151-749: The Kallawaya are an indigenous group living in the Andes of Bolivia . They live in the Bautista Saavedra Province and Muñecas Province of the La Paz Department but are best known for being an itinerant group of traditional healers that travel on foot to reach their patients. According to the UNESCO Safeguarding Project, the Kallawaya can be traced to the pre- Inca period as direct descendants of
302-588: A neoliberal structuring. The reforms and economic restructuring were strongly opposed by certain segments of society, which instigated frequent and sometimes violent protests, particularly in La Paz and the Chapare coca -growing region, from 1994 through 1996. The indigenous population of the Andean region was not able to benefit from government reforms. During this time, the umbrella labor-organization of Bolivia,
453-466: A new constitution changed the country's official name to "Plurinational State of Bolivia" to reflect the multi-ethnic nature of the country and the strengthened rights of Bolivia's indigenous peoples under the new constitution. The region now known as Bolivia had been occupied for over 2,500 years when the Aymara arrived; however, present-day Aymara associate themselves with the ancient civilization of
604-705: A child hero of the Pacific War, 1879–1884), an aid paid until the end of secondary school to parents whose children are in school in order to combat school dropout, and the Single Health System, which since 2018 has offered all Bolivians free medical care. The reforms adopted made the Bolivian economic system the most successful and stable in the region. Between 2006 and 2019, GDP grew from $ 9 billion to over $ 40 billion, real wages increased, GDP per capita tripled, foreign exchange reserves rose, inflation
755-591: A clash with the Bolivian army." Rodriguez said the US government had wanted Che in Panama, and "I could have tried to falsify the command to the troops, and got Che to Panama as the US government said they had wanted", but that he had chosen to "let history run its course" as desired by Bolivia. Elections in 1979 and 1981 were inconclusive and marked by fraud. There were coups d'état , counter-coups, and caretaker governments. In 1980, General Luis García Meza Tejada carried out
906-646: A fourth, and the 2016 Bolivian constitutional referendum asked voters to override the constitution and allow Evo Morales to run for an additional term in office. Morales narrowly lost the referendum; however, in 2017 his party then petitioned the Bolivian Constitutional Court to override the constitution on the basis that the American Convention on Human Rights made term limits a human rights violation. The Inter-American Court of Human Rights determined that term limits are not
1057-555: A higher potential for larger, high-magnitude earthquakes in the future. The mountain range is also a source of shallow intraplate earthquakes within the South American Plate. The largest such earthquake (as of 2024) struck Peru in 1947 and measured M s 7.5. In the Peruvian Andes, these earthquakes display normal ( 1946 ), strike-slip (1976), and reverse ( 1969 , 1983) mechanisms. The Amazonian Craton
1208-433: A human rights violation in 2018; however, once again the Bolivian Constitutional Court ruled that Morales has permission to run for a fourth term in the 2019 elections, and this permission was not retracted. "[T]he country's highest court overruled the constitution, scrapping term limits altogether for every office. Morales can now run for a fourth term in 2019 – and for every election thereafter." The revenues generated by
1359-566: A joint ice stream network. The Andes' dendritic glacier arms, components of valley glaciers, were up to 112.5 km (69.9 mi) long and over 1,250 m (4,101 ft) thick, and spanned a vertical distance of 5,150 m (16,896 ft). The climatic glacier snowline (ELA) was lowered from 4,600 m (15,092 ft) to 3,200 m (10,499 ft) at glacial times. The Andean region cuts across several natural and floristic regions, due to its extension, from Caribbean Venezuela to cold, windy, and wet Cape Horn passing through
1510-427: A mixture of indigenous and exotic plant species, as studies have shown that about 30 of the known plants in their pharmacopoeia were introduced from Africa, Europe, or South Asia. The Kallawaya base their healing on the belief that the spiritual world and the natural world are connected in the human body. In order for a person to be healthy, they must be in harmony with their surrounding environment. Sickness, therefore,
1661-594: A north–south axis of cultural influences. A long series of cultural development culminated in the expansion of the Inca civilization and Inca Empire in the central Andes during the 15th century. The Incas formed this civilization through imperialistic militarism as well as careful and meticulous governmental management. The government sponsored the construction of aqueducts and roads in addition to pre-existing installations. Some of these constructions still exist today. Devastated by European diseases and by civil war ,
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#17327754573831812-689: A partly-free democracy as of 2023, with a 66/100 score. Modern Bolivia is a charter member of the United Nations (UN), Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), Organization of American States (OAS), Amazon Cooperation Treaty Organization (ACTO), Bank of the South , ALBA , and the Union of South American Nations (USAN). Bolivia remains a developing country , and the second-poorest in South America, though it has slashed poverty rates and now has one of
1963-426: A ruthless and violent coup d'état that did not have popular support. The Bolivian Workers' Center , which tried to resist the putsch, was violently repressed. More than a thousand people were killed in less than a year. Cousin of one of the most important narco-trafficker of the country, Luis García Meza Tejada favors the production of cocaine. He pacified the people by promising to remain in power only for one year. At
2114-685: A series of changes resulting from the Andean orogeny. Parts of the Sunsás Orogen in Amazonian craton disappeared from the surface of the earth, being overridden by the Andes. The Sierras de Córdoba , where the effects of the ancient Pampean orogeny can be observed, owe their modern uplift and relief to the Andean orogeny in the Tertiary . Further south in southern Patagonia , the onset of
2265-553: A subsequent doubling of water prices. On 6 August 2001, Banzer resigned from office after being diagnosed with cancer. He died less than a year later. Vice President Jorge Fernando Quiroga Ramírez completed the final year of his term. In the June 2002 national elections, former President Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada (MNR) placed first with 22.5% of the vote, followed by coca-advocate and native peasant-leader Evo Morales ( Movement Toward Socialism , MAS) with 20.9%. A July agreement between
2416-403: A third term as President of Bolivia. The opposition argued that a third term would be unconstitutional, but the Bolivian Constitutional Court ruled that Morales' first term under the previous constitution did not count towards his term limit. This allowed Evo Morales to run for a third term in 2014, and he was re-elected with 64.22% of the vote. During his third term, Evo Morales began to plan for
2567-477: A tropical climate, valleys with a warm climate, as well as being part of the Andes of South America and its high plateau areas with cold climates, hills and snow-capped mountains, with a wide biome in each city and region. It includes part of the Pantanal , the largest tropical wetland in the world, along its eastern border. It is bordered by Brazil to the north and east, Paraguay to the southeast, Argentina to
2718-634: A typical location for calc-alkalic and subduction volcanism, the Andean Volcanic Belt has a large range of volcano-tectonic settings, such as rift systems, extensional zones, transpressional faults , subduction of mid-ocean ridges , and seamount chains apart from a large range of crustal thicknesses and magma ascent paths, and different amount of crustal assimilations. The Andes Mountains host large ore and salt deposits, and some of their eastern fold and thrust belts act as traps for commercially exploitable amounts of hydrocarbons . In
2869-536: A whole glacier in the ablation area or in the accumulation area . In the high Andes of Central Chile and Mendoza Province , rock glaciers are larger and more common than glaciers; this is due to the high exposure to solar radiation . In these regions, glaciers occur typically at higher altitudes than rock glaciers. The lowest active rock glaciers occur at 900 m a.s.l. in Aconcagua . Though precipitation increases with height, there are semiarid conditions in
3020-483: A wholly independent state. Sucre opted to create a brand new state and on 6 August 1825, with local support, named it in honor of Simón Bolívar. The original name was Republic of Bolívar. Some days later, congressman Manuel Martín Cruz proposed: "If from Romulus , Rome, then from Bolívar , Bolivia" (Spanish: Si de Rómulo, Roma; de Bolívar, Bolivia ). The name was approved by the Republic on 3 October 1825. In 2009,
3171-410: Is multiethnic , including Amerindians , Mestizos , Europeans , Asians , Africans , Arabs , Jews and some other mixtures throughout. Spanish is the official and predominant language, although 36 indigenous languages also have official status, of which the most commonly spoken are Guaraní , Aymara , and Quechua . Well before Spanish colonization , the third part of the high region of Bolivia
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#17327754573833322-475: Is 8,900 km (5,530 mi) long and 200 to 700 km (124 to 435 mi) wide (widest between 18°S and 20°S latitude ) and has an average height of about 4,000 m (13,123 ft). The Andes extend from South to North through seven South American countries: Argentina , Chile , Bolivia , Peru , Ecuador , Colombia , and Venezuela . Along their length, the Andes are split into several ranges, separated by intermediate depressions . The Andes are
3473-561: Is a result of the subduction of the Nazca Plate and Antarctic Plate underneath the South American Plate. The belt is subdivided into four main volcanic zones that are separated from each other by volcanic gaps. The volcanoes of the belt are diverse in terms of activity style, products, and morphology. While some differences can be explained by which volcanic zone a volcano belongs to, there are significant differences inside volcanic zones and even between neighboring volcanoes. Despite being
3624-551: Is actively underthrusted beneath the sub-Andes region of Peru, producing thrust faults. In Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru, thrust faulting occurs along the sub-Andes due in response to compression brought on by subduction, while in the high Andes, normal faulting occurs in response to gravitational forces. In the extreme south, a major transform fault separates Tierra del Fuego from the small Scotia Plate . The Andes range has many active volcanoes distributed in four volcanic zones separated by areas of inactivity. The Andean volcanism
3775-471: Is natural, or the result of clearing which began during the Incan period. Regardless, in modern times , the clearance has accelerated, and the trees are now considered highly endangered , with some believing that as little as 10% of the original woodland remains. The Andes are rich in fauna: With almost 1,000 species, of which roughly 2/3 are endemic to the region, the Andes are the most important region in
3926-400: Is no evidence as to whether this name is strictly a Quechua or Aymara word, a word of Puquina origin, or a word derived from the Kallawaya themselves. Kallawaya doctors ( médicos Kallawaya ) are known as the naturopathic healers of Inca kings, and as keepers of scientific knowledge. Kallawaya women are often midwives, treating gynecological disorders, and pediatric patients, but it is
4077-693: Is now the Bolivian Andes, and extending its control into the fringes of the Amazon basin. The Spanish conquest of the Inca empire began in 1524 and was mostly completed by 1533. The territory now called Bolivia was known as Charcas, and was under the authority of Spain. Local government came from the Audiencia de Charcas located in Chuquisaca (La Plata—modern Sucre ). Founded in 1545 as a mining town, Potosí soon produced fabulous wealth, becoming
4228-622: Is that it derives from the Quechua word anti "east" as in Antisuyu (Quechua for "east region"), one of the four regions of the Inca Empire . The term cordillera comes from the Spanish word cordel "rope" and is used as a descriptive name for several contiguous sections of the Andes, as well as the entire Andean range, and the combined mountain chain along the western part of
4379-576: Is the fifth-largest country in South America after Brazil, Argentina, Peru and Colombia, and, alongside Paraguay, is one of two landlocked countries in the Americas. It is the 27th largest country in the world , the largest landlocked country in the Southern Hemisphere , and the seventh largest landlocked country on earth, after Kazakhstan, Mongolia, Chad, Niger, Mali, and Ethiopia. The country's population, estimated at 12 million,
4530-1594: Is the largest city of all Andean countries. It is the seat of the Andean Community of Nations . La Paz , Bolivia 's seat of government, is the highest capital city in the world, at an elevation of approximately 3,650 m (11,975 ft). Parts of the La Paz conurbation, including the city of El Alto , extend up to 4,200 m (13,780 ft). Other cities in or near the Andes include Bariloche , Catamarca , Jujuy , Mendoza , Salta , San Juan , Tucumán , and Ushuaia in Argentina; Calama and Rancagua in Chile; Cochabamba , Oruro , Potosí , Sucre , Tarija , and Yacuiba in Bolivia; Arequipa , Cajamarca , Cusco , Huancayo , Huánuco , Huaraz , Juliaca , and Puno in Peru; Ambato , Cuenca , Ibarra , Latacunga , Loja , Riobamba , and Tulcán in Ecuador; Armenia , Cúcuta , Bucaramanga , Duitama , Ibagué , Ipiales , Manizales , Palmira , Pasto , Pereira , Popayán , Sogamoso , Tunja , and Villavicencio in Colombia; and Barquisimeto , La Grita , Mérida , San Cristóbal , Tovar, Trujillo , and Valera in Venezuela. The cities of Caracas , Valencia , and Maracay are in
4681-446: Is the result of a disconnection between that person and their natural surroundings. To maintain natural balances, Kallawaya healing practices are based on the prevention, treatment, and curing of both physical and mental illnesses. However, these practices can vary depending on where the Kallawaya treat their patients. In the rural villages that they frequent, preventative medicine is more common, while reactive treatments are more common in
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4832-622: The Acre territory, and the War of the Pacific (1879), in which Chile seized the country's Pacific coastal region. Bolivia experienced a succession of military and civilian governments until Hugo Banzer led a US-backed coup d'état in 1971, replacing the socialist government of Juan José Torres with a military dictatorship . Banzer's regime cracked down on left-wing and socialist opposition parties, and other perceived forms of dissent, resulting in
4983-404: The Andean cock-of-the-rock , while mixed-species flocks dominated by tanagers and furnariids are commonly seen—in contrast to several vocal but typically- cryptic species of wrens , tapaculos , and antpittas . A number of species such as the royal cinclodes and white-browed tit-spinetail are associated with Polylepis , and consequently also threatened . The Andes Mountains form
5134-721: The Asia-Pacific region. The Andes are the result of tectonic plate processes extending during the Mesozoic and Tertiary eras, caused by the subduction of oceanic crust beneath the South American Plate as the Nazca Plate and South American Plate converge. These processes were accelerated by the effects of climate. As the uplift of the Andes created a rain shadow on the western fringes of Chile, ocean currents and prevailing winds carried moisture away from
5285-576: The Bolivian Constituent Assembly to begin writing a new constitution aimed at giving more power to the indigenous majority. 2009 marked the creation of a new constitution and the renaming of the country to the Plurinational State of Bolivia. The previous constitution did not allow a consecutive reelection of a president, but the new constitution allowed for just one reelection, starting the dispute if Evo Morales
5436-620: The Central Obrera Boliviana (COB), became increasingly unable to effectively challenge government policy. A teachers' strike in 1995 was defeated because the COB could not marshal the support of many of its members, including construction and factory workers. In the 1997 elections, General Hugo Banzer , leader of the Nationalist Democratic Action party (ADN) and former dictator (1971–1978), won 22% of
5587-718: The Chaco War (1932–1935), where Bolivia lost a great part of the Gran Chaco region in dispute, marked a turning-point. On 7 April 1943, Bolivia entered World War II , joining part of the Allies , which caused president Enrique Peñaranda to declare war on the Axis powers of Germany , Italy and Japan . In 1945, Bolivia became a founding member of the United Nations. The Revolutionary Nationalist Movement (MNR),
5738-637: The Living Tongues Institute for Endangered Languages . In 2006, a group of young Kallawayan healers founded the non-profit organization ‘’Kallawayas sin Fronteras’’(KASFRO) in the Cochabamba Department of Bolivia . The organization was founded on the premise of preserving the heritage of the Kallawaya people as they transition from small villages to larger cities. They define their activities on four goals: to promote
5889-632: The Organization of American States (OAS) released a preliminary report concluding several irregularities in the election, though these findings were heavily disputed. The New York Times reported on 7 June 2020 that the OAS analysis immediately after the 20 October election was flawed yet fuelled "a chain of events that changed the South American nation's history". After weeks of protests, Morales resigned on national television shortly after
6040-704: The Orinoco Basin , the Amazon Basin , the Madre de Dios Basin, and the Gran Chaco , that separate the Andes from the ancient cratons in eastern South America. In the south, the Andes share a long boundary with the former Patagonia Terrane . To the west, the Andes end at the Pacific Ocean , although the Peru-Chile trench can be considered their ultimate western limit. From a geographical approach,
6191-671: The Peru-Bolivian Confederation , with de Santa Cruz as the Supreme Protector . Following tension between the Confederation and Chile, Chile declared war on 28 December 1836. Argentina separately declared war on the Confederation on 9 May 1837. The Peruvian-Bolivian forces achieved several major victories during the War of the Confederation : the defeat of the Argentine expedition and the defeat of
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6342-473: The Plan de Todos , which led to the decentralization of government, introduction of intercultural bilingual education , implementation of agrarian legislation, and privatization of state owned businesses. The plan explicitly stated that Bolivian citizens would own a minimum of 51% of enterprises; under the plan, most state-owned enterprises (SOEs), though not mines, were sold. This privatization of SOEs led to
6493-532: The Tiwanaku and Mollo cultures , meaning their existence has lasted approximately 1,000 years. They are known to have performed complex procedures like brain surgery alongside their continuous use of medicinal plants as early as 700 AD. Most famously, they are known to have helped to save thousands of lives during the construction of the Panama Canal , in which they used traditional plant remedies to treat
6644-662: The Tiwanaku Empire , which had its capital at Tiwanaku , in Western Bolivia. The capital city of Tiwanaku dates-back as early as 1500 BC, when it was a small, agriculturally-based village. The Aymara community grew to urban proportions between AD 600 and AD 800, becoming an important regional power in the southern Andes . According to early estimates, the city covered approximately 6.5 square kilometers (2.5 square miles) at its peak, and had between 15,000 and 30,000 inhabitants. However, in 1996, satellite imaging
6795-582: The Venezuelan Coastal Range , which is a debatable extension of the Andes at the northern extremity of South America. Cities and large towns are connected with asphalt -paved roads, while smaller towns are often connected by dirt roads, which may require a four-wheel-drive vehicle. The rough terrain has historically put the costs of building highways and railroads that cross the Andes out of reach of most neighboring countries, even with modern civil engineering practices. For example,
6946-626: The War of the Pacific between Chile and the allied Bolivia and Peru, in a diplomatic deal to keep Peru out of the war. The Chilean Army and Chilean Navy defeated the combined forces of Bolivia and Peru, and Chile took over Bolivia's only province on the Pacific Coast, some land from Peru that was returned to Peru decades later. Bolivia has been completely landlocked ever since. It mostly uses seaports in eastern Argentina and Uruguay for international trade because its diplomatic relations with Chile have been suspended since 1978. Because of
7097-489: The malaria epidemic. Some historical sources even cite the Kallawayas as the first to use quinine to prevent and control malaria . In 2012, there were 11,662 Kallawaya throughout Bolivia. According to Enrique Oblitas Poblete , a Bolivian ethnobotanical specialist, Kallawaya may be a corruption of khalla-wayai ("beginning of a drink offering") or k'alla or k'alli wayai ("entrance into priesthood"). However, there
7248-483: The rodent order, inhabit the Andes' alpine regions. The Andean condor , the largest bird of its kind in the Western Hemisphere , occurs throughout much of the Andes but generally in very low densities. Other animals found in the relatively open habitats of the high Andes include the huemul , cougar , foxes in the genus Pseudalopex , and, for birds, certain species of tinamous (notably members of
7399-524: The state of Acre , in the Acre War , important because this region was known for its production of rubber. Peasants and the Bolivian army fought briefly but after a few victories, and facing the prospect of a total war against Brazil, it was forced to sign the Treaty of Petrópolis in 1903, in which Bolivia lost this rich territory. Popular myth has it that Bolivian president Mariano Melgarejo (1864–71) traded
7550-748: The Andean orogeny caused the Magallanes Basin to evolve from being an extensional back-arc basin in the Mesozoic to being a compressional foreland basin in the Cenozoic . Tectonic forces above the subduction zone along the entire west coast of South America where the Nazca Plate and a part of the Antarctic Plate are sliding beneath the South American Plate continue to produce an ongoing orogenic event resulting in minor to major earthquakes and volcanic eruptions to this day. Many high-magnitude earthquakes have been recorded in
7701-405: The Andean peoples are those of the Quechua and Aymara language families. Woodbine Parish and Joseph Barclay Pentland surveyed a large part of the Bolivian Andes from 1826 to 1827. In modern times, the largest cities in the Andes are Bogotá , with a metropolitan population of over ten million, and Santiago , Medellín , Cali , and Quito . Lima is a coastal city adjacent to the Andes and
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#17327754573837852-405: The Andes are tobacco and potatoes . The high-altitude Polylepis forests and woodlands are found in the Andean areas of Colombia , Ecuador , Peru , Bolivia , and Chile . These trees, by locals referred to as Queñua, Yagual, and other names, can be found at altitudes of 4,500 m (14,760 ft) above sea level. It remains unclear if the patchy distribution of these forests and woodlands
8003-491: The Andes are considered to have their western boundaries marked by the appearance of coastal lowlands and less-rugged topography. The Andes also contain large quantities of iron ore located in many mountains within the range. The Andean orogen has a series of bends or oroclines . The Bolivian Orocline is a seaward-concave bending in the coast of South America and the Andes Mountains at about 18° S. At this point,
8154-410: The Andes such as the Incas have practiced irrigation techniques for over 6,000 years. Because of the mountain slopes, terracing has been a common practice. Terracing, however, was only extensively employed after Incan imperial expansions to fuel their expanding realm. The potato holds a very important role as an internally-consumed staple crop. Maize was also an important crop for these people, and
8305-471: The Andes varies greatly depending on latitude, altitude, and proximity to the sea. Temperature, atmospheric pressure, and humidity decrease in higher elevations. The southern section is rainy and cool, while the central section is dry. The northern Andes are typically rainy and warm, with an average temperature of 18 °C (64 °F) in Colombia . The climate is known to change drastically in rather short distances. Rainforests exist just kilometers away from
8456-425: The Andes, including Ojos del Salado on the Chile-Argentina border, which rises to 6,893 m (22,615 ft). The Andes are also part of the American Cordillera , a chain of mountain ranges ( cordillera ) that consists of an almost continuous sequence of mountain ranges that form the western "backbone" of the Americas and Antarctica . The etymology of the word Andes has been debated. The majority consensus
8607-457: The Bolivian coast . Chile took control of today's Chuquicamata area, the adjoining rich salitre ( saltpeter ) fields, and the port of Antofagasta among other Bolivian territories. Since independence, Bolivia has lost over half of its territory to neighboring countries. Through diplomatic channels in 1909, it lost the basin of the Madre de Dios River and the territory of the Purus in the Amazon, yielding 250,000 km to Peru. It also lost
8758-402: The Bolivian economy. The public also perceived a significant amount of public sector corruption. These factors contributed to increasing social protests during the second half of Banzer's term. Between January 1999 and April 2000, large-scale protests erupted in Cochabamba , Bolivia's third largest city at the time, in response to the privatization of water resources by foreign companies and
8909-424: The Chilean coast. This caused some areas of the subduction zone to be sediment-starved, causing excess friction and an increased rate of compressed coastal uplift. The main cause of the rise of the Andes is the compression of the western rim of the South American Plate due to the subduction of the Nazca Plate and the Antarctic Plate . To the east, the Andes range is bounded by several sedimentary basins , such as
9060-424: The Chilean government and public rejected the peace treaty. Chile organized a second attack on the Confederation and defeated it in the Battle of Yungay . After this defeat, Santa Cruz resigned and went to exile in Ecuador and then Paris, and the Peruvian-Bolivian Confederation was dissolved. Following the renewed independence of Peru, Peruvian president General Agustín Gamarra invaded Bolivia. On 18 November 1841,
9211-529: The Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces General Williams Kaliman had urged that he do so to restore "peace and stability". Opposition Senator Jeanine Áñez declared herself interim president, claiming constitutional succession after the president, vice president and both head of the legislature chambers. She was confirmed as interim president by the constitutional court who declared her succession to be constitutional and automatic. International politicians, scholars and journalists are divided between describing
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#17327754573839362-453: The Guaraní tribes in defense of their territories in the eastern plains of Bolivia. Spanish conquistadores , arriving from Cusco , Peru, and Asunción , Paraguay, forcibly took control of the region in the 16th century. During the subsequent Spanish colonial period , Bolivia was administered by the Real Audiencia of Charcas . Spain built its empire, in large part, upon the silver that was extracted from Potosí Bolivia's mines , from there,
9513-438: The Incas were defeated in 1532 by an alliance composed of tens of thousands of allies from nations they had subjugated (e.g. Huancas , Chachapoyas , Cañaris ) and a small army of 180 Spaniards led by Francisco Pizarro . One of the few Inca sites the Spanish never found in their conquest was Machu Picchu , which lay hidden on a peak on the eastern edge of the Andes where they descend to the Amazon. The main surviving languages of
9664-631: The Latin American online database “Red de Información Indígena” in order to gain recognition on an international platform. It also has partnered with other indigenous health organizations across Bolivia to gain official recognition from the government, since these groups have not been allowed to join the national health registry. Even though KASFRO has not been allowed to join the registry, there has been recurring international pressure from UNESCO to allow these groups to be recognized. Alongside these activities, KASFRO has been promoting activities that would institutionalize indigenous medicinal practices across
9815-454: The MNR and the fourth-place MIR, which had again been led in the election by former President Jaime Paz Zamora, virtually ensured the election of Sánchez de Lozada in the congressional run-off, and on 6 August he was sworn in for the second time. The MNR platform featured three overarching objectives: economic reactivation (and job creation), anti-corruption, and social inclusion. In 2003, the Bolivian gas conflict broke out. On 12 October 2003,
9966-500: The MNR divided. In 1964, a military junta overthrew President Estenssoro at the outset of his third term. The 1969 death of President René Barrientos Ortuño , a former member of the junta who was elected president in 1966, led to a succession of weak governments. Alarmed by the rising Popular Assembly and the increase in the popularity of President Juan José Torres , the military, the MNR, and others installed Colonel (later General) Hugo Banzer Suárez as president in 1971. He returned to
10117-404: The North and South American continents. The Andes can be divided into three sections: At the northern end of the Andes, the separate Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta range is often, but not always, treated as part of the Northern Andes. The Leeward Antilles islands Aruba , Bonaire , and Curaçao , which lie in the Caribbean Sea off the coast of Venezuela, were formerly thought to represent
10268-402: The Sociedad Boliviana de Medicina Tradicional (SOBOMETRA) in 1984, traditional medicine was finally brought to the attention of the Bolivian government. Legislations passed because of the influence of SOBOMETRA still restricted the Kallawaya until international influence pressured Bolivia to making it legal. This is partially credited to the 2003 declaration of cultural preservation by UNESCO and
10419-413: The Spanish authorities in the Viceroyalty of the Rio de La Plata, but the following year the Spanish American wars of independence raged across the continent. Bolivia was captured and recaptured many times during the war by the royalists and patriots. Buenos Aires sent three military campaigns, all of which were defeated, and eventually limited itself to protecting the national borders at Salta. Bolivia
10570-447: The Spanish empire. Likewise Bolivia was born as a nation in the city of Sucre, considered by its history the constitutional and historical capital of the country since August 6, 1825 sixteen years of fighting would follow before the establishment of the Republic, named for Simón Bolívar . Over the course of the 19th and early 20th centuries, Bolivia lost control of several peripheral territories to neighboring countries, such as Brazil's of
10721-437: The United States. The country's internal situation became unfavorable for such political action on the international stage. After a resurgence of gas protests in 2005, Carlos Mesa attempted to resign in January 2005, but his offer was refused by Congress. On 22 March 2005, after weeks of new street protests from organizations accusing Mesa of bowing to U.S. corporate interests, Mesa again offered his resignation to Congress, which
10872-734: The ancient cratons of eastern South America, by then the South American part of Gondwana . The formation of the modern Andes began with the events of the Triassic , when Pangaea began the breakup that resulted in developing several rifts . The development continued through the Jurassic Period. It was during the Cretaceous Period that the Andes began to take their present form, by the uplifting , faulting , and folding of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks of
11023-539: The ancient cratons to the east. The rise of the Andes has not been constant, as different regions have had different degrees of tectonic stress, uplift, and erosion . Across the 1,000-kilometer-wide (620 mi) Drake Passage lie the mountains of the Antarctic Peninsula south of the Scotia Plate , which appear to be a continuation of the Andes chain. The far east regions of the Andes experience
11174-522: The battle de Ingavi took place, in which the Bolivian Army defeated the Peruvian troops of Gamarra (killed in the battle). After the victory, Bolivia invaded Peru on several fronts. The eviction of the Bolivian troops from the south of Peru would be achieved by the greater availability of material and human resources of Peru; the Bolivian Army did not have enough troops to maintain an occupation. In
11325-634: The best known archaeologies of the Chané-Guaraní culture is found in Samaipata , Bolivia. The largest carved stone in the world was later populated by the Incas and the Spanish, who found the carved archaeology known in Quechua as "El Fuerte." This intervention by different ethnic groups outside their territories was a dispute between Amazonian and Andean cultures, and the Incas were later expelled by
11476-522: The cities that they are allowed to practice. Prior to leaving their homes to heal the sick, the Kallawayas perform a ceremonial dance. The dance and regalia are expressed as the yatiri ("healer"). The choreography is noted for the llantucha of suri , clothing made of rhea feathers and used as protection against the elements while they travel to their patients, carrying khapchos ("male bags") that contain herbs, mixes, and talismans. Groups of musicians perform Kantu , playing drums and pan flutes during
11627-816: The city of Sucre on 25 May 1809 and the Chuquisaca Revolution (Chuquisaca was then the name of the city) is known as the first cry of Freedom in Latin America. That revolution was followed by the La Paz revolution on 16 July 1809. The La Paz revolution marked a complete split with the Spanish government, while the Chuquisaca Revolution established a local independent junta in the name of the Spanish King deposed by Napoleon Bonaparte. Both revolutions were short-lived and defeated by
11778-738: The city of Sucre - Bolivia on May 25, 1809, being the first region of rebellion against the Spanish empire of an entire continent based on the Creole law students of the University San Francisco Xavier de Chuquisaca who inspired by the French revolution arose the first uprising of America, which thanks to this revolution in Sucre, the other Ibero-American countries (Latin Americans) were able to revolt and become independent of
11929-687: The coastline bends is known as the Arica Elbow. Further south lies the Maipo Orocline, a more subtle orocline between 30° S and 38°S with a seaward-concave break in the trend at 33° S. Near the southern tip of the Andes lies the Patagonian Orocline. The western rim of the South American Plate has been the place of several pre-Andean orogenies since at least the late Proterozoic and early Paleozoic , when several terranes and microcontinents collided and amalgamated with
12080-461: The commander Juan Buendía defeated a detachment led by Bolivian colonel José María García, who died in the confrontation. Bolivian troops left Tacna, Arica and Tarapacá in February 1842, retreating towards Moquegua and Puno. The battles of Motoni and Orurillo forced the withdrawal of Bolivian forces occupying Peruvian territory and exposed Bolivia to the threat of counter-invasion. The Treaty of Puno
12231-403: The conversational language of the community is the Quechua language . The ritual Kallawaya language is not taught as the primary; rather, it is taught as a second language in order to initiate a new healer into the community. Because of this, Machaj juyay is considered around the world to be a critically endangered language, which have started to be preserved by non-profit organizations such as
12382-488: The district of Locumba – Tacna, a column of Peruvian soldiers and peasants defeated a Bolivian regiment in the so-called Battle of Los Altos de Chipe (Locumba). In the district of Sama and in Arica, the Peruvian colonel José María Lavayén organized a troop that managed to defeat the Bolivian forces of Colonel Rodríguez Magariños and threaten the port of Arica. In the battle of Tarapacá on 7 January 1842, Peruvian militias formed by
12533-399: The dry climate that reduced the disturbing actions of meteoric water . The dry climate in the central western Andes has also led to the creation of extensive saltpeter deposits which were extensively mined until the invention of synthetic nitrates . Yet another result of the dry climate are the salars of Atacama and Uyuni , the former being the largest source of lithium and the latter
12684-532: The dry season (winter) possible and allows the cultivation of frost-resistant vegetable crops like onion and carrot . The Andes rose to fame for their mineral wealth during the Spanish conquest of South America . Although Andean Amerindian peoples crafted ceremonial jewelry of gold and other metals, the mineralizations of the Andes were first mined on a large scale after the Spanish arrival. Potosí in present-day Bolivia and Cerro de Pasco in Peru were among
12835-513: The east of the country with a diverse non-Andean culture. The sovereign state of Bolivia is a constitutionally unitary state divided into nine departments . Its geography varies as the elevation fluctuates, from the western snow-capped peaks of the Andes to the eastern lowlands, situated within the Amazon basin . One-third of the country is within the Andean mountain range. With an area of 1,098,581 km (424,164 sq mi), Bolivia
12986-462: The economic and social elite followed laissez-faire capitalist policies through the first 30 years of the 20th century. Living conditions of the native people, who constitute most of the population, remained deplorable. With work opportunities limited to primitive conditions in the mines and in large estates having nearly feudal status, they had no access to education, economic opportunity, and political participation . Bolivia's defeat by Paraguay in
13137-464: The election of indigenous president Evo Morales in 2006, who used his influence to reinforce the credibility of naturalistic medicine. The language of their trade is the Kallawaya language , also referred to by the community as Machaj juyay , and is only used in the context of medicinal practices and rituals. The language is thought to be based on basic Quechua grammar alongside vocabulary based on
13288-710: The end of his first term of office (1956–1960). In 1993, Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada was elected president in alliance with the Tupac Katari Revolutionary Liberation Movement , which inspired indigenous-sensitive and multicultural-aware policies. Sánchez de Lozada pursued an aggressive economic and social reform agenda. The most dramatic reform was privatization under the "capitalization" program, under which investors, typically foreign, acquired 50% ownership and management control of public enterprises in return for agreed upon capital investments. In 1993, Sanchez de Lozada introduced
13439-543: The end of the year, he staged a televised rally to claim popular support and announced, " Bueno, me quedo ", or, "All right; I'll stay [in office]". After a military rebellion forced out Meza in 1981, three other military governments in 14 months struggled with Bolivia's growing problems. Unrest forced the military to convoke the Congress , elected in 1980, and allow it to choose a new chief executive. In October 1982, Hernán Siles Zuazo again became president, 22 years after
13590-501: The establishment of the century-long Inca Empire . This all changed in the 16th century, when the Spanish conquistadors colonized the mountains in advance of the mining economy. In the tide of anti-imperialist nationalism, the Andes became the scene of a series of independence wars in the 19th century, when rebel forces swept through the region to overthrow Spanish colonial rule. Since then, many former Spanish territories have become five independent Andean states. The climate in
13741-401: The ethics and morality of Kallawaya treatment practices; to unify and sustain the unity of all Kallawayas and Kallawaya entities; to optimize and update Kallawaya knowledge from one generation to another; and to promote the systemization of the registration of Kallawaya healers in the national health system. All of these activities are designed to allow the elders of the community to interact with
13892-519: The event as a coup or a spontaneous social uprising against an unconstitutional fourth term. Protests to reinstate Morales as president continued becoming highly violent: burning public buses and private houses, destroying public infrastructure and harming pedestrians. The protests were met with more violence by security forces against Morales supporters after Áñez exempted police and military from criminal responsibility in operations for "the restoration of order and public stability". In April 2020,
14043-423: The extreme in the slopes near the virtually-lifeless Atacama Desert. About 30,000 species of vascular plants live in the Andes, with roughly half being endemic to the region, surpassing the diversity of any other hotspot . The small tree Cinchona pubescens , a source of quinine which is used to treat malaria , is found widely in the Andes as far south as Bolivia. Other important crops that originated from
14194-466: The fastest-growing economies on the continent (in terms of GDP). Its main economic resources include agriculture, forestry , fishing, mining, and goods such as textiles and clothing, refined metals, and refined petroleum . Bolivia is very geologically rich , with mines producing tin , silver, lithium , and copper. The country is also known for its production of coca plants and refined cocaine . In 2021, estimated coca cultivation and cocaine production
14345-483: The first Chilean expedition on the fields of Paucarpata near the city of Arequipa . The Chilean army and its Peruvian rebel allies surrendered unconditionally and signed the Paucarpata Treaty. The treaty stipulated that Chile would withdraw from Peru-Bolivia, Chile would return captured Confederate ships, economic relations would be normalized, and the Confederation would pay Peruvian debt to Chile. However,
14496-464: The forelands of the Atacama Desert , some of the largest porphyry copper mineralizations occur, making Chile and Peru the first- and second-largest exporters of copper in the world. Porphyry copper in the western slopes of the Andes has been generated by hydrothermal fluids (mostly water) during the cooling of plutons or volcanic systems. The porphyry mineralization further benefited from
14647-409: The free-market and privatization-policies of its predecessor. The relatively robust economic growth of the mid-1990s continued until about the third year of its term in office. After that, regional, global and domestic factors contributed to a decline in economic growth. Financial crises in Argentina and Brazil, lower world prices for export commodities, and reduced employment in the coca sector depressed
14798-555: The genus Nothoprocta ), Andean goose , giant coot , flamingos (mainly associated with hypersaline lakes), lesser rhea , Andean flicker , diademed sandpiper-plover , miners , sierra-finches and diuca-finches . Lake Titicaca hosts several endemics, among them the highly endangered Titicaca flightless grebe and Titicaca water frog . A few species of hummingbirds , notably some hillstars , can be seen at altitudes above 4,000 m (13,100 ft), but far higher diversities can be found at lower altitudes, especially in
14949-512: The glaciers were over ten times longer. On the east side of this section of the Mendozina Andes, they flowed down to 2,060 m (6,759 ft) and on the west side to about 1,220 m (4,003 ft) above sea level. The massifs of Aconcagua (6,961 m (22,838 ft)), Tupungato (6,550 m (21,490 ft)), and Nevado Juncal (6,110 m (20,046 ft)) are tens of kilometres away from each other and were connected by
15100-540: The globalization of the world arose by creating the first silver coins, which were then stamped with the " $ " sign, inspired by Potosí and Spanish royalty. There, the saying was born: "You are worth a Potosí", which means innumerable wealth. In fact, Bolivia was the first territory where the First Libertarian Cry of Latin America arose in the city of Charcas or city of the four names, now known as
15251-462: The government imposed martial law in El Alto after 16 people were shot by the police and several dozen wounded in violent clashes. Faced with the option of resigning or more bloodshed, Sánchez de Lozada offered his resignation in a letter to an emergency session of Congress. After his resignation was accepted and his vice president, Carlos Mesa , invested, he left on a commercially scheduled flight for
15402-422: The healer must present a résumé or curriculum vitae defining their Kallawaya lineage, with family members from one of the sixty Kallawaya families who are currently members ready to prove themselves as relations to that healer. The ayllu leaders will then decide on the healer’s eligibility. KASFRO is also involved in the general preservation of the knowledge of other indigenous groups. Upon its founding, it joined
15553-595: The highest mountain range which is outside of Asia . The range's highest peak, Argentina's Aconcagua , rises to an elevation of about 6,961 m (22,838 ft) above sea level. The peak of Chimborazo in the Ecuadorian Andes is farther from the Earth's center than any other location on the Earth's surface, due to the equatorial bulge resulting from the Earth's rotation . The world's highest volcanoes are in
15704-556: The humid Andean forests (" cloud forests ") growing on slopes in Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and far northwestern Argentina. These forest-types, which includes the Yungas and parts of the Chocó, are very rich in flora and fauna, although few large mammals exist, exceptions being the threatened mountain tapir , spectacled bear , and yellow-tailed woolly monkey . Birds of humid Andean forests include mountain toucans , quetzals , and
15855-517: The hyperarid Atacama Desert . Rainforests and tropical dry forests used to encircle much of the northern Andes but are now greatly diminished , especially in the Chocó and inter-Andean valleys of Colombia. Opposite the humid Andean slopes are the relatively dry Andean slopes in most of western Peru, Chile, and Argentina. Along with several Interandean Valles , they are typically dominated by deciduous woodland, shrub and xeric vegetation, reaching
16006-586: The interim government took out a loan of more than $ 327 million from the International Monetary Fund to meet the country's needs during the COVID-19 pandemic . New elections were scheduled for 3 May 2020. In response to the coronavirus pandemic , the Bolivian electoral body, the TSE, made an announcement postponing the election. MAS reluctantly agreed with the first delay only. A date for
16157-469: The interruption, the official count showed Morales fractionally clearing the 10-point margin he needed to avoid a runoff election, with the final official tally counted as 47.08 percent to Mesa's 36.51 percent, starting a wave of protests and tension in the country. Amidst allegations of fraud perpetrated by the Morales government, widespread protests were organized to dispute the election. On 10 November,
16308-451: The land for what he called "a magnificent white horse" and Acre was subsequently flooded with Brazilians, which ultimately led to confrontation and fear of war with Brazil. In the late 19th century, an increase in the world price of silver brought Bolivia relative prosperity and political stability. During the early 20th century, tin replaced silver as the country's most important source of wealth. A succession of governments controlled by
16459-667: The larger glaciers descend to sea level. The Andes of Chile and Argentina can be divided into two climatic and glaciological zones: the Dry Andes and the Wet Andes . Since the Dry Andes extend from the latitudes of the Atacama Desert to the area of the Maule River , precipitation is more sporadic, and there are strong temperature oscillations. The line of equilibrium may shift drastically over short periods of time, leaving
16610-654: The largest city in the New World with a population exceeding 150,000 people. By the late 16th century, Bolivian silver was an important source of revenue for the Spanish Empire . A steady stream of natives served as labor force under the brutal, slave conditions of the Spanish version of the pre-Columbian draft system called the mita . Charcas was transferred to the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata in 1776 and
16761-553: The location of several high plateaus —some of which host major cities such as Quito , Bogotá , Cali , Arequipa , Medellín , Bucaramanga , Sucre , Mérida , El Alto , and La Paz . The Altiplano Plateau is the world's second highest after the Tibetan Plateau . These ranges are in turn grouped into three major divisions based on climate: the Tropical Andes , the Dry Andes , and the Wet Andes . The Andes are
16912-523: The main crossover of the Andes between Argentina and Chile is still accomplished through the Paso Internacional Los Libertadores . Only recently have the ends of some highways that came rather close to one another from the east and the west been connected. Much of the transportation of passengers is done via aircraft. However, there is one railroad that connects Chile with Peru via the Andes, and there are others that make
17063-474: The medicinal properties of plants, animals and minerals . While most Kallawaya healers understand how to properly use about 300 plants and specialists learn up to 600, it is widely thought that these healers collectively know how to utilize 900 plant species found across the Andean region. These plants are a mixture of those found in the Amazonia , the altiplano , and the mid-Andean region. These plants are also
17214-433: The men of the community that are primarily taught to be the natural healers. Kallawaya healers travel through northwestern Bolivia and parts of Argentina , Chile , Ecuador , Panama , and Peru . Often they are on foot, walking ancient Inca trails, through the tropics, mountain valleys and highland plateaus, while looking for traditional herbs. The knowledge that the Kallawaya principally concern themselves with surrounds
17365-517: The most historic political party, emerged as a broad-based party. Denied its victory in the 1951 presidential elections, the MNR led a successful revolution in 1952. Under President Víctor Paz Estenssoro , the MNR, having strong popular pressure, introduced universal suffrage into his political platform and carried out a sweeping land-reform promoting rural education and nationalization of the country's largest tin mines. Twelve years of tumultuous rule left
17516-591: The nation. In 2009, KASFRO was instrumental in the creation of the Consejo Departamental de Medicina Tradicional (CODEMETRA), an organization representing 20 indigenous doctor organizations in the Cochabamba Department . Once CODEMETRA was established, other departments across Bolivia created similar organizations that came together for the first time in 2012 as the National Council for Indigenous Medicine. This council has been influential on
17667-461: The national and departmental governments across Bolivia and still meets annually. Andes The Andes ( / ˈ æ n d iː z / AN -deez ), Andes Mountains or Andean Mountain Range ( Spanish : Cordillera de los Andes ; Quechua : Anti ) are the longest continental mountain range in the world, forming a continuous highland along the western edge of South America . The range
17818-576: The nearly-7,000-metre (22,966 ft) highest mountains of the Andes. This dry steppe climate is considered to be typical of the subtropical position at 32–34° S. The valley bottoms have no woods, just dwarf scrub. The largest glaciers, for example the Plomo Glacier and the Horcones Glaciers, do not even reach 10 km (6.2 mi) in length and have only insignificant ice thickness. At glacial times, however, c. 20,000 years ago,
17969-579: The new election was delayed twice more, in the face of massive protests and violence. The final proposed date for the elections was 18 October 2020. Observers from the OAS, UNIORE, and the UN all reported that they found no fraudulent actions in the 2020 elections. The general election had a record voter turnout of 88.4% and ended in a landslide win for MAS which took 55.1% of the votes compared to 28.8% for centrist former president Carlos Mesa. Both Mesa and Áñez conceded defeat. On 8 November 2020, Luis Arce
18120-595: The now extinct Puquina language. Recent studies, however, have noted that the primary lexicon stems from the southern Quechua dialects of Ayacuchano and Cuzqueño, reflective of their region of origin. Because of their ability to retain esoteric vocabulary, as well, the language also contains lexicology from the Aymara language , the Uru-Chipaya language, Spanish , the Kunza language , Tacanan languages , as well as other languages that have not been analyzed. Generally,
18271-660: The orientation of the Andes turns from northwest in Peru to south in Chile and Argentina . The Andean segments north and south of the Orocline have been rotated 15° counter-clockwise to 20° clockwise respectively. The Bolivian Orocline area overlaps with the area of the maximum width of the Altiplano Plateau , and according to Isacks (1988) the Orocline is related to crustal shortening . The specific point at 18° S where
18422-624: The partial nationalization of hydrocarbons made it possible to finance several social measures: the Renta Dignidad (or old age minimum) for people over 60 years old; the Juana Azurduy voucher (named after the revolutionary Juana Azurduy de Padilla, 1780–1862), which ensures the complete coverage of medical expenses for pregnant women and their children in order to fight infant mortality; the Juancito Pinto voucher (named after
18573-687: The people from Buenos Aires, the capital of the Viceroyalty, coined the term " Upper Peru " (Spanish: Alto Peru ) as a popular reference to the Royal Audiencia of Charcas. Túpac Katari led the indigenous rebellion that laid siege to La Paz in March 1781, during which 20,000 people died. As Spanish royal authority weakened during the Napoleonic Wars , sentiment against colonial rule grew. The struggle for independence started in
18724-404: The presidency in 1997 through 2001. Juan José Torres, who had fled Bolivia, was kidnapped and assassinated in 1976 as part of Operation Condor , the U.S.-supported campaign of political repression by South American right-wing dictators. The United States' Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) financed and trained the Bolivian military dictatorship in the 1960s. The revolutionary leader Che Guevara
18875-682: The principal mines of the Spanish Empire in the New World. Río de la Plata and Argentina derive their names from the silver of Potosí. Bolivia in South America (gray) Bolivia , officially the Plurinational State of Bolivia , is a landlocked country located in central South America . It is a country with the largest geographic extension of Amazonian plains and lowlands, mountains and Chaco with
19026-402: The rainy season (summer), part of the rangeland is used for cropping (mainly potatoes, barley, broad beans, and wheat). Irrigation is helpful in advancing the sowing data of the summer crops, which guarantees an early yield in periods of food shortage. Also, by early sowing, maize can be cultivated higher up in the mountains (up to 3,800 m (12,500 ft)). In addition, it makes cropping in
19177-424: The region, such as the 2010 Maule earthquake (M8.8), the 2015 Illapel earthquake (M8.2), and the 1960 Valdivia earthquake (M9.5), which as of 2024 was the strongest ever recorded on seismometers. The amount, magnitude, and type of seismic activity varies greatly along the subduction zone. These differences are due to a wide range of factors, including friction between the plates, angle of subduction, buoyancy of
19328-400: The ritual ceremonies to establish contact with the spirit world before the healer visits patients. Until the early 21st century, Kallawaya healing practices were illegal across Bolivia and other Andean nations. By law, only those physicians who were considered “conventional doctors”, meaning that they had Western-style medical diplomas, were allowed to practice medicine. With the formation of
19479-460: The same connection via southern Bolivia. There are multiple highways in Bolivia that cross the Andes. Some of these were built during a period of war between Bolivia and Paraguay , in order to transport Bolivian troops and their supplies to the war front in the lowlands of southeastern Bolivia and western Paraguay. For decades, Chile claimed ownership of land on the eastern side of the Andes. However, these claims were given up in about 1870 during
19630-721: The snow-covered peak of Cotopaxi . The mountains have a large effect on the temperatures of nearby areas. The snow line depends on the location. It is between 4,500 and 4,800 m (14,764 and 15,748 ft) in the tropical Ecuadorian, Colombian, Venezuelan, and northern Peruvian Andes, rising to 4,800–5,200 m (15,748–17,060 ft) in the drier mountains of southern Peru and northern Chile south to about 30°S before descending to 4,500 m (14,760 ft) on Aconcagua at 32°S , 2,000 m (6,600 ft) at 40°S , 500 m (1,640 ft) at 50°S , and only 300 m (980 ft) in Tierra del Fuego at 55°S ; from 50°S, several of
19781-486: The south, Chile to the southwest, and Peru to the west. The seat of government is La Paz , which contains the executive, legislative, and electoral branches of government, while the constitutional capital is Sucre , the seat of the judiciary. The largest city and principal industrial center is Santa Cruz de la Sierra , located on the Llanos Orientales (eastern tropical lowlands), a mostly flat region in
19932-526: The subducting plate, rate of subduction, and hydration value of the mantle material. The highest rate of seismic activity is observed in the central portion of the boundary, between 33°S and 35°S. In this area, the angle of subduction is very low, meaning the subducting plate is nearly horizontal. Studies of mantle hydration across the subduction zone have shown a correlation between increased material hydration and lower-magnitude, more-frequent seismic activity. Zones exhibiting dehydration instead are thought to have
20083-474: The submerged peaks of the extreme northern edge of the Andes range, but ongoing geological studies indicate that such a simplification does not do justice to the complex tectonic boundary between the South American and Caribbean plates . The Andes are an orogenic belt of mountains along the Pacific Ring of Fire , a zone of volcanic activity that encompasses the Pacific rim of the Americas as well as
20234-452: The tortuous terrain in places, villages and towns in the mountains—to which travel via motorized vehicles is of little use—are still located in the high Andes of Chile, Bolivia, Peru, and Ecuador . Locally, the relatives of the camel , the llama , and the alpaca continue to carry out important uses as pack animals, but this use has generally diminished in modern times. Donkeys , mules , and horses are also useful. The ancient peoples of
20385-455: The torturing and murders of countless Bolivian citizens. Banzer was ousted in 1978 and, twenty years later, returned as the democratically elected President of Bolivia (1997–2001). Under the 2006–2019 presidency of Evo Morales , the country saw significant economic growth and political stability, but was also widely accused of democratic backsliding and was described as a competitive authoritarian regime. Freedom House classifies Bolivia as
20536-534: The vote, while the MNR candidate won 18%. At the outset of his government, President Banzer launched a policy of using special police-units to eradicate physically the illegal coca of the Chapare region. The Revolutionary Left Movement (MIR) of Jaime Paz Zamora remained a coalition-partner throughout the Banzer government, supporting this policy (called the Dignity Plan). The Banzer government basically continued
20687-642: The world for amphibians . The diversity of animals in the Andes is high, with almost 600 species of mammals (13% endemic), more than 1,700 species of birds (about 1/3 endemic), more than 600 species of reptiles (about 45% endemic), and almost 400 species of fish (about 1/3 endemic). The vicuña and guanaco can be found living in the Altiplano , while the closely related domesticated llama and alpaca are widely kept by locals as pack animals and for their meat and wool . The crepuscular (active during dawn and dusk) chinchillas , two threatened members of
20838-414: The world's largest reserve of the element. Early Mesozoic and Neogene plutonism in Bolivia's Cordillera Central created the Bolivian tin belt as well as the famous, now-mostly-depleted, deposits of Cerro Rico de Potosí . The Andes Mountains, initially inhabited by hunter-gatherers , experienced the development of agriculture and the rise of politically centralized civilizations , which culminated in
20989-419: The younger generation, systematically pass on their knowledge, and begin the documentation of these healing practices. Healers wishing to become members of KASFRO must pass several criteria that are reviewed by the eight ayllus of the community. First, the person must have been born in the villages of either Charazani or Curva and currently be practicing Kallawaya medicine. Once these claims have been proven,
21140-588: Was 39,700 hectares and 317 metric tons, respectively. Bolivia is named after Simón Bolívar , a Venezuelan leader in the Spanish American wars of independence . The leader of Venezuela, Antonio José de Sucre , had been given the option by Bolívar to either unite Charcas (present-day Bolivia) with the newly formed Republic of Peru, to unite with the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata , or to formally declare its independence from Spain as
21291-499: Was accepted on 10 June. The chief justice of the Supreme Court, Eduardo Rodríguez , was sworn as interim president to succeed the outgoing Carlos Mesa. Evo Morales won the 2005 presidential election with 53.7% of the votes. On 1 May 2006, Morales announced his intent to re-nationalize Bolivian hydrocarbon assets following protests which demanded this action. Fulfilling a campaign promise, on 6 August 2006, Morales opened
21442-671: Was an Andean part of great Inca Empire , among which was born the most important culture of America: the Tihuanaco culture in La Paz-Bolivia that converges the ruins of Pumapunko that had a great commercial influence in the Andes of South America reaching Ecuador, Chile and Peru. The largest territory of Bolivia on the eastern side of the lowlands of the north and east of the country were inhabited by independent non-Andean Amazonian tribes with their own civilization and language, cultures and ethnicities that prevail to this day. One of
21593-466: Was enabled to run for a second term arguing he was elected under the last constitution. This also triggered a new general election in which Evo Morales was re-elected with 61.36% of the vote. His party, Movement for Socialism , also won a two-thirds majority in both houses of the National Congress . By 2013, after being reelected under the new constitution, Evo Morales and his party attempted
21744-484: Was essentially eliminated, and extreme poverty fell from 38% to 15%, a 23-point drop. During the 2019 elections, the Transmisión de Resultados Electorales Preliminares (TREP) (a quick count process used in Latin America as a transparency measure in electoral processes) was interrupted; at the time, Morales had a lead of 46.86 percent to Mesa's 36.72, after 95.63 percent of tally sheets were counted. Two days after
21895-468: Was finally freed of Royalist dominion by Marshal Antonio José de Sucre , with a military campaign coming from the North in support of the campaign of Simón Bolívar . After 16 years of war the Republic was proclaimed on 6 August 1825. In 1836, Bolivia, under the rule of Marshal Andrés de Santa Cruz , invaded Peru to reinstall the deposed president, General Luis José de Orbegoso . Peru and Bolivia formed
22046-445: Was killed by a team of CIA officers and members of the Bolivian Army on 9 October 1967, in Bolivia. Félix Rodríguez was a CIA officer on the team with the Bolivian Army that captured and shot Guevara. Rodriguez said that after he received a Bolivian presidential execution order, he told "the soldier who pulled the trigger to aim carefully, to remain consistent with the Bolivian government's story that Che had been killed in action during
22197-547: Was not a violent or domineering culture; to expand its reach, the state exercised great political astuteness, created colonies, fostered local trade agreements (which made other cultures rather dependent), and instituted state cults. As rainfall gradually decreased, the stores of food supplies decreased, and thus the elites lost power. Tiwanaku disappeared around AD 1000. The area remained uninhabited for centuries thereafter. Between 1438 and 1527, Incan Empire expanded from its capital at Cusco , gaining control over much of what
22348-437: Was signed on 7 June 1842, ending the war. However, the climate of tension between Lima and La Paz would continue until 1847, when the signing of a Peace and Trade Treaty became effective. A period of political and economic instability in the early-to-mid-19th century weakened Bolivia. In addition, during the War of the Pacific (1879–83), Chile occupied vast territories rich in natural resources south west of Bolivia, including
22499-566: Was sworn in as President of Bolivia alongside his Vice President David Choquehuanca . In February 2021, the Arce government returned an amount of around $ 351 million to the IMF. This comprised a loan of $ 327 million taken out by the interim government in April 2020 and interest of around $ 24 million. The government said it returned the loan to protect Bolivia's economic sovereignty and because
22650-408: Was used for the production of chicha , important to Andean native people. Currently, tobacco , cotton , and coffee are the main export crops. Coca , despite eradication programs in some countries, remains an important crop for legal local use in a mildly stimulating herbal tea , and illegally for the production of cocaine . In unirrigated land, pasture is the most common type of land use. In
22801-477: Was used to map the extent of preserved suka kollus ( flooded raised fields ) across the three primary valleys of Tiwanaku, with the results suggesting a population-carrying capacity of anywhere between 285,000 and 1,482,000 people. Around AD 400, Tiwanaku went from being a locally-dominant force to a 'predatory' state, aggressively expanding its reach into the Yungas and bringing its culture and ways to new peoples in Peru, Bolivia, and Chile. Nonetheless, Tiwanaku
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