were first introduced to China in

3870-796: The Saṃdhinirmocana Sūtra , the Madhyāntavibhāga-kārikā , the Triṃśikā-vijñaptimātratā , Dignāga’s Ālambana-parīkṣā ( Wu xiang si chen lun 無相思塵論), the Mahāyānasaṃgraha and the Viniścayasaṃgrahaṇī (Juedingzang lun 決定藏論; a part of the a Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra). Paramārtha also taught widely on the principles of Consciousness Only, and developed a large following in southern China. Many monks and laypeople traveled long distances to hear his teachings, especially those on

3999-666: The Yogācārabhūmi ). The earliest Yogacara traditions were the Dilun ( Daśabhūmika ) and Shelun ( Mahāyānasaṃgraha ) schools, which were based on Chinese translations of Indian Yogacara treatises. The Dilun and Shelun schools followed traditional Indian Yogacara teachings along with tathāgatagarbha (i.e. buddha-nature) teachings, and as such were really hybrids of Yogācāra and tathāgatagarbha. While these schools were eventually eclipsed by other Chinese Buddhist traditions, their ideas were preserved and developed by later thinkers, including

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4128-463: The Awakening of Faith which sees the one mind (the dharma nature) as having both an unconditioned and a conditioned aspect. This conditioned aspect of the dharma nature is an active and dynamic aspect out of which all pure and impure dharmas arise. As Imre Hamar explains: The issue at stake is the relationship between the Absolute and phenomena. Is the tathata, the Absolute, dependent arising , or

4257-596: The Bactrians . Herodotus states that during the battle they were led by the Achamenid general Artyphius . Under Persian rule, a system of centralized administration, with a bureaucratic system, was introduced into the Indus Valley for the first time. Provinces or "satrapy" were established with provincial capitals. The Gandhara satrapy, established 518 BCE with its capital at Pushkalavati ( Charsadda ). It

4386-586: The Behistun inscription of Emperor Darius I , was translated as Paruparaesanna ( Para-upari-sena , meaning "beyond the Hindu Kush") in Babylonian and Elamite in the same inscription. The geographical location of Gandhara has undergone alterations throughout history, with the general understanding being the region situating between Pothohar in contemporary Punjab , the Swat valley , and

4515-608: The Daśabhūmikasūtra " ), producing a translation during the Northern Wei . Bodhiruci and Ratnamati ended up disagreeing on how to interpret Yogacara doctrine and thus, this tradition eventually split into northern and southern schools. During the Northern and Southern Dynasties era this was the most popular Yogacara school. The northern school followed the interpretations and teachings of Bodhiruci (6th century CE) while

4644-588: The Five Natures Doctrine ( Chinese : 五性各別 ; pinyin : wǔxìng gèbié ; Wade–Giles : wu-hsing ko-pieh ) which was seen as provisional and as being superseded by the one vehicle teaching by schools like Huayan and Tiantai. After the third patriarch, the influence of the school of Xuanzang declined, though it continued to be studied at certain key centers, such as Chang’an , Mt. Wutai , Zhendingfu (now) Shijiazhuang ), and Hangzhou . The Weishi (consciousness-only) school survived into

4773-692: The Gandhara grave culture , characterized by a distinctive burial practice. During the Vedic period Gandhara gained recognition as one of the sixteen Mahajanapadas , or 'great realms', within South Asia playing a role in the Kurukshetra War . In the 6th century BCE, King Pukkusāti governed the region and was most notable for defeating the Kingdom of Avanti though Gandhara eventually succumbed as

4902-745: The Hindu Shahis . The Hindu Shahis are believed to belong to the Uḍi/Oḍi tribe, namely the people of Oddiyana in Gandhara. The history of the Hindu Shahis begins in 843 CE with Kallar deposing the last Turk Shahi ruler, Lagaturman. Samanta succeeded him, and it was during his reign that the region of Kabul was lost to the Persianate Saffarid empire . Lalliya replaced Samanta soon after and re-conquered Kabul whilst also subduing

5031-605: The Indus River . This event led to the usurpation of the throne, compelling Phraotes' father to seek refuge with the king situated beyond the Hydaspes River , in modern-day Punjab , a ruler esteemed greater than Phraotes' father. Moreover, Phraotes states that his father received an education facilitated by the Brahmins upon request to the king and married the daughter of the Hydaspian king, whilst having one son who

5160-512: The Kabul River and Taxila had coinage of Orichalcum and Black brass, and their houses appearing as single-story structures from the outside, but upon entering, underground rooms were also present. They describe Taxila as being the same size as Nineveh , being walled like a Greek city whilst also being shaped with Narrow roads, and further describe Phraotes kingdom as containing the old territory of Porus . Following an exchange with

5289-559: The Kharosthi script , acted as the lingua franca of the region and through Buddhism , the language spread as far as China based on Gandhāran Buddhist texts . Famed for its unique Gandharan style of art , the region attained its height from the 1st century to the 5th century CE under the Kushan Empire which had their capital at Puruṣapura , ushering the period known as Pax Kushana . The history of Gandhara originates with

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5418-485: The Khyber Pass also extending along the Kabul River . The prominent urban centres within this geographical scope were Taxila and Pushkalavati . According to a specific Jataka , Gandhara's territorial extent at a certain period encompassed the region of Kashmir . The Eastern border of Gandhara has been proposed to be the Jhelum River based on arachaeological Gandharan art discoveries however further evidence

5547-520: The Mahāyānasaṃgraha . This tradition was known as the Shelun school (摂論宗, Shelun zong ). The most distinctive teaching of this school was the doctrine of the "pure consciousness" or "immaculate consciousness" ( amalavijñāna , Ch: amoluoshi 阿摩羅識 or wugou shi 無垢識). Paramārtha taught that there was a pure and permanent ( nitya ) consciousness that is unaffected by suffering or mental afflictions ,

5676-783: The Pāli Canon in the Vinaya Piṭaka . The Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya is preserved in both the Tibetan Buddhist canon in the Kangyur , in a Chinese edition, and in an incomplete Sanskrit manuscript. Some other complete Vinaya texts are preserved in the Chinese Buddhist canon (see: Taishō Tripiṭaka ), and these include: The Dharmaguptaka sect are known to have rejected the authority of the Sarvāstivāda pratimokṣa rules on

5805-475: The Seleucid Greeks . This engagement is corroborated by Polybius , who records an instance where Antiochus III the Great descended into India to renew his ties with King Subhagasena in 206 BCE, subsequently receiving a substantial gift of 150 elephants from the monarch. The Indo-Greek king Menander I (reigned 155–130 BCE) drove the Greco-Bactrians out of Gandhara and beyond the Hindu Kush , becoming king shortly after his victory. His empire survived him in

5934-446: The Tarim Basin . Oddiyana was situated in the vicinity of the Swat valley , while Jibin corresponded to the region of Kapisa , south of the Hindu Kush . However during the 5th and 6th centuries CE, Jibin was often considered synonymous with Gandhara. The Udichya region was another region mentioned in ancient texts and is noted by Pāṇini as comprising both the regions of Vahika and Gandhara. Gandhara's first recorded culture

6063-413: The Vinaya of the Buddhist doctrine and is seen as the very basis of Buddhism. On the basis of the Prātimokṣa there exist in Mahayana Buddhism two additional set of vows: The Bodhisattva vows and the Vajrayana vows . If these two sets of vows are not broken, they are regarded as carrying over to future lives. The Pratimokṣa is traditionally a section of the Vinaya. The Theravada Vinaya is preserved in

6192-550: The valley of Kaśmīra being part of the kingdom. Due to this important position, Buddhist texts listed the Gandhāra kingdom as one of the sixteen Mahājanapada s ("great realms") of Iron Age South Asia. It was the home of Gandhari , the princess and her brother Shakuni the king of Gandhara Kingdom . During the 6th century BCE, Gandhara was governed under the reign of King Pukkusāti . According to Buddhist accounts, he had forged diplomatic ties with Magadha and achieved victories over neighbouring kingdoms such as that of

6321-427: The 1st century BCE. They displaced the Indo-Greeks and ruled a kingdom that stretched from Gandhara to Mathura . The first Indo-Scythian king Maues established Saka hegemony by conquering Indo-Greek territories. Some Aprachas are documented on the Silver Reliquary discovered at Sirkap, near Taxila , designating the title "Stratega," denoting a position equivalent to Senapati , such as that of Indravarma who

6450-408: The 1st century CE, Pliny the Elder notes a list of tribes in the Vahika and Gandhara regions spanning from the lower Indus to the mountain tribes near the Hindu Kush . After passing this island, the other side of the Indus is occupied, as we know by clear and undoubted proofs, by the Athoae, the Bolingae, the Gallitalutae, the Dimuri, the Megari, the Ardabae, the Mesae, and after them, the Uri and

6579-454: The Anixeni, and the Taxilae, with a famous city, which lies on a low but level plain, the general name of the district being Amenda: there are four nations here, the Peucolaitae, the Arsagalitae, the Geretae, and the Assoi. The Kushans conquered Bactria after having been defeated by the Xiongnu and forced to retreat from the Central Asian steppes. The Yuezhi fragmented the region of Bactria into five distinct territories, with each tribe of

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6708-408: The Asini, a people who dwell in three cities, their capital being Bucephala, which was founded around the tomb of the horse belonging to king Alexander, which bore that name. Above these peoples there are some mountain tribes, which lie at the foot of Caucasus, the Soseadae and the Sondrae, and, after passing the Indus and going down its stream, the Samarabriae, the Sambraceni, the Bisambritae, the Orsi,

6837-413: The Dharma nature as dynamic and responding to conditions (of sentient beings), it also sees the Dharma nature (the buddha-nature, original enlightenment ) as the basis and source of samsara and nirvana . As such, Huayan scholars like Zongmi critiqued the view of the Xuanzang "Faxiang" school which held that the Dharma nature ( suchness ) was "totally inert" and "unchanging" in favor of the view found in

6966-556: The Establishment of Consciousness Only." This work is framed around Vasubandhu 's Triṃśikā-vijñaptimātratā ("Thirty Verses on Consciousness Only") but it draws on numerous other sources and Indian commentaries to Vasubandhu's verses to create a doctrinal summa of Indian consciousness only thought. This work was composed at the behest of Xuanzang's disciple Kuiji, and became a central representation of East Asian Yogācāra. Xuanzang also promoted devotional meditative practices toward Maitreya Bodhisattva . Xuanzang's disciple Kuiji wrote

7095-419: The Great encountered a young Chandragupta Maurya in the Punjab region, possibly during his time at the university. Subsequent to Alexander's death, Chanakya and Chandragupta allied with Trigarta king Parvataka to conquer the Nanda Empire . This alliance resulted in the formation of a composite army, comprising Gandharans and Kambojas , as documented in the Mudrarakshasa . Bindusaras reign witnessed

7224-474: The Indian parent Yogācāra school, the East Asian Weishi tradition teaches that reality is only consciousness, and rejects the existence of mind-independent objects or matter. Instead, Weishi holds that all phenomena (dharmas) arise from the mind. In this tradition, deluded minds distort the ultimate truth, and project false appearances of independent subjects and objects (which is termed the imagined nature). In keeping with Indian Yogācāra tradition, Weishi divides

7353-551: The Indian populace, and subsequently accompanied him on the expedition crossing the Indus . In 327 BCE, Alexander the Great 's military campaign progressed to Arigaum, situated in present-day Nawagai , marking the initial encounter with the Aspasians . Arrian documented their implementation of a scorched earth strategy, evidenced by the city ablaze upon Alexander's arrival, with its inhabitants already fleeing. The Aspasians fiercely contested Alexander's forces, resulting in their eventual defeat. Subsequently, Alexander traversed

7482-416: The Kharoṣṭhī inscription "Su Theodamasa" ( "Su" was the Greek transliteration of the Kushan royal title "Shau" (" Shah " or "King")). It is during this period that the fusion of Hellenistic and South Asian mythological, artistic and religious elements becomes most apparent, especially in the region of Gandhara. Local Greek rulers still exercised a feeble and precarious power along the borderland, but

7611-472: The Kidarites into northern India. Their last ruler in Gandhara was Kandik, c.  500 CE . Around 430 King Khingila , the most notable Alchon ruler, emerged and took control of the routes across the Hindu Kush from the Kidarites. Coins of the Alchons rulers Khingila and Mehama were found at the Buddhist monastery of Mes Aynak , southeast of Kabul , confirming the Alchon presence in this area around 450–500 CE. The numismatic evidence as well as

7740-461: The Korean monk Wŏnch’ŭk in contrast to the "southern temple" tradition of Gangōji. The northern and southern temple traditions debated each other for centuries over their varying interpretations (Kuiji's "orthodoxy" vs the views of the Silla Korean masters and their commentaries). These debates can be found in various later Hossō doctrinal sources, including: Record of the Light of the Lamp of Hossō ( Hossō tōmyō ki 法相燈明記; 815) by Zen’an, Summary of

7869-604: The Korean monks Woncheuk ( c.  613 –696) and Wohnyo , and the patriarchs of the Huayan school like Zhiyan (602–668), who himself studied under Dilun and Shelun masters and Fazang (643–712). The Dilun or Daśabhūmikā school ( Sanskrit . Chinese : 地論宗; pinyin di lun zong, "School of the Treatise on the Bhūmis") was a tradition that derived from the translators Bodhiruci (Putiliuzhi 菩提流支; d. 527) and Ratnamati (Lenamoti 勒那摩提; d.u.). Both translators worked on Vasubandhu's Shidijing lun (十地經論, Sanskrit: *Daśabhūmi-vyākhyāna or *Daśabhūmika-sūtra-śāstra, "Commentary on

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7998-431: The Kushans with Kujula Kadphises son Vima Takto succeeding the Apracharaja Sases in Taxila and further conquering Tianzhu (India) before installing a general as a satrap. According to the Xiyu Zhuan, the inhabitants residing in the upper reaches of the Kabul River were extremely wealthy and excelled in commerce, with their cultural practices bearing resemblance to those observed in Tianzhu (India) . However,

8127-413: The North West. Chanakya , a prominent figure in the establishment of the Mauryan Empire , played a key role by adopting Chandragupta Maurya , the initial Mauryan emperor. Under Chanakya's tutelage, Chandragupta received a comprehensive education at Taxila, encompassing various arts of the time, including military training, for a duration spanning 7–8 years. Plutarch's accounts suggest that Alexander

8256-410: The Persians summoned mercenaries specifically from the Oxydrakai tribe, who were previously known to have resisted the incursions of Alexander the Great , but they never entered their armies into the region of Gandhara. During the reign of Xerxes I , Gandharan troops were noted by Herodotus to have taken part in the Second Persian invasion of Greece and were described as clothed similar to that of

8385-445: The River Guraeus in the contemporary Dir District , engaging with the Asvakas , as chronicled in Sanskrit literature. The primary stronghold among the Asvakas, Massaga , characterized as strongly fortified by Quintus Curtius Rufus , became a focal point. Despite an initial standoff which led to Alexander being struck in the leg by an Asvaka arrow, peace terms were negotiated between the Queen of Massaga and Alexander. However, when

8514-419: The School of the Weishi lun ( Yuishikiron dōgakushō 唯識論同學鈔) by Ryōsan 良算 (1202–?) and Chapters Providing a Brief Study of the Mahāyāna Yogācāra ( Daijō hossō kenjinshō 大乘法相硏神章序) by Gomyō (750–834). Gandhara Gandhara ( IAST : Gandhāra ) was an ancient Indo-Aryan civilization centred in present-day north-west Pakistan and north-east Afghanistan . The core of the region of Gandhara

8643-411: The Silae; beyond which last there are desert tracts, extending a distance of two hundred and fifty miles. After passing these nations, we come to the Organagae, the Abortae, the Bassuertae, and, after these last, deserts similar to those previously 'mentioned. We then come to the peoples of the Sorofages, the Arbae, the Marogomatrae, the Umbrittae, of whom there are twelve nations, each with two cities, and

8772-581: The Song and Yuan dynasties, but as a minor school with little influence. However its texts have remained important sources for the study of Yogācāra thought down to today. The Xuanzang school's influence declined due to competition with other Chinese Buddhist traditions such as Tiantai , Huayan , Chan and Pure Land Buddhism . Nevertheless, classic Yogācāra philosophy continued to exert an influence, and Chinese Buddhists of other schools relied on its teachings to enrich their own intellectual traditions. An important later figure associated with Yogācāra studies

8901-403: The Ten Grounds Sutra (十地論疏 (Shidilun shu), Commentary on the Flower Garland Sutra (華嚴經疏 Huayanjing shu), Commentary on the Nirvana Sutra (涅槃經疏 Niepanjing shu) and Commentary on the Sutra of Queen Srimala (人王經疏 Renwangjing shu). During the sixth century CE, the Indian monk and translator Paramārtha (Zhendi 真諦; 499–569) widely propagated Yogācāra teachings in China. His translations include

9030-402: The Yuezhi assuming dominion over a separate kingdom. However, a century after this division, Kujula Kadphises of the Kushan tribe emerged victorious by destroying the other four Yuezhi tribes and consolidating his reign as king. Kujula then invaded Parthia and annexed the upper reaches of the Kabul River before further conquering Jibin . In 78 CE the Indo-Parthians seceded Gandhara to

9159-410: The buddha-nature, the one mind of the Awakening of Faith ), even if they did understand the nature of dharmas (fa-xiang). According to Dan Lusthaus, "This distinction became so important, that every Buddhist school originating in East Asia, including all forms of Sinitic Mahayana, viz. T' ien-t' ai , Hua-yen, Ch'an, and Pure Land , came to be considered Dharma-nature schools." The Huayan school sees

9288-607: The capital of the great empire stretching from Central Asia to Northern India with Gandhara being in the midst of it. Emperor Kanishka was a great patron of the Buddhist faith; Buddhism spread from India to Central Asia and the Far East across Bactria and Sogdia , where his empire met the Han Empire of China. Buddhist art spread from Gandhara to other parts of Asia. In Gandhara, Mahayana Buddhism flourished and Buddha

9417-670: The classic Chinese novel Journey to the West , a major component of East Asian popular culture from Chinese opera to Japanese television ( Monkey Magic ). Xuanzang spent over ten years in India traveling and studying under various Buddhist masters. These masters included Śīlabhadra , the abbot of the Nālandā Mahāvihāra , who was then 106 years old. Xuanzang was tutored in the Yogācāra teachings by Śīlabhadra for several years at Nālandā. Upon his return from India, Xuanzang brought with him

9546-515: The defenders had vacated the fort, a fierce battle ensued when Alexander broke the treaty. According to Diodorus Siculus , the Asvakas, including women fighting alongside their husbands, valiantly resisted Alexander's army but were ultimately defeated. During the Mauryan era, Gandhara held a pivotal position as a core territory within the empire, with Taxila serving as the provincial capital of

9675-494: The different schools. At the age of 33, Xuanzang made a dangerous journey to India in order to study Buddhism there and to procure Buddhist texts for translation into Chinese. He sought to put an end to the various debates in Chinese consciousness-only Buddhism by obtaining all the key Indian sources and receiving direct instruction from Indian masters. Xuanzang's journey was later the subject of legend and eventually fictionalized as

9804-697: The early fifth century. Among these was Guṇabhadra 's translation of the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra in four fascicles, which would also become important in the early history of Chan Buddhism . Another early set of translations where two texts by Dharmakṣema (Ch: Tan Wuchen 曇無讖; 385–433): the Bodhisattvabhūmi-sūtra ( Pusa di chi jing 菩薩地持經; Stages of the Bodhisattva Path ), and the Bodhisattva Prātimokṣa (which contains excerpts from

9933-401: The elementary teaching of Mahayana (i.e. Faxiangzong) can be presented by the metaphor of 'house and ground' . The ground supports the house but is different from it. Another key distinction and point of debate was the nature of the alayavijñana . For Xuanzang's school, the alayavijñana is a defiled consciousness, while the so called "Dharma-nature" position (following the Awakening of Faith )

10062-575: The famous Vedic philosopher Uddālaka Āruṇi was among the famous students of Takṣaśila, and the Setaketu Jātaka claims that his son Śvetaketu also studied there. In the Chāndogya Upaniṣad , Uddālaka Āruṇi himself favourably referred to Gāndhārī education to the Vaideha king Janaka . During the 6th century BCE, Gandhāra was an important imperial power in north-west Iron Age South Asia, with

10191-473: The founder of Yogācāra). Various later Chinese figures promoted Maitreya devotion as a Pure Land practice and as a way to receive teachings in visions. Hanshan Deqing (1546–1623) was one figure who describes a vision of Maitreya. The 20th century saw a revival in Weishi studies in China. Important figures in this revival include Yang Wenhui (1837-1911), Taixu , Liang Shuming , Ouyang Jingwu (1870–1943), Wang Xiaoxu (1875-1948), and Lu Cheng. Weishi studies

10320-622: The grounds that the original teachings of the Buddha had been lost. The Patimokkha is the Pali equivalent of Pratimokṣa ( Sanskrit ). It is being followed by the monks of the Theravada lineage (Thailand, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Cambodia and Laos). It consists of 227 rules for fully ordained monks ( bhikkhus ) and 311 for nuns ( bhikkhunis ). The Patimokkha is contained in the Suttavibhanga ,

10449-582: The growth of Achaemenid power under the kings Cambyses II and Darius I . However, the presence of Gandhāra among the list of Achaemenid provinces in Darius's Behistun Inscription confirms that his empire had inherited this region from Cyrus. It is unknown whether Pukkusāti remained in power after the Achaemenid conquest as a Persian vassal or if he was replaced by a Persian satrap , although Buddhist sources claim that he renounced his throne and became

10578-543: The immaculate consciousness. Some texts attributed to Paramārtha also state that the perfected nature ( pariniṣpannasvabhāva ) is equivalent to the amalavijñāna. Furthermore, some sources attributed to Paramārtha also identify the immaculate consciousness with the “innate purity of the mind” (prakṛtiprabhāsvaracitta), which links the idea with the doctrine of Buddha nature . By the time of Xuanzang (602 – 664), Yogācāra teachings had already been propagated widely in China, but there were many conflicting interpretations among

10707-685: The inhabitants riding on elephants in warfare. The Kushan period is considered the Golden Period of Gandhara. Peshawar Valley and Taxila are littered with ruins of stupas and monasteries of this period. Gandharan art flourished and produced some of the best pieces of sculpture from the Indian subcontinent. Gandhara's culture peaked during the reign of the great Kushan king Kanishka the Great (127 CE – 150 CE). The cities of Taxila (Takṣaśilā) at Sirsukh and Purushapura (modern-day Peshawar ) reached new heights. Purushapura along with Mathura became

10836-668: The joint rule by the Aprachas and the Indo-parthians. The Indo-Parthian Kingdom was ruled by the Gondopharid dynasty, named after its first ruler Gondophares . For most of their history, the leading Gondopharid kings held Taxila (in the present Punjab province of Pakistan ) as their residence, but during their last few years of existence, the capital shifted between Kabul and Peshawar . These kings have traditionally been referred to as Indo-Parthians, as their coinage

10965-415: The king, Phraotes is reported to have subsidized both barbarians and neighbouring states, to avert incursions into his kingdom. Phraotes also recounts that his father, being the son of a king, had become an orphan from a young age. In accordance with Indian customs, two of his relatives assumed responsibility for his upbringing until they were killed by rebellious nobles during a ritualistic ceremony along

11094-646: The kingdom of Lahore was conquered. The following Shahi rulers all resisted the Ghaznavids but were ultimately unsuccessful, resulting in the downfall of the empire in 1026 CE. Pratimok%E1%B9%A3a The Pratimokṣa ( Sanskrit : प्रातिमोक्ष , romanized :  prātimokṣa ) is a list of rules (contained within the vinaya ) governing the behaviour of Buddhist monastics (monks or bhikṣus and nuns or bhikṣuṇīs ). Prati means "towards" and mokṣa means "liberation" from cyclic existence ( saṃsāra ). It became customary to recite these rules once

11223-751: The last vestige of the Greco-Indian rulers was finished by a people known to the old Chinese as the Yeuh-Chi. The Apracharajas were a historical dynasty situated in the region of Gandhara, extending from the governance of Menander II within the Indo-Greek Kingdom to the era of the early Kushans . Renowned for their significant support of Buddhism , this assertion is supported by swathes of discovered donations within their principal domain, between Taxila and Bajaur . Archaeological evidence also establishes dynastic affiliations between them and

11352-562: The later Vedic period , the situation had changed, and the Gāndhārī capital of Takṣaśila had become an important centre of knowledge where the men of Madhya-desa went to learn the three Vedas and the eighteen branches of knowledge, with the Kauśītaki Brāhmaṇa recording that brāhmaṇa s went north to study. According to the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa and the Uddālaka Jātaka ,

11481-480: The lineage of Kuiji and Hui Zhao was traditionally considered the "orthodox" tradition of Xuanzang's school, there were also other lineages of this tradition which differed in their interpretations from Kuiji's sect. Perhaps the most influential heterodox group was a group of Yogācāra (Korean: Beopsang) scholars from the Korean Silla kingdom , mainly: Wŏnch’ŭk , Tojŭng, and Taehyŏn (大賢). Wŏnch’ŭk (圓測, 613–696)

11610-557: The mass destruction of Buddhist monasteries and stupas at Taxila , a high centre of learning, which never recovered from the destruction. Virtually all of the Alchon coins found in the area of Taxila were found in the ruins of burned down monasteries, where some of the invaders died alongside local defenders during the wave of destructions. It is thought that the Kanishka stupa , one of the most famous and tallest buildings in antiquity,

11739-478: The mind into Eight Consciousnesses and the Four Aspects of Cognition, which produce what we view as reality. The analysis of the eighth, the ālayavijñana, or store-consciousness (阿賴耶識) which is at the root of all experience, is a key feature of all forms of Weishi Buddhism. This root consciousness is also held to be the carrier of all karmic seeds (種子). Another central doctrinal schema for the Weishi traditions

11868-583: The next most notable ruler, is most significant for vanquishing the Samanid Empire in Ghazni and Kabul in response to their conquests, his grand-daughter Didda was also the last ruler of the Lohara dynasty . Jayapala then gained control and was brought into conflict with the newly formed Ghaznavid Empire , however, he was eventually defeated. During his rule and that of his son and successor, Anandapala,

11997-406: The northern school, the storehouse consciousness is not ultimately real and buddha-nature is something that one acquires only after attaining Buddhahood (that is, the storehouse consciousness ceases and transforms into the buddha-nature). On the other hand, the southern school of Ratnamatiʼs student Huiguang (慧光) held that the storehouse consciousness was real and synonymous with buddha-nature, which

12126-405: The orthodox interpretations of Kuiji. Another line of transmission was that of Chihō, Chiran, and Chiyu (all three visited Korea and then China c. 703), as well as the later figures Gien / Giin (653-728) and Genbō (d. 746). This tradition is known as the "Northern Temple transmission" since the lineage came to be based at Kōfuku-ji . This tradition was known to follow the teachings of the school of

12255-407: The realm of Avanti . Pukkusāti 's kingdom was described as being 100 Yojanas in width, approximately 500 to 800 miles wide, with his capital at Taxila in modern day Punjab as stated in early Jatakas It is noted by R. C. Majumdar that Pukkusāti would have been contemporary to the Achamenid king Cyrus the Great and according to the scholar Buddha Prakash, Pukkusāti might have acted as

12384-622: The region in the Kharosthi script and commissioned the construction of a monumental stupa in Pushkalavati , Western Gandhara, the location of which remains undiscovered to date. According to the Taranatha , following the death of Ashoka , the northwestern region seceded from the Maurya Empire , and Virasena emerged as its king. Noteworthy for his diplomatic endeavors, Virasena's successor, Subhagasena , maintained relations with

12513-539: The region of Zabulistan . He is additionally noteworthy for coming into conflict with Samkaravarman of the Utpala dynasty , resulting in his victory and the latter's death in Hazara and was the first Shahi noted by Kalhana . He is depicted as a great ruler with strength to the standard where kings of other regions would seek shelter in his capital of Udabhanda , a change from the previous capital of Kabul . Bhimadeva,

12642-547: The reign of Vijayamitra. According to Apracha chronology, Indravarma was the son of Visnuvarma, an Aprachraja preceding Vijayamitra . Indravarmas son Aspavarma is situated between 20 and 50 CE, during which numismatic evidence overlaps him with the Indo-Scythian ruler Azes II and Gondophares of the Indo-Parthians whilst also describing him as 'Stratega' or general of the Aprachas. In accordance with

12771-652: The revival of Weishi studies. New Confucians like Xiong Shili , Ma Yifu, Tang Junyi and Mou Zongsan , were influenced by the philosophy of Indian Yogācāra philosophy, and by the thought of the Awakening of Faith , though their work also critiqued and modified Weishi philosophy in various ways . The work of Xiong Shili was particularly influential in the establishment of what is now called New Confucianism . His A New Treatise on Vijñaptimātra (新唯識論, Xin Weishi Lun ) draws on Yogacara and Confucian thought to construct

12900-517: The rise of other Sinitic Mahayana schools to prominence, like Huayan and Chan , the Yogacara tradition of Xuanzang came under some doctrinal criticism. Sinitic schools like Huayan were influenced by the buddha-nature and ekayana (one vehicle) teachings, especially the doctrines of the Awakening of Faith . They were thus connected with the teachings of the Dilun and Shelun schools. As such, their doctrines differed in significant ways from that of

13029-472: The rulers of Oddiyana in modern-day Swat. The dynasty is argued to have been founded by Vijayakamitra, identified as a vassal to Menander II , according to the Shinkot casket . This epigraphic source further articulates that King Vijayamitra , a descendant of Vijayakamitra, approximately half a century subsequent to the initial inscription, is credited with its restoration following inflicted damage. He

13158-507: The school of Xuanzang and instead promotes ideas closer to those of the Shelun school , such as the doctrine of the "immaculate consciousness" ( amalavijñāna ) and the idea that the ālayavijñāna was essentially pure. Due to this, Wŏnch’ŭk's work was criticized by the disciples of Kuiji. Wŏnch’ŭk's tradition came to be known as the Ximing tradition (since he resided at Ximingsi monastery), and it

13287-465: The school of Xuanzang. The scholars of the Huayan school like Fazang (643–712), Chengguan (738–839), and Zongmi (780–841), critiqued the school of Xuanzang, which they termed "Faxiang-zong" (dharma-characteristics school, a term invented by Chengguan), on various points. A key contention was that Xuanzang's school failed to understand the true Dharma-nature (Ch: fa-xin, dharmata or tathata , i.e.

13416-729: The second patriarch, and Zhi Zhou 智周 (668-723), the third patriarch, wrote commentaries on the Fayuan yulin chang , the Lotus Sūtra , and the Madhyāntavibhāga ; they also wrote treatises on Buddhist logic and commentaries on the Cheng weishi lun ." Another important figure is Yijing 義淨 (635–713), who traveled to India in imitation of Xuanzang. He translated several works of Vinaya, as well as Yogācāra commentaries by Dharmapāla on Dignāga’s Ālambana-parīkṣā and on Vasubandhu’s Viṃśikā . While

13545-601: The so-called " Hephthalite bowl " from Gandhara, now in the British Museum , suggests a period of peaceful coexistence between the Kidarites and the Alchons, as it features two Kidarite noble hunters, together with two Alchon hunters and one of the Alchons inside a medallion. At one point, the Kidarites withdrew from Gandhara, and the Alchons took over their mints from the time of Khingila . The Alchons undertook

13674-421: The southern and northern Dilun schools was "the question of whether the ālaya-consciousness is constituted of both reality and purity, and is identical with the pure mind (Southern Way), or whether it comprises exclusively falsehood, and is a mind of defilements giving rise to the unreal world of sentient beings (Northern Way)." According to Daochong (道寵), a student of Bodhiruci and the main representative of

13803-486: The southern school followed Ratnamati. Modern scholars argue that the influential treatise called the Awakening of Faith was written by someone in the northern Dilun tradition of Bodhiruci. Ratnamati also translated the Ratnagotravibhāga (究竟一乘寶性論 Taisho no. 1611), an influential buddha-nature treatise. According to Hans-Rudolf Kantor, one of the most important doctrinal differences and points of contention between

13932-672: The teachings of the school of Xuanzang and the Cheng Wei Shi Lun as provisional, dealing with the characteristics of phenomena or dharmas . As such, this name was an outside term used by critics of the school, which eventually was adopted by Weishi nevertheless. Another lesser known name for the school i s Yǒu Zōng ( 有宗 "School of Existence"). Yin Shun also introduced a threefold classification for Buddhist teachings which designates this school as Xūwàng Wéishí Xì ( 虛妄唯識系 "False Imagination Mere Consciousness System"). Like

14061-406: The text also characterizes them as weak and easily conquered with their political allegiance never being constant. Over time, the region underwent successive annexations by Tianzhu , Jibin , and Parthia during periods of their respective strength, only to be lost when these powers experienced a decline. The Xiyu Zhuan describes Tianzhu's customs as bearing similarities to that of the Yuezhi and

14190-584: The topic are those at Nanjing's Inner Studies Academy, headed by Ouyang Jian. Ouyang Jian founded the Chinese Institute of Inner Studies ( Chinese : 支那內學院 ), which provided education in Yogācāra teachings and the Prajñāparamita sūtras, given to both monastics and laypeople. Many modern Chinese Buddhist scholars are second-generation descendants of this school or have been influenced by it indirectly. New Confucian thinkers also participated in

14319-675: The traditional pratimokṣa vows. The pratimokṣa of the Mulasarvastivada lineage followed in Tibetan Buddhism is taken for life unless one or more of the four root vows are broken. In Tibetan Buddhism, there are eight types of Pratimokṣa vows: The lay pratimokṣa consists of five vows that are also known as the Five Śīlas : One is not obliged to take all five vows. The commentaries describe seven types of lay followers: Only full monks and full nuns are seen as full members of

14448-469: The two great cities of Massaga located around the Swat valley and Pushkalavati in modern day Peshawar. The sovereign of Taxila , Omphis , formed an alliance with Alexander, motivated by a longstanding animosity towards Porus , who governed the region encompassed by the Chenab and Jhelum River . Omphis, in a gesture of goodwill, presented Alexander the great with significant gifts, esteemed among

14577-445: The writings of Chinese monk Xuanzang from 630 CE explained that Mihirakula ordered the destruction of Buddhism and the expulsion of monks. The Buddhist art of Gandhara, in particular Greco-Buddhist art , became extinct around this period. When Xuanzang visited Gandhara in c.  630 CE , he reported that Buddhism had drastically declined in favour of Shaivism and that most of the monasteries were deserted and left in ruins. It

14706-549: The Āṅgeyas and Māgadhīs in the east, and the Mūjavants and Gandhārīs in the north. The Gandhara tribe , after which it is named, is attested in the Rigveda ( c.  1500  – c.  1200 BCE ), while the region is mentioned in the Zoroastrian Avesta as Vaēkərəta , the seventh most beautiful place on earth created by Ahura Mazda . The Gāndhārī king Nagnajit and his son Svarajit are mentioned in

14835-416: Was Phraotes himself. Phraotes proceeds to narrate the opportune moment he seized to reclaim his ancestral kingdom, sparked by a rebellion of the citizens of Taxila against the usurpers. With fervent support from the populace, Phraotes led a triumphant entry into the residence of the usurpers, whilst the citizens brandished torches, swords, and bows in a display of unified resistance. During this period in

14964-510: Was a Korean student of Xuanzang as well as a disciple of the Shelun master Fachang (567–645). He composed various texts, including Haesimmilgyǔng so (C. Jieshenmi jing shu ), an influential commentary to the Saṃdhinirmocanasūtra which was even translated to Tibetan and is known as the "Great Chinese Commentary" to Tibetans. This work later influenced Tibetan scholars like Tsongkhapa. Wŏnch’ŭk's interpretations often differ from that of

15093-563: Was a general during the reign of the Apracharaja Vijayamitra . Indravarma is additionally noteworthy for receiving the above-mentioned Silver Reliquary from the Indo-Scythian monarch Kharahostes , which he subsequently re-dedicated as a Buddhist reliquary, indicating was a gift in exchange for tribute or assistance. According to another reliquary inscription Indravarma is noted as the Lord of Gandhara and general during

15222-577: Was also during the Achaemenid Empire rule of Gandhara that the Kharosthi script, the script of Gandhari prakrit , was born through the Aramaic alphabet. According to Arrian 's Indica , the area corresponding to Gandhara situated between the Kabul River and the Indus River was inhabited by two tribes noted as the Assakenoi and Astakanoi whom he describes as 'Indian' and occupying

15351-606: Was also revived among Japanese philosophers like Inoue Enryō . Modern Chinese thinkers of the Weishi studies revival also discussed Western philosophy (especially Hegelian and Kantian thought) and modern science in terms of Yogacara thought. In his 1929 book on the history of Chinese Buddhism, Jiang Weiqiao wrote: In modern times, there are few śramaṇa who research [Faxiang]. Various laypeople, however, take this field of study to be rigorous, systematic and clear, and close to science. For this reason, there are now many people researching it. Preeminent among those writing on

15480-540: Was among the tallest buildings in the ancient world. The Kidarites conquered Peshawar and parts of the northwest Indian subcontinent including Gandhara probably sometime between 390 and 410 from Kushan empire, around the end of the rule of Gupta Emperor Chandragupta II or beginning of the rule of Kumaragupta I . It is probably the rise of the Hephthalites and the defeats against the Sasanians which pushed

15609-679: Was contrasted with Kuiji's tradition, also called the Ci'en tradition after Kuiji's monastery at Da Ci'ensi. While in China, Wŏnch’ŭk took as a disciple a Korean-born monk named Tojŭng ( Chinese : 道證 ), who travelled to Silla in 692 and propounded and propagated Woncheuk's exegetical tradition there where it flourished. In Korea, these Beopsang teachings did not endure long as a distinct school, but its teachings were frequently included in later schools of thought and also studied by Japanese Yogācāra scholars. Another influential figure in Korean Yogācāra

15738-411: Was destroyed by them during their invasion of the area in the 460s CE. The Mankiala stupa was also vandalized during their invasions. Mihirakula in particular is remembered by Buddhist sources to have been a "terrible persecutor of their religion" in Gandhara. During the reign of Mihirakula , over one thousand Buddhist monasteries throughout Gandhara are said to have been destroyed. In particular,

15867-544: Was known as Paropamisadae One proposed origin of the name is from the Sanskrit word gandhaḥ ( गन्धः ), meaning "perfume" and "referring to the spices and aromatic herbs which they (the inhabitants) traded and with which they anointed themselves". The Gandhari people are a tribe mentioned in the Rigveda , the Atharvaveda , and later Vedic texts. A Persian form of the name, Gandara , mentioned in

15996-490: Was often inspired by the Arsacid dynasty, but they probably belonged to wider groups of Iranic tribes who lived east of Parthia proper, and there is no evidence that all the kings who assumed the title Gondophares , which means "Holder of Glory", were even related. During the dominion of the Indo-Parthians , Apracharaja Sasan , as described on numismatic evidence identifying him as the nephew of Aspavarma , emerged as

16125-540: Was represented in human form. Under the Kushans new Buddhist stupas were built and old ones were enlarged. Huge statues of the Buddha were erected in monasteries and carved into the hillsides. Kanishka also built the 400-foot Kanishka stupa at Peshawar. This tower was reported by Chinese monks Faxian , Song Yun , and Xuanzang who visited the country. The stupa was built during the Kushan era to house Buddhist relics and

16254-602: Was successively annexed by the Indo-Greeks , Indo-Scythians , and Indo-Parthians though a regional Gandharan kingdom, known as the Apracharajas , retained governance during this period until the ascent of the Kushan Empire . The zenith of Gandhara's cultural and political influence transpired during Kushan rule, before succumbing to devastation during the Hunnic Invasions . However, the region experienced

16383-796: Was the Peshawar and Swat valleys extending as far east as the Pothohar Plateau in Punjab , though the cultural influence of Greater Gandhara extended westwards into the Kabul valley in Afghanistan, and northwards up to the Karakoram range. The region was a central location for the spread of Buddhism to Central Asia and East Asia with many Chinese Buddhist pilgrims visiting the region. Gāndhārī , an Indo-Aryan language written in

16512-775: Was the Grave Culture that emerged c.  1200 BCE and lasted until 800 BCE, and named for their distinct funerary practices. It was found along the Middle Swat River course, even though earlier research considered it to be expanded to the Valleys of Dir , Kunar , Chitral , and Peshawar . It has been regarded as a token of the Indo-Aryan migrations but has also been explained by local cultural continuity. Backwards projections, based on ancient DNA analyses, suggest ancestors of Swat culture people mixed with

16641-400: Was the syncretic Chan scholar monk Yongming Yanshou (904–975), who wrote some commentaries on Yogācāra texts. During the Ming dynasty, two scholars also wrote Weishi commentaries: Mingyu 明昱 (1527–1616) and Zhixu 智旭 (1599–1655). Other Yogācāra teachings remained popular in Chinese Buddhism, such as devotion to the bodhisattva Maitreya (who was associated with the tradition and is seen as

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