121-679: Kediri Kingdom , or Kāḍiri also known as Pañjalu ( Javanese : ꦥꦚ꧀ꦗꦭꦸ ) and Gégélang ( Javanese : ꦒꦺꦒꦺꦭꦁ ) in 1292-1293, was a Hindu-Buddhist Javanese kingdom based in East Java from 1042 until 1222 (1292–1293 under Jayakatwang ). This kingdom is centered in the ancient city Dahanapura , despite the lack of archaeological remains, the age of Kediri saw much development in classical literature. Mpu Sedah's Kakawin Bharatayuddha , Mpu Panuluh's Gatotkacasraya , and Mpu Dharmaja's Smaradhana blossomed in this era. The kingdom's capital
242-544: A Rigvedic deity with fearsome powers, was the god of the roaring storm . He is usually portrayed in accordance with the element he represents as a fierce, destructive deity. In RV 2.33, he is described as the "Father of the Rudras ", a group of storm gods. Flood notes that Rudra is an ambiguous god, peripheral in the Vedic pantheon, possibly indicating non-Vedic origins. Nevertheless, both Rudra and Shiva are akin to Wodan ,
363-407: A dialect continuum from northern Banten in the extreme west of Java to Banyuwangi Regency in the eastern corner of the island. All Javanese dialects are more or less mutually intelligible . A table showing the number of native speakers in 1980, for the 22 Indonesian provinces (from the total of 27) in which more than 1% of the population spoke Javanese: According to the 1980 census, Javanese
484-604: A German Indologist and professor of philosophy, describes the self-realized man as who "feels himself only as the one divine essence that lives in all", who feels identity of his and everyone's consciousness with Shiva (highest Atman), who has found this highest Atman within, in the depths of his heart. Rudra's evolution from a minor Vedic deity to a supreme being is first evidenced in the Shvetashvatara Upanishad (400–200 BCE), according to Gavin Flood, presenting
605-538: A brownish-purplish dye for batik -making, while its fruit has medicinal values. A similar named city is also known, Kadiri in Andhra Pradesh , India . The origin of the word that is considered more appropriate is derived from the word "kadiri" in the Old Javanese language which means being able to stand alone, be independent, stand tall, have personality, or be self-sufficient. The Kingdom of Kediri
726-448: A couple of his specialties of this figure does not match with Rudra. Writing in 1997, Srinivasan interprets what John Marshall interpreted as facial as not human but more bovine, possibly a divine buffalo-man. The interpretation of the seal continues to be disputed. McEvilley , for example, states that it is not possible to "account for this posture outside the yogic account". Asko Parpola states that other archaeological finds such as
847-633: A crime newscast). In later broadcasts, JTV offers programmes in the Central Javanese dialect (called by them basa kulonan , "the western language") and Madurese. The speakers of Suroboyoan dialect are well known for being proud of their distinctive dialect and consistently maintain it wherever they go. Javanese is spoken throughout Indonesia, neighboring Southeast Asian countries, the Netherlands, Suriname , New Caledonia , and other countries. The largest populations of speakers are found in
968-1195: A fight. Their favourite pastimes were cockfighting and pigfighting. The currency was made from a short-tempered mixture of copper , silver , and tin . The book of Chu-fan-chi mentioned that Java (Kediri) was ruled by a maharaja , who ruled several colonies: Pai-hua-yuan ( Pacitan ), Ma-tung (Medang), Ta-pen (Tumapel, now Malang ), Hi-ning ( Dieng ), Jung-ya-lu (Hujung Galuh, now Surabaya ), Tung-ki (Jenggi, West Papua ), Ta-kang ( Sumba ), Huang-ma-chu ( Southwest Papua ), Ma-li ( Bali ), Kulun (Gurun, identified as Gorong or Sorong in West Papua or an island in Nusa Tenggara ), Tan-jung-wu-lo ( Tanjungpura in Borneo), Ti-wu ( Timor ), Pingya-i ( Banggai in Sulawesi), and Wu-nu-ku ( Maluku ). Regarding Sanfoqi (Srivijaya), Chou-Ju-Kua reported that Kien-pi (Kampe, in northern Sumatra ) with armed forced rebellion had liberated themselves from Srivijaya, and crowned their king. The same fate befell some of Srivijaya's colonies on
1089-645: A fusing of the two deities. Agni is said to be a bull, and Shiva possesses a bull as his vehicle, Nandi . The horns of Agni , who is sometimes characterized as a bull, are mentioned. In medieval sculpture, both Agni and the form of Shiva known as Bhairava have flaming hair as a special feature. According to Wendy Doniger , the Saivite fertility myths and some of the phallic characteristics of Shiva are inherited from Indra . Doniger gives several reasons for her hypothesis. Both are associated with mountains, rivers, male fertility, fierceness, fearlessness, warfare,
1210-475: A manner similar to Shiva Nataraja. The similarities in the dance iconography suggests that there may be a link between ancient Indra and Shiva. A few texts such as Atharvashiras Upanishad mention Rudra , and assert all gods are Rudra, everyone and everything is Rudra, and Rudra is the principle found in all things, their highest goal, the innermost essence of all reality that is visible or invisible. The Kaivalya Upanishad similarly, states Paul Deussen –
1331-567: A new Javanese language magazine, appeared in 2005 is not published in the Javanese heartlands, but in Jakarta. Since 2003, an East Java local television station ( JTV ) has broadcast some of its programmes in the Surabayan ( Suroboyoan ) dialect, including Pojok Kampung [ id ] ("Village Corner", main newscast), Kuis RT/RW ("RT/RW Quiz"), and Pojok Perkoro ("Case Corner",
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#17327811709091452-573: A number of clearly distinct status styles. Its closest relatives are the neighboring languages such as Sundanese , Madurese , and Balinese . Most speakers of Javanese also speak Indonesian for official and commercial purposes as well as a means to communicate with non-Javanese-speaking Indonesians . There are speakers of Javanese in Malaysia (concentrated in the West Coast part of the states of Selangor and Johor ) and Singapore . Javanese
1573-647: A part of ritual. In contrast, the esoteric tradition within Kashmir Shaivism has featured the Krama and Trika sub-traditions. The Krama sub-tradition focussed on esoteric rituals around Shiva-Kali pair. The Trika sub-tradition developed a theology of triads involving Shiva, combined it with an ascetic lifestyle focusing on personal Shiva in the pursuit of monistic self-liberation. The Vaishnava (Vishnu-oriented) literature acknowledges and discusses Shiva. Like Shaiva literature that presents Shiva as supreme,
1694-463: A prophetic book ascribed to Jayabhaya, is well known among Javanese. It predicts that the archipelago would be ruled by a white race for a long time, then a yellow race for a short time, be glorious again. The Jayabhaya prophecies mention Ratu Adil , the Just Prince , a recurring popular figure in Javanese folklore. During the reign, Ternate was a vassal state of Kediri. Jayabhaya's successor
1815-505: A proto-Shiva would "go too far". The Vedic beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era were closely related to the hypothesised Proto-Indo-European religion , and the pre-Islamic Indo-Iranian religion. The similarities between the iconography and theologies of Shiva with Greek and European deities have led to proposals for an Indo-European link for Shiva, or lateral exchanges with ancient central Asian cultures. His contrasting aspects such as being terrifying or blissful depending on
1936-518: A square throne. After an audience, the state official would bow three times to the king. If the king travelled outside the palace, he rode an elephant and was accompanied by 500–700 soldiers and officials while his subjects, the people of Kediri, prostrated themselves as the king passed. According to Chinese sources, the main occupations of the Kediri people revolved around agriculture (rice cultivation), animal farming ( cattle , boar , poultry ), and
2057-662: A thousand names derived from aspects and epithets of a deity. There are at least eight different versions of the Shiva Sahasranama , devotional hymns ( stotras ) listing many names of Shiva. The version appearing in Book 13 ( Anuśāsanaparvan ) of the Mahabharata provides one such list. Shiva also has Dasha-Sahasranamas (10,000 names) that are found in the Mahanyasa . The Shri Rudram Chamakam , also known as
2178-473: A variety of other pronoun whose use varies depending on the dialect or level of speech. I You He, She, It panjenenganipun Modern Javanese usually employs SVO word order. However, Old Javanese sometimes had VSO and sometimes VOS word order. Even in Modern Javanese, archaic sentences using VSO structure can still be made. Examples: Both sentences mean: "He (S) comes (V) into (pp.)
2299-570: Is a Malayo-Polynesian language of the Austronesian language family spoken primarily by the Javanese people from the central and eastern parts of the island of Java , Indonesia . There are also pockets of Javanese speakers on the northern coast of western Java. It is the native language of more than 68 million people. Javanese is the largest of the Austronesian languages in number of native speakers . It has several regional dialects and
2420-538: Is a complex system of verb affixes to express differences of status in subject and object. However, in general the structure of Javanese sentences both Old and Modern can be described using the topic–comment model , without having to refer to conventional grammatical categories. The topic is the head of the sentence; the comment is the modifier. So the example sentence has a simpler description: Dhèwèké = topic ; teka = comment; ing karaton = setting. Javanese has many loanwords supplementing those from
2541-592: Is a patron deity of farming and herding castes . The foremost center of worship of Khandoba in Maharashtra is in Jejuri . Khandoba has been assimilated as a form of Shiva himself, in which case he is worshipped in the form of a lingam. Khandoba's varied associations also include an identification with Surya and Karttikeya . Myths about Shiva that were "roughly contemporary with early Christianity " existed that portrayed Shiva with many differences than how he
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#17327811709092662-695: Is addressed to many deities in Vedic literature. The term evolved from the Vedic Rudra-Shiva to the noun Shiva in the Epics and the Puranas, as an auspicious deity who is the "creator, reproducer and dissolver". Sharma presents another etymology with the Sanskrit root śarv - , which means "to injure" or "to kill", interpreting the name to connote "one who can kill the forces of darkness". The Sanskrit word śaiva means "relating to
2783-527: Is also called Babhru (brown, or red) in the Rigveda. The Vishnu sahasranama interprets Shiva to have multiple meanings: "The Pure One", and "the One who is not affected by three Guṇas of Prakṛti (Sattva, Rajas, and Tamas)". Shiva is known by many names such as Viswanatha (lord of the universe), Mahadeva, Mahandeo, Mahasu, Mahesha, Maheshvara, Shankara, Shambhu, Rudra, Hara, Trilochana, Devendra (chief of
2904-525: Is also called kawi or 'of poets, poetical's, although this term could also be used to refer to the archaic elements of New Javanese literature. The writing system used to write Old Javanese is a descendant of the Pallava script from India. Almost half of the entire vocabularies found in Old Javanese literature are Sanskrit loanwords, although Old Javanese also borrowed terms from other languages in
3025-669: Is also spoken by traditional immigrant communities of Javanese descent in Suriname , Sri Lanka and New Caledonia . Along with Indonesian , Javanese is an official language in the Special Region of Yogyakarta , Indonesia. Javanese is part of the Malayo-Polynesian branch of the Austronesian language family, although its precise relationship to other Malayo-Polynesian languages is hard to determine. Using
3146-636: Is also used for religious purposes. Modern Javanese emerged as the main literary form of the language in the 16th century. The change in the literary system happened as Islam started to gain influence in Java. In its early form, Modern Javanese literary form was based on the variety spoken in the north coast of Java , where Islam had already gained foothold among the local people. Many of the written works in this variety were Islamic in nature, and several of them were translation from works in Malay. The Arabic abjad
3267-520: Is an amalgamation of various older deities into a single figure, due to the process of Sanskritization and the emergence of the Hindu synthesis in post-Vedic times. How the persona of Shiva converged as a composite deity is not well documented, a challenge to trace and has attracted much speculation. According to Vijay Nath: Vishnu and Siva [...] began to absorb countless local cults and deities within their folds. The latter were either taken to represent
3388-611: Is believed to have been established in the western part of the Brantas River valley, somewhere near modern Kediri city and surrounding Kediri Regency . The city of Daha existed before the founding of the kingdom. Daha is an abbreviation of Dahanapura , which means city of fire . This name is listed in the Pamwatan inscription issued by Airlangga in 1042. This is following the news in Serat Calon Arang , that at
3509-798: Is everything and everywhere. Shiva is the primal Self, the pure consciousness and Absolute Reality in the Shaiva traditions. Shiva is also Part of 'Om' (ॐ) as a 'U' (उ). The Shaivism theology is broadly grouped into two: the popular theology influenced by Shiva-Rudra in the Vedas, Epics and the Puranas; and the esoteric theology influenced by the Shiva and Shakti-related Tantra texts. The Vedic-Brahmanic Shiva theology includes both monist ( Advaita ) and devotional traditions ( Dvaita ), such as Tamil Shaiva Siddhanta and Lingayatism . Shiva temples feature items such as linga, Shiva-Parvati iconography, bull Nandi within
3630-412: Is kind and tranquil (Shiva). The term Shiva also appears simply as an epithet, that means "kind, auspicious", one of the adjectives used to describe many different Vedic deities. While fierce ruthless natural phenomenon and storm-related Rudra is feared in the hymns of the Rigveda, the beneficial rains he brings are welcomed as Shiva aspect of him. This healing, nurturing, life-enabling aspect emerges in
3751-453: Is not clear from the seal that the figure has three faces, is seated in a yoga posture, or even that the shape is intended to represent a human figure. He characterizes these views as "speculative", but adds that it is nevertheless possible that there are echoes of Shaiva iconographic themes, such as half-moon shapes resembling the horns of a bull . John Keay writes that "he may indeed be an early manifestation of Lord Shiva as Pashu-pati", but
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3872-424: Is often depicted slaying demons. Shiva is also known as Adiyogi (the first Yogi ), regarded as the patron god of yoga , meditation and the arts. The iconographical attributes of Shiva are the serpent king Vasuki around his neck, the adorning crescent moon, the holy river Ganga flowing from his matted hair, the third eye on his forehead (the eye that turns everything in front of it into ashes when opened),
3993-420: Is on the right.] Shiva Shiva ( / ˈ ʃ ɪ v ə / ; Sanskrit : शिव , lit. 'The Auspicious One', IAST : Śiva [ɕɪʋɐ] ), also known as Mahadeva ( / m ə ˈ h ɑː ˈ d eɪ v ə / ; Sanskrit : महादेव: , lit. 'The Great God', IAST : Mahādevaḥ , [mɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐh ) or Hara , is one of the principal deities of Hinduism . He
4114-593: Is one of the four major sects of Hinduism , the others being Vaishnavism , Shaktism and the Smarta Tradition . Followers of Shaivism, called "Shaivas", revere Shiva as the Supreme Being. Shaivas believe that Shiva is All and in all, the creator, preserver, destroyer, revealer and concealer of all that is. He is not only the creator in Shaivism, but he is also the creation that results from him, he
4235-629: Is spoken among descendants of plantation migrants brought by the Dutch during the 19th century. In Madura, Bali, Lombok, and the Sunda region of West Java, it is also used as a literary language . It was the court language in Palembang , South Sumatra , until the palace was sacked by the Dutch in the late 18th century. Javanese is written with the Latin script , Javanese script , and Arabic script . In
4356-812: Is the Supreme Being in Shaivism , one of the major traditions within Hinduism. Shiva is known as The Destroyer within the Trimurti , the Hindu trinity which also includes Brahma and Vishnu . In the Shaivite tradition, Shiva is the Supreme Lord who creates, protects and transforms the universe. In the goddess-oriented Shakta tradition, the Supreme Goddess ( Devi ) is regarded as
4477-484: Is the only language of Western Indonesia to possess a distinction between dental and retroflex phonemes. The latter sounds are transcribed as "th" and "dh" in the modern Roman script, but previously by the use of an underdot : "ṭ" and "ḍ". Javanese, like many other Austronesian languages, is an agglutinative language, where base words are modified through extensive use of affixes . Javanese has no specific personal pronoun to express plural except for kita which
4598-481: Is the successor of Airlangga's Kahuripan kingdom and is thought of as the continuation of the Isyana Dynasty in Java. In 1042, Airlangga divided his kingdom of Kahuripan into two, Janggala and Panjalu (Kadiri), and abdicated in favour of his sons to live as an ascetic. He died seven years later. The first king of Kediri to leave historical records was Maharaja Çri Samaravijaya (1042–1051). His royal seal
4719-406: Is thought of now, and these mythical portrayals of Shiva were incorporated into later versions of him. For instance, he and the other gods , from the highest gods to the least powerful gods, were thought of as somewhat human in nature, creating emotions they had limited control over and having the ability to get in touch with their inner natures through asceticism like humans. In that era, Shiva
4840-407: Is used in media, ranging from books to TV programs, and the language is also taught at schools in primarily Javanese areas. Although Javanese is not a national language , it has recognized status as a regional language in the three Indonesian provinces with the biggest concentrations of Javanese people: Central Java , Yogyakarta, and East Java . Javanese is designated as the official language of
4961-547: The Nirukta , an important early text on etymology, which says, "Agni is also called Rudra." The interconnections between the two deities are complex, and according to Stella Kramrisch: The fire myth of Rudra-Śiva plays on the whole gamut of fire, valuing all its potentialities and phases, from conflagration to illumination. In the Śatarudrīya , some epithets of Rudra, such as Sasipañjara ("Of golden red hue as of flame") and Tivaṣīmati ("Flaming bright"), suggest
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5082-558: The Bactria–Margiana Culture . According to Anthony, Many of the qualities of Indo-Iranian god of might/victory, Verethraghna , were transferred to the adopted god Indra, who became the central deity of the developing Old Indic culture. Indra was the subject of 250 hymns, a quarter of the Rig Veda . He was associated more than any other deity with Soma , a stimulant drug (perhaps derived from Ephedra ) probably borrowed from
5203-673: The Greater North Borneo subgroup, which he proposes as an alternative to Malayo-Sumbawan grouping. However, Blust also expresses the possibility that Greater North Borneo languages are closely related to many other western Indonesian languages, including Javanese. Blust's suggestion has been further elaborated by Alexander Smith, who includes Javanese in the Western Indonesian grouping (which also includes GNB and several other subgroups), which Smith considers as one of Malayo-Polynesian's primary branches. In general,
5324-464: The Linga Purana , present the various aspects of Shiva, mythologies, cosmology and pilgrimage ( Tirtha ) associated with him. The Shiva-related Tantra literature, composed between the 8th and 11th centuries, are regarded in devotional dualistic Shaivism as Sruti . Dualistic Shaiva Agamas which consider Self within each living being and Shiva as two separate realities (dualism, dvaita ), are
5445-677: The Malay Peninsula that liberated themselves from Srivijaya domination. However, Srivijaya was still the mightiest and wealthiest state in the western part of the archipelago. Srivijaya's colonies were: Pong-fong ( Pahang ), Tong-ya-nong ( Trengganu ), Ling-ya-ssi-kia ( Langkasuka ), Kilan-tan ( Kelantan ), Fo-lo-an, Ji-lo-t'ing ( Jelutong ), Ts'ien-mai (?), Pa-t'a ( Paka ), Tan-ma-ling ( Tambralinga , Ligor or Nakhon Si Thammarat ), Kia-lo-hi ( Grahi , northern part of Malay peninsula), Pa-lin-fong ( Palembang ), Sin-t'o ( Sunda ), Lan-wu-li (Lamuri at Aceh ), and Si-lan. According to this source, in
5566-608: The Maritime Southeast Asia . The form of Old Javanese found in several texts from 14th century onward (mostly written in Bali) is sometimes referred to as "Middle Javanese". Both Old and Middle Javanese written forms have not been widely used in Java since early 16th century. However, Old Javanese works and poetic tradition continue to be preserved in the Javanese-influenced Bali, and the variety
5687-692: The Monier-Williams Sanskrit dictionary, the word " śiva " ( Devanagari : शिव , also transliterated as shiva ) means "auspicious, propitious, gracious, benign, kind, benevolent, friendly". The root words of śiva in folk etymology are śī which means "in whom all things lie, pervasiveness" and va which means "embodiment of grace". The word Shiva is used as an adjective in the Rig Veda ( c. 1700–1100 BCE ), as an epithet for several Rigvedic deities , including Rudra . The term Shiva also connotes "liberation, final emancipation" and "the auspicious one"; this adjectival usage
5808-536: The Special Region of Yogyakarta under Yogyakarta Special Region Regulation Number 2 of 2021. Previously, Central Java promulgated a similar regulation—Regional Regulation 9/2012 —but this did not imply an official status for the language. Javanese is taught at schools and is used in some mass media , both electronically and in print. There is, however, no longer a daily newspaper in Javanese. Javanese-language magazines include Panjebar Semangat , Jaka Lodhang , Jaya Baya , Damar Jati , and Mekar Sari . Damar Jati ,
5929-751: The lexicostatistical method, Isidore Dyen classified Javanese as part of the "Javo-Sumatra Hesion", which also includes the Sundanese and "Malayic" languages. This grouping is also called "Malayo-Javanic" by linguist Berndt Nothofer, who was the first to attempt a reconstruction of it based on only four languages with the best attestation at the time (Javanese, Sundanese, Madurese , and Malay ). Malayo-Javanic has been criticized and rejected by various linguists. Alexander Adelaar does not include Javanese in his proposed Malayo-Sumbawan grouping (which also covers Malayic , Sundanese , and Madurese languages). Robert Blust also does not include Javanese in
6050-499: The spice trade routes to Maluku . According to a Chinese source in the book of Chu-fan-chi written around 1225, Chou Ju-kua described that in the Southeast Asian archipelago, there were two powerful and rich kingdoms: Srivijaya and Java (Kediri). In Java, he found that people adhere to two religions: Buddhism and the religion of Brahmin ( Hinduism ). The people of Java were brave and short tempered, daring to put up
6171-720: The trishula or trident as his weapon, and the damaru . He is usually worshiped in the aniconic form of lingam . Shiva has pre-Vedic roots, and the figure of Shiva evolved as an amalgamation of various older non-Vedic and Vedic deities, including the Rigvedic storm god Rudra who may also have non-Vedic origins, into a single major deity. Shiva is a pan-Hindu deity, revered widely by Hindus in India , Nepal , Bangladesh , Sri Lanka and Indonesia (especially in Java and Bali ). Saiddhantika Non - Saiddhantika According to
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#17327811709096292-456: The Śatarudriya , is a devotional hymn to Shiva hailing him by many names. The Shiva-related tradition is a major part of Hinduism, found all over the Indian subcontinent , such as India, Nepal , Sri Lanka , and Southeast Asia , such as Bali, Indonesia . Shiva has pre-Vedic tribal roots, having "his origins in primitive tribes, signs and symbols." The figure of Shiva as he is known today
6413-432: The (def. art.) palace (O)". In the Old Javanese sentence, the verb is placed at the beginning and is separated by the particle ta from the rest of the sentence. In Modern Javanese the definite article is lost, and definiteness is expressed by other means if necessary. Verbs are not inflected for person or number. There is no grammatical tense ; time is expressed by auxiliary words meaning "yesterday", "already", etc. There
6534-558: The 19th century, Madurese was also written in the Javanese script. The original inhabitants of Lampung , the Lampungese, make up only 15% of the provincial population. The rest are the so-called "transmigrants", settlers from other parts of Indonesia, many as a result of past government transmigration programs . Most of these transmigrants are Javanese who have settled there since the 19th century. In Suriname (the former Dutch colony of Surinam ), South America, approximately 15% of
6655-522: The 1st millennium CE and through the 13th century, particularly in Kashmir and Tamil Shaiva traditions. Shaivism gained immense popularity in Tamilakam as early as the 7th century CE, with poets such as Appar and Sambandar composing rich poetry that is replete with present features associated with the deity, such as his tandava dance, the mulavam (dumru), the aspect of holding fire, and restraining
6776-535: The 5th month of the year, a water festival was celebrated with people travelling in boats along the river to celebrate. In the 10th month, another festival was held in the mountains. People would gather there to have fun and perform music with instruments such as flutes , drums , and wooden xylophones (an ancient form of gamelan ). The King wore silk garments, leather shoes , and ornate golden jewellery. He wore his hair up high on his head. Every day, he would receive state officials, and managers of his kingdom, on
6897-562: The BMAC religion. His rise to prominence was a peculiar trait of the Old Indic speakers. The texts and artwork of Jainism show Indra as a dancer, although not identical generally resembling the dancing Shiva artwork found in Hinduism, particularly in their respective mudras. For example, in the Jain caves at Ellora , extensive carvings show dancing Indra next to the images of Tirthankaras in
7018-578: The Germanic God of rage ("wütte") and the wild hunt . According to Sadasivan, during the development of the Hindu synthesis attributes of the Buddha were transferred by Brahmins to Shiva, who was also linked with Rudra . The Rigveda has 3 out of 1,028 hymns dedicated to Rudra, and he finds occasional mention in other hymns of the same text. Hymn 10.92 of the Rigveda states that deity Rudra has two natures, one wild and cruel (Rudra), another that
7139-421: The Javanese by that time. There was no physical punishment (jail or torture) of criminals. Instead, the people who committed unlawful acts were forced to pay fines in gold, except for thieves and robbers who were executed. In marital customs, the bride's family receives some amount of bride price from the groom's family. Instead of developing medical treatment, the Kediri people relied on prayers for Buddha . On
7260-506: The Nandi bull, the Indian zebu , in particular, as the vehicle of Rudra and of Shiva, thereby unmistakably linking them as same. Rudra and Agni have a close relationship. The identification between Agni and Rudra in the Vedic literature was an important factor in the process of Rudra's gradual transformation into Rudra-Shiva. The identification of Agni with Rudra is explicitly noted in
7381-681: The Vaishnava literature presents Vishnu as supreme. However, both traditions are pluralistic and revere both Shiva and Vishnu (along with Devi), their texts do not show exclusivism, and Vaishnava texts such as the Bhagavata Purana while praising Krishna as the Ultimate Reality, also present Shiva and Shakti as a personalized form an equivalent to the same Ultimate Reality. The texts of Shaivism tradition similarly praise Vishnu. The Skanda Purana, for example, states: Vishnu
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#17327811709097502-464: The Vedas as Rudra-Shiva, and in post-Vedic literature ultimately as Shiva who combines the destructive and constructive powers, the terrific and the gentle, as the ultimate recycler and rejuvenator of all existence. The Vedic texts do not mention bull or any animal as the transport vehicle ( vahana ) of Rudra or other deities. However, post-Vedic texts such as the Mahabharata and the Puranas state
7623-579: The basic vocabulary, such as pikir ("to think", from the Arabic fikr ), badan ("body"), mripat ("eye", thought to be derived from the Arabic ma'rifah , meaning "knowledge" or "vision"). However, these Arabic words typically have native Austronesian or Sanskrit alternatives: pikir = galih , idhep (Austronesian) and manah , cipta , or cita (from Sanskrit); badan = awak (Austronesian) and slira , sarira , or angga (from Sanskrit); and mripat = mata (Austronesian) and soca or nétra (from Sanskrit). Dutch loanwords usually have
7744-430: The beginning of the Shaiva tradition focused on the worship of Shiva as evidenced in other literature of this period. Other scholars such as Robert Hume and Doris Srinivasan state that the Shvetashvatara Upanishad presents pluralism, pantheism , or henotheism , rather than being a text just on Shiva theism. Self-realization and Shaiva Upanishads He who sees himself in all beings, And all beings in him, attains
7865-528: The centre of political power, which was led by Girindrawardhana in 1478 after he managed to defeat Kertabhumi. But it was short lived since descendant of Bhre Kertabhumi who became ruler of Demak crushed Daha in 1527. Javanese language Javanese ( / ˌ dʒ ɑː v ə ˈ n iː z / JAH -və- NEEZ , / dʒ æ v ə -/ JAV -ə- , /- ˈ n iː s / - NEESS ; basa Jawa , Javanese script : ꦧꦱꦗꦮ , Pegon : باسا جاوا , IPA: [bɔsɔ d͡ʒɔwɔ] )
7986-427: The community in the past when building settlements and other things. The first is called Anupa, and it is land that has fertile soil, is close to springs, and allows various kinds of seeds to grow well if planted there. The second is called Sadarana, and it is land that in some areas is fertile and in others less fertile. The third is called Janggala, and it is infertile land or wilderness. The word Pangjalu comes from
8107-415: The development of eastern Java, written between 1112 and 1135. Jayabhaya (1135–1157) succeeded Bamesvara. His formal stylised name was Çri Maharaja çri Dharmmeçwara Madhusudanawataranindita Suhrtsingha Parakrama Digjayottunggadewa . The Lanchana of his reign Narasinghavatara depicts one of the avatars of Lord Vishnu , namely Narasinghavatara. His form is described as a human with a lion's head tearing
8228-441: The earliest seeds of theistic devotion to Rudra-Shiva. Here Rudra-Shiva is identified as the creator of the cosmos and liberator of Selfs from the birth-rebirth cycle. The Svetasvatara Upanishad set the tone for early Shaivite thought, especially in chapter 3 verse 2 where Shiva is equated with Brahman: "Rudra is truly one; for the knowers of Brahman do not admit the existence of a second". The period of 200 BC to 100 AD also marks
8349-527: The early 13th century Srivijaya still ruled Sumatra, the Malay peninsula, and western Java ( Sunda ). Regarding Sunda , the book details that the port of Sunda ( Sunda Kelapa ) was excellent and strategically located and that the pepper from Sunda was among the best quality. The people worked in agriculture; their houses were built on wooden piles (rumah panggung). However, the country was infested with robbers and thieves. Celebrated as an era of blossoming literature, Kediri produced significant contributions in
8470-400: The early Elamite seals dated to 3000–2750 BCE show similar figures and these have been interpreted as "seated bull" and not a yogi, and the bovine interpretation is likely more accurate. Gregory L. Possehl in 2002, associated it with the water buffalo, and concluded that while it would be appropriate to recognize the figure as a deity, and its posture as one of ritual discipline, regarding it as
8591-582: The eastern region of Kediri. Ken Arok 's troops managed to destroy Kertajaya 's troops. Thus, the era of the Kediri Kingdom ended, which from then on became the vassal of Tumapel or Singhasari . After Ken Arok defeated Kertajaya, Kediri became an area under the rule of Singhasari. Ken Arok appointed Jayasabha, son of Kertajaya, as regent of Kediri. In 1258 the waning Jayasabha named Sastrajaya. In 1271 Sastrajaya faded into, namely Jayakatwang . In 1292, Jayakatwang rebelled against Singhasari led by Kertanegara , because of past grudges where his ancestor Kertajaya
8712-484: The end of Airlangga's reign, the center of the kingdom was no longer in Kahuripan , but has moved to Dahanapura and calls Airlangga the king of Daha. The kingdom was also known as Panjalu the correct reading is Pangjalu as the twin kingdom with Janggala . During the reign of Jayakatwang that revived the short-lived second dynasty of Kadiri, the kingdom is also known as Gelang-gelang or Gegelang. Other than Kadiri,
8833-595: The energy and creative power ( Shakti ) and the equal complementary partner of Shiva. Shiva is one of the five equivalent deities in Panchayatana puja of the Smarta tradition of Hinduism. Shiva has many aspects, benevolent as well as fearsome. In benevolent aspects, he is depicted as an omniscient Yogi who lives an ascetic life on Kailasa as well as a householder with his wife Parvati and his two children, Ganesha and Kartikeya . In his fierce aspects, he
8954-412: The field of Javanese classic literature. Next to the literary works already mentioned, Śiwarātrikalpa and Wrtasancaya by Mpu Tanakung, Krisnayana written by Mpu Triguna, and Sumanasantaka by Mpu Monaguṇa are also notable. The book of Ling-wai-tai-ta composed by Chinese author Chou K'u-fei in 1178, gave a glimpse of everyday life in Kediri that cannot be found in any other source material, about
9075-537: The figures in a group dance can be interpreted in many different ways. Of several Indus valley seals that show animals, one seal that has attracted attention shows a large central figure, either horned or wearing a horned headdress and possibly ithyphallic , seated in a posture reminiscent of the Lotus position , surrounded by animals. This figure was named by early excavators of Mohenjo-daro as Pashupati (Lord of Animals, Sanskrit paśupati ), an epithet of
9196-455: The following form : CSVC, where C = consonant , S = sonorant ( /j/, /r/, /l/, /w/ , or any nasal consonant ), and V = vowel . As with other Austronesian languages, native Javanese roots consist of two syllables; words consisting of more than three syllables are broken up into groups of disyllabic words for pronunciation. In Modern Javanese, a disyllabic root is of the following type: nCsvVnCsvVC. Apart from Madurese , Javanese
9317-475: The foundational texts for Shaiva Siddhanta . Other Shaiva Agamas teach that these are one reality (monism, advaita ), and that Shiva is the Self, the perfection and truth within each living being. In Shiva related sub-traditions, there are ten dualistic Agama texts, eighteen qualified monism-cum-dualism Agama texts and sixty-four monism Agama texts. Shiva-related literature developed extensively across India in
9438-660: The god Shiva", and this term is the Sanskrit name both for one of the principal sects of Hinduism and for a member of that sect. It is used as an adjective to characterize certain beliefs and practices, such as Shaivism. Some authors associate the name with the Tamil word śivappu meaning "red", noting that Shiva is linked to the Sun ( śivan , "the Red one", in Tamil) and that Rudra
9559-437: The gods), Neelakanta, Subhankara, Trilokinatha (lord of the three realms), and Ghrneshwar (lord of compassion). The highest reverence for Shiva in Shaivism is reflected in his epithets Mahādeva ("Great god"; mahā "Great" and deva "god"), Maheśvara ("Great Lord"; mahā "great" and īśvara "lord"), and Parameśvara ("Supreme Lord"). Sahasranama are medieval Indian texts that list
9680-431: The government and people of Kediri. According to Chou K'u-fei, people wore clothes that covered them down to their legs, with a loose hairstyle. Their houses were clean and well arranged with floors made from green or yellow cut stones. Agriculture, animal farming, and trading flourished and gained the full attention of the government. He reported that silkworm farms to produce silk and cotton clothes had been adopted by
9801-504: The highest Brahman , not by any other means. — Kaivalya Upanishad 10 Shaiva devotees and ascetics are mentioned in Patanjali 's Mahābhāṣya (2nd-century BCE) and in the Mahabharata . The earliest iconic artworks of Shiva may be from Gandhara and northwest parts of ancient India. There is some uncertainty as the artwork that has survived is damaged and they show some overlap with meditative Buddha-related artwork, but
9922-486: The history of the Javanese language can be divided into two distinct phases: 1) Old Javanese and 2) New Javanese. The earliest attested form of Old Javanese can be found on the Sukabumi inscription at Kediri regency, East Java which dates from 804 CE. Between the 8th and the 15th century, this form of Javanese flourished in the island of Java. Old Javanese is commonly written in the form of verses. This language variety
10043-407: The inscription, there is a title Senapati Sarwwajala , or laksmana , a title reserved for navy generals, which means that Kediri had a navy during his reign. The eighth king was Kameçvara (Kameshwara). His formal stylised name was Çri Maharaja Rake Sirikan çri Kameçvara Sakalabhuwanatustikarana Sarwaniwaryyawiryya Parakrama Digjayottunggadewa . He uses the (winged shell) as his royal seal under
10164-449: The inscription. The next monarch was King Gandra his formal stylised name was Çri maharaja çri Kroncarryadipa Handabhuwanapalaka Parakramanindita Digjayottunggadewanama çri Gandra . An inscription (dated 1181) from his reign documents the beginning of the adoption of animal names for important officials, such as Kbo Salawah , Menjangan Puguh , Lembu Agra , Gajah Kuning , and Macan Putih . Among these highly ranked officials mentioned in
10285-543: The kingdom was also often referred to as Daha or Dahanapura, after its capital. The name "Daha" was used in the later Majapahit period, as the seat of the rival court of Trowulan . In the beginning, the name Pañjalu was used more often than the name Kediri. This can be found in the inscriptions published by the kings of Panjalu. The name Panjalu is also known as Pu-chia-lung in the Chinese chronicle entitled Ling wai tai ta (1178). Three types of land were used by
10406-423: The later Hindu deities Shiva and Rudra. Sir John Marshall and others suggested that this figure is a prototype of Shiva, with three faces, seated in a " yoga posture" with the knees out and feet joined. Semi-circular shapes on the head were interpreted as two horns. Scholars such as Gavin Flood , John Keay and Doris Meth Srinivasan have expressed doubts about this suggestion. Gavin Flood states that it
10527-483: The multiple facets of the same god or else were supposed to denote different forms and appellations by which the god came to be known and worshipped. [...] Siva became identified with countless local cults by the sheer suffixing of Isa or Isvara to the name of the local deity, e.g., Bhutesvara, Hatakesvara, Chandesvara." An example of assimilation took place in Maharashtra , where a regional deity named Khandoba
10648-523: The name Kamecwaralancana . During his reign, Mpu Dharmaja wrote Smaradhana , in which the king was adored as the incarnation of Kamajaya , the god of love, and his capital city Dahana was admired throughout the known world. Kameçvara's wife, Çri Kirana, was celebrated as the incarnation of Kamaratih , the goddess of love and passion. The tales of this story, known as the Panji cycle , spread throughout Southeast Asia as far as Siam . The last king of Kediri
10769-400: The native Austronesian base. Sanskrit has had a deep and lasting influence. The Old Javanese–English Dictionary contains approximately 25,500 entries, over 12,600 of which are borrowings from Sanskrit. Such a high number is no measure of usage, but it does suggest the extent to which the language adopted Sanskrit words for formal purposes. In a typical Old Javanese literary work about 25% of
10890-486: The population of Jakarta are of Javanese descent, so they speak Javanese or have knowledge of it. In the province of West Java , many people speak Javanese, especially those living in the areas bordering Central Java , the cultural homeland of the Javanese. Almost a quarter of the population of East Java province are Madurese (mostly on the Isle of Madura ); many Madurese have some knowledge of colloquial Javanese. Since
11011-551: The population of some 500,000 are of Javanese descent, among whom 75,000 speak Javanese. A local variant evolved: the Tyoro Jowo-Suriname or Suriname Javanese . The phonemes of Modern Standard Javanese as shown below. In closed syllables the vowels /i u e o/ are pronounced [ɪ ʊ ɛ ɔ] respectively. In open syllables, /e o/ are also [ɛ ɔ] when the following vowel is /i u/ in an open syllable; otherwise they are /ə/ , or identical ( /e...e/, /o...o/ ). In
11132-506: The premises, and relief artwork showing aspects of Shiva. The Tantric Shiva ( "शिव ") tradition ignored the mythologies and Puranas related to Shiva, and depending on the sub-school developed a variety of practices. For example, historical records suggest the tantric Kapalikas (literally, the 'skull-men') co-existed with and shared many Vajrayana Buddhist rituals, engaged in esoteric practices that revered Shiva and Shakti wearing skulls, begged with empty skulls, and sometimes used meat as
11253-511: The presence of Shiva's trident and phallic symbolism in this art suggests it was likely Shiva. Numismatics research suggests that numerous coins of the ancient Kushan Empire (30–375 CE) that have survived, were images of a god who is probably Shiva. The Shiva in Kushan coins is referred to as Oesho of unclear etymology and origins, but the simultaneous presence of Indra and Shiva in the Kushan era artwork suggest that they were revered deities by
11374-568: The present day, the Latin script dominates writings, although the Javanese script is still taught as part of the compulsory Javanese language subject in elementary up to high school levels in Yogyakarta, Central and East Java. Javanese is the twenty-second largest language by native speakers and the seventh largest language without official status at the national level. It is spoken or understood by approximately 100 million people. At least 45% of
11495-733: The proud flow of the Ganga upon his braid. The monist Shiva literature posit absolute oneness, that is Shiva is within every man and woman, Shiva is within every living being, Shiva is present everywhere in the world including all non-living being, and there is no spiritual difference between life, matter, man and Shiva. The various dualistic and monist Shiva-related ideas were welcomed in medieval southeast Asia, inspiring numerous Shiva-related temples, artwork and texts in Indonesia, Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Thailand and Malaysia, with syncretic integration of local pre-existing theologies. Shaivism
11616-521: The reign of Kertajaya , and is told in Pararaton and Nagarakretagama . In 1222 Kertajaya was fighting against the brahmins . Then the Brahmins asked for protection from Ken Arok akuwu of Tumapel . Incidentally, Ken Arok also aspires to liberate Tumapel which is Kadiri's subordinate area. The climax of the battle between Kadiri and Tumapel occurred near the village of Ganter ( Genter ), in
11737-554: The same form and meaning as in Indonesian, with a few exceptions such as: The word sepur also exists in Indonesian, but there it has preserved the literal Dutch meaning of "railway tracks", while the Javanese word follows Dutch figurative use, and "spoor" (lit. "rail") is used as metonymy for "trein" (lit. "train"). (Compare a similar metonymic use in English: "to travel by rail" may be used for "to travel by train".) Malay
11858-595: The situation, are similar to those of the Greek god Dionysus , as are their iconic associations with bull, snakes, anger, bravery, dancing and carefree life. The ancient Greek texts of the time of Alexander the Great call Shiva "Indian Dionysus", or alternatively call Dionysus "god of the Orient" . Similarly, the use of phallic symbol as an icon for Shiva is also found for Irish, Nordic, Greek (Dionysus ) and Roman deities, as
11979-540: The six provinces of Java itself, and in the neighboring Sumatran province of Lampung . The language is spoken in Yogyakarta , Central and East Java , as well as on the north coast of West Java and Banten . It is also spoken elsewhere by the Javanese people in other provinces of Indonesia, who are numerous due to the government-sanctioned transmigration program in the late 20th century, including Lampung , Jambi , and North Sumatra provinces. In Suriname, Javanese
12100-517: The spice trade. Daha, the capital city of Kediri, (suggested to be at the same site as modern Kediri ) is located inland, near the fertile Brantas river valley. From the predecessor kingdom of Airlangga's Kahuripan, Kediri inherited irrigation systems, including the Wringin Sapta dam. Kediri economy was partly monetised, with silver coins issued by the royal court. In later periods, Kediri economy grew to rely more heavily on trade, especially
12221-655: The spice trade. This resulted from Kediri's development of a navy, allowing them to control the spice trade routes to eastern islands. Kediri collected spices from tributaries in southern Kalimantan and the Maluku Islands . Indians and Southeast Asians then transported the spices to Mediterranean and Chinese markets by way of the Spice Route which linked a chain of ports from the Indian Ocean to southern China. The kingdom of Kediri collapsed during
12342-409: The standard dialect of Surakarta, /a/ is pronounced [ɔ] in word-final open syllables, and in any open penultimate syllable before such an [ɔ] . The Javanese "voiced" phonemes are not in fact voiced but voiceless, with breathy voice on the following vowel. The relevant distinction in phonation of the plosives is described as stiff voice versus slack voice . A Javanese syllable can have
12463-592: The start of the Kushan Empire. The Shaiva Upanishads are a group of 14 minor Upanishads of Hinduism variously dated from the last centuries of the 1st millennium BCE through the 17th century. These extol Shiva as the metaphysical unchanging reality Brahman and the Atman (Self), and include sections about rites and symbolisms related to Shiva. The Shaiva Puranas , particularly the Shiva Purana and
12584-509: The stomach of Hiranyakasipu (King of the Giants). The name is Jayabhaya was immortalised in Sedah's Kakawin Bharatayuddha , a Javanese version of the Mahabharata , written in 1135. This Kakawin was perfected by his brother, Mpu Panuluh. Mpu Panuluh wrote Hariwangsa and Gatotkacasraya . Jayabhaya's reign was considered the golden age of Old Javanese literature. The Prelambang Joyoboyo ,
12705-413: The stratification of Javanese into speech levels such as ngoko and krama , which were unknown in Old Javanese. Books in Javanese have been printed since 1830s, at first using the Javanese script , although the Latin alphabet started to be used later. Since mid-19th century, Javanese has been used in newspapers and travelogues, and later, also novels, short stories, as well as free verses. Today, it
12826-474: The total population of Indonesia are of Javanese descent or live in an area where Javanese is the dominant language. All seven Indonesian presidents since 1945 have been of Javanese descent. It is therefore not surprising that Javanese has had a deep influence on the development of Indonesian, the national language of Indonesia . There are three main dialects of the modern language: Central Javanese, Eastern Javanese, and Western Javanese. These three dialects form
12947-680: The transgression of established mores, the Aum sound, the Supreme Self. In the Rig Veda the term śiva is used to refer to Indra. (2.20.3, 6.45.17, and 8.93.3. ) Indra, like Shiva, is likened to a bull. In the Rig Veda, Rudra is the father of the Maruts , but he is never associated with their warlike exploits as is Indra. Indra himself may have been adopted by the Vedic Aryans from
13068-556: The vocabulary is from Sanskrit. Many Javanese personal names also have clearly recognisable Sanskrit roots. Sanskrit words are still very much in use. Modern speakers may describe Old Javanese and Sanskrit words as kawi (roughly meaning "literary"); but kawi words may also be from Arabic . Dutch and Malay are influential as well; but none of these rivals the position of Sanskrit. There are far fewer Arabic loanwords in Javanese than in Malay, and they are usually concerned with Islamic religion. Nevertheless, some words have entered
13189-495: The word Jalu which means male (Indonesian jantan) and the prefix Pang (Indonesian pe-, thus Indonesian pejantan, or one who is male ), and in this regional context means a fertile and independent area. The term Kadiri is a synonym of the word Pangjalu, and it also means independent. The name "Kadiri" or "Kediri" also comes from the Sanskrit word Khadri which means India Mulberry ( Morinda citrifolia ), locally known as pacé or mengkudu tree. The bark of morinda produces
13310-507: Was Garudmukhalancana or Garudmukha , the same as Airlangga's. He was succeeded by Çri Jyitêndrakara Parakrama Bhakta (1051–1112). It is not known exactly when Çri Bamesvara ascended the throne of the Kediri Kingdom. The Lanchana (royal seal) of his reign was a skull with a crescent moon called chandrakapala , the symbol of Shiva . During the reign of Maharaja Çri Bamesvara himself, there were at least ten inscriptions containing
13431-403: Was Kritajaya/Kertajaya (1194–1222), King Çrngga or Kritajaya ruled Kediri, with the official name Çri maharaja çri Sarwweçwara Triwikramawataranindita Çrngga lancana Digwijayottunggadewa . He used a Crnggalancana picture of (Cangkha) flanked by two horns and continued with the words "Krtajaya" above. The presence of dominant horns makes this badge called Crnggalancana or horned badge. In 1222, he
13552-399: Was also adopted (as Pegon ) to write Javanese. The rise of Mataram in the 17th century shifted the main literary form of Javanese to be based on the inland variety. This written tradition was preserved by writers of Surakarta and Yogyakarta , and later became the basis of the modern written standard of the language. Another linguistic development associated with the rise of Mataram is
13673-460: Was defeated by Ken Arok. After successfully killing Kertanegara, Jayakatwang rebuilt the kingdom of Kediri but lasted only one year due to a combined attack launched by Yuan dynasty troops and Raden Wijaya troops who later founded Majapahit . According to Jiyu and Petak inscriptions, during the end of the Majapahit era in the 15th century, there was a brief resurrection of Daha (Kediri) as
13794-922: Was forced to surrender his throne to Ken Arok and so lost the sovereignty of his kingdom to the new kingdom of Singhasari . This was the result of his defeat at the battle of Ganter . This event marked the end of the Kediri era, and the beginning of the Singhasari era. The Kediri kingdom existed alongside the Srivijaya empire based in Sumatra throughout the 11th to 12th century and seems to have maintained trade relations with China and to some extent India. Chinese accounts identify this kingdom as Tsao-wa or Chao-wa (Java). The number of Chinese records signifies that Chinese explorers and traders frequented this kingdom. Relations with India were cultural, as several Javanese rakawi (poets or scholars) wrote literature that
13915-418: Was influenced by Indonesian’s first person plural inclusive pronoun. Pronoun pluralization can be ignored or expressed by using phrases such as aku kabèh 'we', awaké dhéwé 'us', dhèwèké kabèh 'them' and so on. Personal pronoun in Javanese, especially for the second and third person, are more often replaced by certain nouns or titles. In addition to the pronoun described in the table below, Javanese still has
14036-558: Was inspired by Hindu mythology, beliefs, and epics such as Mahabharata and Ramayana . In the 11th century, Srivijayan hegemony in the Indonesian archipelago began to decline, marked by Rajendra Chola's invasion of the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra. The Chola king of Coromandel conquered Kedah from Srivijaya . The weakening of Srivijayan hegemony has enabled the formation of regional kingdoms, like Kediri, based on agriculture rather than trade. Later Kediri managed to control
14157-408: Was the lingua franca of the Indonesian archipelago before the proclamation of Indonesian independence in 1945; and Indonesian, which was based on Malay, is now the official language of Indonesia. As a consequence, there has been an influx of Malay and Indonesian vocabulary into Javanese. Many of these words are concerned with bureaucracy or politics. [Javanese Ngoko is on the left, and Javanese Krama
14278-424: Was the idea of this aniconic column linking heaven and earth among early Indo-Aryans, states Roger Woodward. Others contest such proposals, and suggest Shiva to have emerged from indigenous pre-Aryan tribal origins. Shiva as we know him today shares many features with the Vedic god Rudra , and both Shiva and Rudra are viewed as the same personality in Hindu scriptures . The two names are used synonymously. Rudra,
14399-551: Was used daily in approximately 43% of Indonesian households. By this reckoning there were well over 60 million Javanese speakers, from a national population of 147,490,298. In Banten, the descendants of the Central Javanese conquerors who founded the Islamic Sultanate there in the 16th century still speak an archaic form of Javanese. The rest of the population mainly speaks Sundanese and Indonesian, since this province borders directly on Jakarta. At least one third of
14520-582: Was widely viewed as both the god of lust and of asceticism. In one story, he was seduced by a prostitute sent by the other gods, who were jealous of Shiva's ascetic lifestyle he had lived for 1000 years. Prehistoric rock paintings dating to the Mesolithic from Bhimbetka rock shelters have been interpreted by some authors as depictions of Shiva. However, Howard Morphy states that these prehistoric rock paintings of India, when seen in their context, are likely those of hunting party with animals, and that
14641-479: Was Çri Sarwweçwara/ Sarvesvara (1159–1171) the royal symbol is named Sarwwecwaralancana , wing-shaped numbering nine and at the end, there is a crested circle. Where everything is surrounded by three striped circles. followed by Çri Aryyeçwara/ Aryesvara (1171–1181), who used Ganesha the elephant-headed god as Lanchana of his kingdom. and became the (royal seal) of his reign and the Kingdom of Kadiri as stated in
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