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78-500: Frankfurt (Oder) , also known as Frankfurt an der Oder ( German: [ˈfʁaŋkfʊʁt ʔan deːɐ̯ ˈʔoːdɐ] , lit.   ' Frankfurt on the Oder ' ; Central Marchian : Frankfort an de Oder, Polish : Frankfurt nad Odrą ) is the fourth-largest city in the German state of Brandenburg after Potsdam , Cottbus and Brandenburg an der Havel . With around 58,000 inhabitants, it

156-471: A majority Utraquist movement with a significant Taborite faction, and smaller regional ones that included Adamites , Orebites and Orphans . Major Hussite theologians included Petr Chelčický , Jerome of Prague . A number of Czech national heroes were Hussite, including Jan Žižka , who led a fierce resistance to five consecutive crusades proclaimed on Hussite Bohemia by the Papacy . Hussites were one of

234-670: A period of refusal, confirmed the inviolability of the border in 1970 in the Treaty of Warsaw . In 1990 newly reunified Germany and the Republic of Poland signed a treaty recognizing the Oder–Neisse line as their border. On 11 August 2022, it was discovered that the Oder river had been contaminated and at least 135 tonnes of dead fish washed up on its shores. Water samples taken on 28 July indicated possible mesitylene contamination, although

312-460: A publication now in the public domain :  Chisholm, Hugh , ed. (1911). " Oder ". Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol. 20 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 2–3. Hussites After the execution of Hus at the Council of Constance , a series of crusades, civil wars, victories and compromises between various factions with different theological agendas broke out. At

390-651: Is a river in Central Europe . It is Poland's second-longest river and third-longest within its borders after the Vistula and its largest tributary the Warta . The Oder rises in the Czech Republic and flows 742 kilometres (461 mi) through western Poland, later forming 187 kilometres (116 mi) of the border between Poland and Germany as part of the Oder–Neisse line . The river ultimately flows into

468-846: Is home to the European University Viadrina , which has a campus in Słubice, the Collegium Polonicum . Prior to 1249, a West Slavic settlement named Zliwitz along with the Lubusz Land was part of the Kingdom of Poland . The Piast duke Henry the Bearded granted Zliwitz staple rights in 1225. In 1226, construction of the St. Nicholas Church (today's Friedenskirche ) began. In 1249, the settlement became part of

546-666: Is only a narrow channel (Świna) going to the Bay of Pomerania , which forms a part of the Baltic Sea. The largest city on the Oder is Wrocław , in Lower Silesia . The Oder is navigable over a large part of its total length, as far upstream as the town of Koźle , where the river connects to the Gliwice Canal . The upstream part of the river is canalized and permits larger barges (up to CEMT Class IV ) to navigate between

624-515: Is the Fforst House, a German-Polish student project, which has been granted support by the town's administration and by the Viadrina , having been described by the former president of the university, Gesine Schwan , as the place where "Europe begins". The current mayor is René Wilke (independent, formerly Left ) since 2018. The most recent mayoral election was held on 28 February 2018 and

702-635: Is the largest German city on the Oder River, and one of the easternmost cities in Germany. Frankfurt sits on the western bank of the Oder, opposite the Polish town of Słubice , which was a part of Frankfurt until 1945, and called Dammvorstadt until then. The city is about 80 kilometres (50 mi) east of Berlin , in the south of the historical region Lubusz Land . Within Frankfurt's city limits lies

780-538: Is the second longest river overall taking into account its total length, including parts in neighbouring countries. The Oder drains a basin of 119,074 square kilometres (45,975 sq mi), 106,043 km (40,943 sq mi) of which are in Poland (89%), 7,246 km (2,798 sq mi) in the Czech Republic (6%), and 5,587 km (2,157 sq mi) in Germany (5%). Channels connect it to

858-542: Is the town's local football team. Frankfurt (Oder), being located on the border to Poland, plays a special role in connection with German–Polish relations and European integration . The European University Viadrina has one of its buildings in Poland, in the neighbouring town of Słubice. The university also has a number of projects and initiatives dedicated to bringing Poland and Germany together, and offers its students pro bono Polish courses. Another project that contributes to German–Polish integration in Frankfurt (Oder)

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936-673: The " Unitas Fratrum " already in 1457. Under Emperor Maximilian II , the Bohemian state assembly established the Confessio Bohemica , upon which Lutherans , Reformed, and Bohemian Brethren agreed. From that time forward Hussitism began to die out. After the Battle of White Mountain on 8 November 1620 the Roman Catholic Faith was re-established with vigour, which fundamentally changed the religious conditions of

1014-768: The Allies decided that the new eastern border of Germany would run along the Oder. After World War II, the former German areas east of the Oder and the Lusatian Neisse passed to Poland by decision of the victorious Allies at the Potsdam Conference (at the insistence of the Soviets). As a result, the so-called Oder–Neisse line formed the border between the Soviet occupation zone (from 1949 East Germany ) and Poland. The final border between Germany and Poland

1092-502: The Council of Constance arrived, disturbances broke out, directed primarily against the clergy and especially against the monks. Even the Archbishop narrowly escaped from the effects of this popular anger. The treatment of Hus was felt to be a disgrace inflicted upon the whole country and his death was seen as a criminal act. King Wenceslaus IV. , prompted by his grudge against Sigismund, at first gave free vent to his indignation at

1170-557: The Czech lands . Leaders and members of Unitas Fratrum were forced to choose to either leave the many and varied southeastern principalities of what was the Holy Roman Empire (mainly Austria , Hungary , Bohemia , Moravia and parts of Germany and its many states), or to practice their beliefs secretly. As a result, members were forced underground and dispersed across northwestern Europe. The largest remaining communities of

1248-612: The Georgen Hospital . The result was a Swedish victory. By the end of the Thirty Years' War, the town's population had decreased from 12,000 inhabitants to 2,366 inhabitants. In the 16th century the oldest church of the town (today's Friedenskirche ) was secularized and was even used as a granary , and from the 17th century it served as the church of the French Huguenots . The city was briefly occupied by

1326-549: The German Democratic Republic in 1949. During the communist era, Frankfurt reached a population peak with more than 87,000 inhabitants at the end of the 1980s. Following German reunification , the population decreased significantly, but has stabilized in recent years at about 58,000 inhabitants. As of 2020, the city plays an important role in German–Polish relations and European integration . Frankfurt

1404-689: The Habsburg monarchy as Czechoslovakia (due to Masaryk and Czechoslovak legions with Hussite tradition, in the name of the troops). Today, the Hussite tradition is represented in the Moravian Church , Unity of the Brethren , and Czechoslovak Hussite Church . Hussitism organised itself during the years 1415–1419. Hussites were not a unitary movement, but a diverse one with multiple factions that held different views and opposed each other in

1482-611: The Havel , Spree , Vistula system and Kłodnica . It flows through Silesian , Opole , Lower Silesian , Lubusz , and West Pomeranian voivodeships of Poland and the states of Brandenburg and Mecklenburg-Vorpommern in Germany. The main branch empties into the Szczecin Lagoon near Police, Poland . The Szczecin Lagoon is bordered on the north by the islands of Usedom (west) and Wolin (east). Between these two islands, there

1560-527: The Hussite Wars . From the beginning, there formed two parties, with a smaller number of people withdrawing from both parties around the pacifist Petr Chelčický , whose teachings would form the foundation of the Unitas Fratrum . Hussites can be divided into: The more conservative Hussites (the moderate party, or Utraquists ), who followed Hus more closely, sought to conduct reform while leaving

1638-576: The Margraviate of Brandenburg . The town of Frankfurt received its charter in 1253 at the Brandendamm . The early settlers lived on the western banks of the Oder; later the town was extended to the eastern bank. After a war broke out over control of the region in 1319, the town came under the control of the Duchy of Pomerania . In 1319, Wartislaw IV , Duke of Pomerania, granted new privileges to

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1716-731: The Russian Imperial Army during the Seven Years' War , in August 1759, in the prelude to the battle of Kunersdorf . With the dissolution of the Margraviate of Brandenburg during the Napoleonic Wars , Frankfurt became part of the Province of Brandenburg in 1815. In the 19th century, Frankfurt played an important role in trade. Centrally positioned in the Kingdom of Prussia between Berlin and Posen (Poznań) , on

1794-702: The Szczecin Lagoon north of Szczecin and then into three branches (the Dziwna , Świna and Peene ) that empty into the Bay of Pomerania of the Baltic Sea . The Oder is known by several names in different languages, but the modern ones are very similar: English and German: Oder ; Czech, Polish, and Lower Sorbian : Odra , Upper Sorbian : Wódra ; Kashubian : Òdra ( pronounced [ˈwɛdra] ); Medieval Latin : Od(d)era ; Renaissance Latin : Viadrus (invented in 1534). Ptolemy knew

1872-665: The Torah , which had been donated by members of the Chabad-Lubavitch community in Berlin. The Margraviate of Brandenburg's first university was Frankfurt's Alma Mater Viadrina, founded in 1506 by Joachim I Nestor, Elector of Brandenburg . An early chancellor, Bishop Georg von Blumenthal (1490–1550), was a notable opponent of the Protestant Reformation , as he remained a Catholic . Frankfurt also trained

1950-560: The Utraquists . The radicals preached the "sufficientia legis Christi" —the divine law (i.e. the Bible ) is the sole rule and canon for human society, not only in the church, but also in political and civil matters. They rejected therefore, as early as 1416, everything that they believed had no basis in the Bible, such as the veneration of saints and images, fasts , superfluous holidays,

2028-539: The ecumenical Council of Basel on October 15, 1431. The discussions began on 10 January 1432, focusing chiefly on the four articles of Prague . No agreement emerged. After repeated negotiations between the Basel Council and Bohemia, a Bohemian–Moravian state assembly in Prague accepted the " Compactata " of Prague on 30 November 1433. The agreement granted communion in both kinds to all who desired it, but with

2106-516: The monastic clergy, and his desire to return the Church to its supposed condition during the time of the apostles. This required the removal of the existing hierarchy and the secularisation of ecclesiastical possessions. Above all they clung to Wycliffe's doctrine of the Lord's Supper , denying transubstantiation , and this is the principal point by which they are distinguished from the moderate party,

2184-479: The 10th century, almost the entire course of the Oder River found itself within the borders of the newly formed Polish state, with the exception of the area around the source of the river, which was under Bohemian rule. Several important cities of medieval Poland developed along the Oder, including Opole which became the capital of Upper Silesia , Wrocław which became the capital of Lower Silesia and one of

2262-543: The 13th century as a West Slavic settlement. During its history, it was successively part of the Kingdom of Poland , the Margraviate of Brandenburg , the Bohemian Crown , Prussia and Germany. After World War II , the eastern part of Frankfurt became again part of Poland under the terms of the Potsdam Agreement and was renamed to Słubice , while the western part of Frankfurt became a border city of

2340-744: The Berlin waterways again. Near its mouth the Oder reaches the city of Szczecin , a major maritime port. The river finally reaches the Baltic Sea through the Szczecin Lagoon and the river mouth at Świnoujście . Under Germania Magna , the river was known to the Romans as the Viadrus or Viadua in Classical Latin , as it was a branch of the Amber Road from the Baltic Sea to the Roman Empire . In Germanic languages, including English, it

2418-751: The Brethren were located in Lissa ( Leszno ) in Poland, which had historically strong ties with the Czechs, and in small, isolated groups in Moravia. Some, among them Jan Amos Comenius , fled to western Europe, mainly the Low Countries . A settlement of Hussites in Herrnhut , Saxony, now Germany, in 1722 caused the emergence of the Moravian Church . In 1918, as a result of World War I , the Czech lands regained independence from Austria-Hungary controlled by

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2496-461: The Oder and Havel. After completion of the more straight Oder–Havel Canal in 1914, its economic relevance decreased. The earliest important undertaking to modify the river to improve navigation was initiated by Frederick the Great , who recommended diverting the river into a new and straight channel in the swampy tract known as Oderbruch near Küstrin ( Kostrzyn nad Odrą ). The work was carried out in

2574-686: The Oder, separating the Dammvorstadt on the eastern bank – which became the Polish town of Słubice – from the rest of Frankfurt. While part of communist East Germany , Frankfurt was administered within Bezirk Frankfurt (Oder) . It became part of the reconstituted state of Brandenburg with German reunification in 1990. In the post-communist era, following the collapse of its main employer VEB Halbleiterwerk , Frankfurt has suffered from high unemployment and low economic growth . Its population has fallen significantly from around 87,000 at

2652-694: The Roman Catholics and destroyed the Taborites at the Battle of Lipany on 30 May 1434. From that time, the Taborites lost their importance, though the Hussite movement would continue in Poland for another five years, until the Royalist forces of Poland defeated the Polish Hussites at the Battle of Grotniki . The state assembly of Jihlava in 1436 confirmed the "Compactata" and gave them

2730-416: The Roman Church. This he refused, leading to the Bohemian–Hungarian War (1468–1478) . His successor, King Vladislaus II , favored the Roman Catholics and proceeded against some zealous clergymen of the Calixtines. The troubles of the Utraquists increased from year to year. In 1485, at the Diet of Kutná Hora , an agreement was made between the Roman Catholics and Utraquists that lasted for thirty-one years. It

2808-403: The Taborites now went over to the party of the Utraquists; the rest joined the "Brothers of the Law of Christ" ( Latin : "Unitas Fratrum" ) (see history of the Moravian Church ). In 1462, Pope Pius II declared the "Compacta" null and void, prohibited communion in both kinds, and acknowledged King George of Podebrady as king on condition that he would promise an unconditional harmony with

2886-410: The West to take up arms against the Hussites, declaring a crusade, and twelve years of warfare followed. The Hussites initially campaigned defensively, but after 1427 they assumed the offensive. Apart from their religious aims, they fought for the national interests of the Czechs. The moderate and radical parties were united, and they not only repelled the attacks of the army of crusaders but crossed

2964-462: The battle against Hus's teaching after the enactments of the Council of Constance . He wished to eradicate completely the doctrine of Hus, for which purpose the co-operation of King Wenceslaus had to be obtained. In 1418, Sigismund succeeded in winning his brother over to the standpoint of the council by pointing out the inevitability of a religious war if the heretics in Bohemia found further protection. Hussite statesmen and army leaders had to leave

3042-460: The borders into neighboring countries. On March 23, 1430, Joan of Arc dictated a letter that threatened to lead a crusading army against the Hussites unless they returned to the Catholic faith, but her capture by English and Burgundian troops two months later would keep her from carrying out this threat. Eventually, the opponents of the Hussites found themselves forced to consider an amicable settlement. The Hussites were sent an invitation to attend

3120-507: The central identifying symbol of the Hussite movement. If the king had joined, its resolutions would have received the sanction of the law; but he refused, and approached the newly formed Roman Catholic League of lords, whose members pledged themselves to support the king, the Catholic Church , and the council. The prospect of a civil war began to emerge. Prior to becoming pope, Martin V , then known as Cardinal Otto of Colonna had attacked Hus with relentless severity. He energetically resumed

3198-401: The country and Roman Catholic priests were reinstated. These measures caused a general commotion which hastened the death of King Wenceslaus by a paralytic stroke in 1419. His heir was Sigismund. The news of the death of King Wenceslaus in 1419 produced a great commotion among the people of Prague. A revolution swept over the country: churches and monasteries were destroyed, and church property

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3276-475: The course of events in Constance . His wife openly favoured the friends of Hus. Avowed Hussites stood at the head of the government. A league was formed by certain lords, who pledged themselves to protect the free preaching of the Gospel upon all their possessions and estates and to obey the power of the Bishops only where their orders accorded with the injunctions of the Bible . The university would arbitrate any disputed points. The entire Hussite nobility joined

3354-402: The dissolved camps in Żabikowo and Świecko to the Sachsenhausen concentration camp passed through the city. There was no fighting for the town in 1945 during World War II even though the town was declared a fortress ( Festung ) in an attempt to block the Red Army 's route to Berlin . The nearly empty town was burned down by the Red Army. The postwar East German–Polish border ran along

3432-456: The end of the Hussite Wars (1420–1434), the now Catholic -supported Utraquist side came out victorious from conflict with the Taborites and became the dominant Hussite group in Bohemia. Catholics and Utraquists were given legal equality in Bohemia after the religious peace of Kutná Hora in 1485. Bohemia and Moravia , or what is now the territory of the Czech Republic , remained majority Hussite for two centuries until Roman Catholicism

3510-413: The industrial sites around the Wrocław area. Further downstream the river is free-flowing, passing the towns of Eisenhüttenstadt (where the Oder–Spree Canal connects the river to the Spree in Berlin) and Frankfurt upon the Oder . Downstream of Frankfurt the river Warta forms a navigable connection with Poznań and Bydgoszcz for smaller vessels. At Hohensaaten the Oder–Havel Canal connects with

3588-400: The league. Other than verbal protest of the council's treatment of Hus, there was little evidence of any actions taken by the nobility until 1417. At that point several of the lesser nobility and some barons, signatories of the 1415 protest letter, removed Catholic priests from their parishes, replacing them with priests willing to give communion in both wine and bread. The chalice of wine became

3666-531: The main cities and ports of the Pomerania region and the entire southern coast of the Baltic Sea. From the 13th century on, the Oder valley was central to German Ostsiedlung , making the towns on its banks German-speaking over the following centuries. Over time, control over parts of the river was taken from Poland by other countries, including the Margraviate of Brandenburg and the Kingdom of Bohemia , and later also by Hungary , Sweden , Prussia and Germany . The Finow Canal , first built in 1605, connects

3744-418: The main cities of the entire Kingdom of Poland (Latin: sedes regni principales ), and Lubusz (now Lebus) which became the capital of the Lubusz Land , nicknamed "the key to the Kingdom of Poland" in medieval chronicles. Wrocław and Lubusz became seats of some of the oldest Catholic bishoprics of Poland, founded in 1000 ( Wrocław ) and 1125 ( Lubusz ). Located near the mouth of the river, Szczecin became one of

3822-413: The modern Oder as the Συήβος ( Suebos ; Latin Suevus ), a name apparently derived from the Suebi , a Germanic people. While he also refers to an outlet in the area as the Οὐιαδούα Ouiadoua (or Οὐιλδούα Ouildoua ; Latin Viadua or Vildua ), this was apparently the modern Wieprza , as it was said to be a third of the distance between the Suebos and Vistula . The name Suebos may be preserved in

3900-406: The modern name of the Świna river (German Swine ), an outlet from the Szczecin Lagoon to the Baltic. The Oder is 840 kilometres (522 miles) long: 112 km (70 miles) in the Czech Republic, 726 km (451 miles) in Poland (including 187 km (116 miles) on the border between Germany and Poland). It is the third longest river located within Poland (after the Vistula and Warta); however, it

3978-540: The most important forerunners of the Protestant Reformation . This predominantly religious movement was propelled by social issues and strengthened Czech national awareness. The Council of Constance lured Jan Hus in with a letter of indemnity, then tried him for heresy and put him to death at the stake on 6 July 1415. The arrest of Hus in 1414 caused considerable resentment in Czech lands . The authorities of both countries appealed urgently and repeatedly to King Sigismund to release Jan Hus. When news of his death at

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4056-399: The northern parts of the Kingdom of Hungary (now Slovakia ), but was rejected and gained infamy for the plundering behaviour of the Hussite soldiers. There were also very small temporary communities in Poland-Lithuania and Transylvania which moved to Bohemia after being confronted with religious intolerance. It was a regional movement that failed to expand farther. Hussites emerged as

4134-430: The noted archbishop Albert of Brandenburg around 1510, who also became a vocal opponent of the Reformation. The university was closed in 1811, and its assets divided between two new universities founded under King Frederick William III : Frederick William University of Berlin, presently Humboldt University ; and the Silesian Frederick William University in Breslau , presently the University of Wrocław . The university

4212-429: The oath, intercession for the dead, auricular Confession , indulgences , the sacraments of Confirmation and the Anointing of the Sick , and chose their own priests. The radicals had their gathering-places all around the country. Their first armed assault fell on the small town of Ústí, on the river Lužnice, south of Prague (today's Sezimovo Ústí ). However, as the place did not prove to be defensible, they settled in

4290-415: The port of Szczecin, with the high Brandenburgian customs duties on Polish goods lowered in the early 17th century. In April 1631, during the Thirty Years' War , Frankfurt was the site of the Battle of Frankfurt an der Oder between the Swedish Empire and the Holy Roman Empire . After a two-day siege, Swedish forces, supported by Scottish auxiliaries, stormed the town and destroyed many buildings, e.g.

4368-401: The recreational area Lake Helenesee . The name of the city makes reference to the Franks , and means Ford of the Franks , and there appears a Gallic rooster in the coats of arms of Frankfurt and Słubice. The official name Frankfurt (Oder) and the older Frankfurt an der Oder are used to distinguish it from the larger city of Frankfurt am Main . The city's recorded history began in

4446-405: The remains of an older town upon a hill not far away and founded a new town, which they named Tábor (a play on words, as "Tábor" not only meant "camp" or "encampment" in Czech , but is also the traditional name of the mountain on which Jesus was expected to return; see Mark 13 ); hence they were called Táborité ( Taborites ). They comprised the essential force of the radical Hussites. Their aim

4524-439: The removal of permanent border controls. In March 2008, the Jewish community of Frankfurt celebrated its first Torah dedication since the Holocaust . The procession of the new Torah scroll began from the spot where the town's Frankfurter Synagogue stood prior to World War II, 500 meters from Germany's current border with Poland. Celebrants marched with the scroll into the town's Chabad -Lubavitch centre, where they danced with

4602-510: The results were as follows: The city council governs the city alongside the mayor. The most recent city council election was held on 9 June 2024, and the results were as follows: Frankfurt (Oder) is twinned with: In recent years, Frankfurt has been the setting for several notable German films: Oder The Oder ( / ˈ oʊ d ər / OH -dər , German: [ˈoːdɐ] ; Czech , Lower Sorbian and Polish : Odra ; Upper Sorbian : Wódra [ˈwʊtʁa] )

4680-412: The river Oder with its heavy traffic, the town housed the second-largest annual trade fair ( Messe ) of the German Reich , surpassed only by that in Leipzig . One of the main escape routes for insurgents of the unsuccessful Polish November Uprising from partitioned Poland to the Great Emigration led through the city. In 1842, the Berlin–Frankfurt (Oder) railway was opened. The SS Einsatzgruppe VI

4758-417: The rivers Albis (Elbe) , Oder, and Vistula . Centuries later, after Germanic tribes, the Bavarian Geographer (ca. 845) specified the following West Slavic peoples: Sleenzane , Dadosesani, Opolanie , Lupiglaa, and Golensizi in Silesia and Wolinians with Pyrzycans in Western Pomerania . A document of the Bishopric of Prague (1086) mentions Zlasane, Trebovyane, Poborane, and Dedositze in Silesia. In

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4836-399: The sanction of law. This accomplished the reconciliation of Bohemia with Rome and the Western Church, and at last Sigismund obtained possession of the Bohemian crown. His reactionary measures caused a ferment in the whole country, but he died in 1437. The state assembly in Prague rejected Wyclif's doctrine of the Lord's Supper, which was obnoxious to the Utraquists , as heresy in 1444. Most of

4914-438: The time of German reunification in 1990. The only remnant of semiconductor technology industries in Frankfurt by 2003 was the Innovations for High Performance Microelectronics (IHPM) institute. Today, the towns of Frankfurt and Słubice have friendly relations and run several common projects and facilities. Poland joined the European Union on 1 May 2004, and implemented the Schengen Agreement on 21 December 2007 leading to

4992-477: The town. The town fell again to Brandenburg in 1324. In the Late Middle Ages , the town dominated the river trade between Wrocław and Szczecin . From 1373 to 1415, along with Brandenburg, it was part of the Lands of the Bohemian Crown . In 1430, Frankfurt joined the Hanseatic League . In 1432, the Czech Hussites captured the town. In the 16th century, many Polish exports, including grain, wood, ash, tar and hemp, were floated from western Poland via Frankfurt to

5070-437: The toxin was not present in samples taken after 1 August. Main section: Szczecin Lagoon : east: Dziwna (German: Dievenow ) branch (between Wolin Island and mainland Poland): middle: Świna (German: Swine ) branch (between Wolin and Usedom islands): west: Peenestrom ( Peene ) (Polish: Piana ) branch (between Usedom Island and mainland Germany): [REDACTED]   This article incorporates text from

5148-447: The understanding that Christ was entirely present in each kind, though on the condition that the rest of the Hussite reforms would no longer be emphasised. Free preaching was granted conditionally: the Church hierarchy had to approve and place priests, and the power of the bishop must be considered. The article which prohibited the secular power of the clergy was almost reversed. The Taborites refused to conform. The Calixtines united with

5226-441: The university and among the citizens of Prague; they were therefore called the Prague Party, but also Calixtines (Latin calix chalice) or Utraquists (Latin utraque both), because they emphasized the second article of Prague, and the chalice became their emblem. The more radical parties, the Taborites , Orebites and Orphans , identified itself more boldly with the doctrines of John Wycliffe , sharing his passionate hatred of

5304-402: The whole hierarchical and liturgical order of the Church untouched. Their programme is contained in the Four Articles of Prague , which were written by Jacob of Mies and agreed upon in July 1420, promulgated in the Latin , Czech , and German languages. The full text is about two pages long, but they are often summarized as: The views of the moderate Hussites were widely represented at

5382-423: The years 1746–53, a large tract of marshland being brought under cultivation, a considerable detour cut off and the mainstream successfully confined to a canal. In the late 19th century, three additional alterations were made to the waterway: By the Treaty of Versailles , navigation on the Oder became subject to International Commission of the Oder. Following the articles 363 and 364 of the Treaty Czechoslovakia

5460-493: Was and still is called the Oder , written in medieval Latin documents as Odera or Oddera . Most notably, it was mentioned in the Dagome iudex , which described territory of the Duchy of Poland under Duke Mieszko I in A.D. 990, as a part of Poland's western frontier, however, in most sections the border ran west of the river. Before Slavs settled along its banks, the Oder was an important trade route, and towns in Germania were documented along with many tribes living between

5538-426: Was entitled to lease in Stettin (now Szczecin) its own section in the harbor, then called Tschechoslowakische Zone im Hafen Stettin . The contract of lease between Czechoslovakia and Germany , and supervised by the United Kingdom , was signed on 16 February 1929, and would end in 2028, however, after 1945 Czechoslovakia did not regain this legal position, de facto abolished in 1938–39. At the 1943 Tehran Conference

5616-542: Was formed in the town before it entered several Polish cities, including Poznań , Kalisz and Leszno , to commit various crimes against Poles during the German invasion of Poland , which started World War II . During World War II the Germans brought numerous forced laborers , both men and women, from Poland and the Soviet Union to the town. In early 1945, death marches of prisoners of various nationalities from

5694-734: Was only later, at the Diet of 1512, that the equal rights of both religions were permanently established. The appearance of Martin Luther was hailed by the Utraquist clergy, and Luther himself was astonished to find so many points of agreement between the doctrines of Hus and his own. But not all Utraquists approved of the German Reformation ; a schism arose among them, and many returned to the Roman doctrine, while other elements had organised

5772-728: Was refounded in 1991 with a European emphasis as the Viadrina European University , in close cooperation with the Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań; they jointly run the Collegium Polonicum in Słubice. The Frankfurt (Oder) Bahnhof is a station served by the Berlin-Warszawa-Express and has regular regional connections to Magdeburg and Cottbus . Within the city, there is a network of five tram lines . 1. FC Frankfurt

5850-576: Was reimposed by the Holy Roman Emperor following the 1620 Battle of White Mountain during the Thirty Years' War . The Hussite tradition continues in the Moravian Church , Unity of the Brethren and the refounded Czechoslovak Hussite churches. The Hussite movement began in the Kingdom of Bohemia and quickly spread throughout the remaining Lands of the Bohemian Crown , including Moravia and Silesia . It also made inroads into

5928-638: Was seized by the Hussite nobility. It was then, and remained till much later, in question whether Bohemia was a hereditary or an elective monarchy, especially as the line through which Sigismund claimed the throne had accepted that the Kingdom of Bohemia was an elective monarchy elected by the nobles, and thus the regent of the kingdom ( Čeněk of Wartenberg ) also explicitly stated that Sigismund had not been elected as reason for Sigismund's claim to not be accepted. Sigismund could get possession of "his" kingdom only by force of arms. Pope Martin V called upon Catholics of

6006-500: Was to be determined at a future peace conference. A part of the German population east of these two rivers was evacuated by the Nazis during the war or fled from the approaching Red Army . After the war, the remaining 8 million Germans were expelled from these territories by the Polish and Soviet administrations. East Germany confirmed the border with Poland under Soviet pressure in the Treaty of Zgorzelec in 1950. West Germany , after

6084-485: Was to destroy the enemies of the law of God, and to defend his kingdom (which had been expected to come in a short time) by the sword. Their end-of-world visions did not come true. In order to preserve their settlement and spread their ideology, they waged bloody wars; in the beginning they observed a strict regime, inflicting the severest punishment equally for murder, as for less severe faults as adultery, perjury and usury , and also tried to apply rigid Biblical standards to

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