Misplaced Pages

#845154

122-564: Kentucky Avenue was the hub of the black entertainment district in Atlantic City from the 1940s through 1960s. The district (known as "Kentucky Avenue and the Curb") had been home to African-Americans in the racially-segregated city since the end of World War I. Kentucky Avenue, between Arctic and Atlantic Avenues, was home to many black-owned businesses, among them nightclubs that attracted both black and white clientele. The premier nightclub

244-770: A Black student from attending its public elementary schools and instead established a separate segregated school when it was sued. Portland's public schools were integrated in 1872. Congress passed the Reconstruction Acts of 1867, ratified the Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1870, granting African Americans the right to vote, and it also enacted the Civil Rights Act of 1875 forbidding racial segregation in accommodations. Federal occupation in

366-646: A Democrat from North Carolina, accused him of trying to break down segregation laws, Ickes wrote him to deny that: The New Deal, nonetheless, also provided federal benefits to Black Americans. This led many to become part of the New Deal coalition from their base in Northern and Western cities where they could now vote, having in large numbers left the South during the Great Migration . Influenced in part by

488-404: A backlash among white Republicans led to the rise of the lily-white movement to remove African Americans from leadership positions in the party and to incite riots to divide the party, with the ultimate goal of eliminating black influence. By 1910, segregation was firmly established across the South and most of the border region, and only a small number of black leaders were allowed to vote across

610-606: A bipartisan infrastructure bill with about $ 110 billion for roads and bridges. As of 2010, seat belt use is mandatory in all states except New Hampshire . Seat belt use is also mandatory in Washington, D.C. , the national capital, and the five inhabited U.S. territories . Greyhound Lines is the largest intercity bus company in the United States, with routes in all parts of the contiguous U.S. There are also many smaller regional bus companies, many of which use

732-439: A car whose occupants they believed had shot into their homes and mistakenly killed two policemen riding in a car. The next day, a full-scaled riot erupted which ended only after nine whites and thirty-nine blacks had been killed and over three hundred buildings were destroyed. Anti-miscegenation laws (also known as miscegenation laws) prohibited whites and non-whites from marrying each other. The first ever anti-miscegenation law

854-543: A college for African Americans in New Haven, Connecticut. Black schools were established by some religious groups and philanthropists to educate African Americans. Oberlin Academy was one of the early schools to integrate. Lowell High School also accepted African American students. California passed a law prohibiting "Negroes, Mongolians and Indians" from attending public schools. It took ten or more minorities in

976-458: A colored person"— or vice versa—each party "shall be guilty of a felony" and face prison terms of five years. In 1965, Virginia trial court Judge Leon Bazile, who heard their original case, defended his decision: Almighty God created the races white , black , yellow , Malay , and red , and placed them on separate continents , and but for the interference with his arrangement there would be no cause for such marriages. The fact that he separated

1098-427: A community to petition for a segregated school or these groups were denied access to public education. The state's superintendent of schools, Andrew Moulder , stated: "The great mass of our citizens will not associate in terms of equality with these inferior races, nor will they consent that their children do so." In Colorado housing and school segregation lasted into the 1960s. In 1867, Portland, Oregon prevented

1220-591: A designation created for the legacy highway network in 1995, comprising 160,000 miles (256,000 kilometers) of roadway, a fraction of the total mileage of roads. The Interstate system serves nearly all major U.S. cities, often through the downtown areas, which triggered freeway and expressway revolts in the 1960s and 1970s. The distribution of many goods and services involves Interstate highways at some point. Residents of American cities commonly use urban Interstates to travel to their places of work. The vast majority of long-distance travel, whether for vacation or business,

1342-491: A disadvantage when it came to the job market, which led to a decrease in marriage rates in the black community due to the large number of men that weren't financially secure enough to take care of a family. Hypersegregation was prominent in creating an isolated community for African Americans in the United States. This pattern was consistent in making African American residents unstable financially which spread to other poor living conditions. The pattern of hypersegregation began in

SECTION 10

#1732802257846

1464-458: A given neighborhood not to sell to blacks. Whites who broke these agreements could be sued by "damaged" neighbors. In the 1948 case of Shelley v. Kraemer , the U.S. Supreme Court finally ruled that such covenants were unenforceable in a court of law. Residential segregation patterns had already become established in most American cities, and have often persisted up to the present from the impact of white flight and redlining . In most cities,

1586-510: A handful of northern colleges accepted black students. Northern denominations and especially their missionary associations established private schools across the South to provide secondary education. They provided a small amount of collegiate work. Tuition was minimal, so churches financially supported the colleges and also subsidized the pay of some teachers. In 1900, churches—mostly based in the North—operated 247 schools for black people across

1708-489: A loss of ridership. As the civil air transportation network of airports and other infrastructure expanded, air travel became more accessible to the general population. Technological advances ushered in the jet age , which increased airline capacity, while decreasing travel times and the cost of flights. The costs of flying rapidly decreased intercity rail ridership by the late 1960s to a point where railroads could no longer profitably operate networks of passenger trains. By

1830-539: A minority lives on within its particular city. The higher segregation is within that particular area, the smaller the amount of land a minority group will control. In the 1980s, the rise of hypersegregation was distinctively large in Black neighborhoods. The extreme segregation of African Americans resulted in a different society lived by black and white residents. The isolation of the African American community

1952-525: A new era of mobility in the United States. The early 20th century Lincoln Highway and other auto trails gave way in the 1920s to an early national highway system making the automobile the primary mode of travel for most Americans. Interurban rail service declined, followed by trolley cars due in part to the advent of motorized buses and the lack of dedicated rights-of-way but also by deliberate efforts to dismantle urban rail infrastructure. The scarcity of industrial materials during World War II slowed

2074-720: A parking lot. In addition to saluting the entertainment of yesteryear, organizers hoped the festival would spark interest in redeveloping the former entertainment district on Kentucky Avenue. The festival was staged every summer after that until 2001. In 2011 the Polaris Development Group, headed by Steven Young, in cooperation with the Atlantic City Public Library, the Casino Reinvestment Development Authority, and local business owners, reintroduced

2196-473: A result of aging infrastructure and poor road conditions. The United States continues to follow a method of attempting to resolve congestion by widening roadways. From 1993 to 2017, the nation's largest 100 urbanized areas added 42% more freeway lane milage, despite population growing by only 32%. However, this policy of widening roadways resulted in a 144% increase in congestion, due to the concept of induced demand . The trucking industry (also referred to as

2318-574: A segregated audience in Jacksonville, Florida . City officials relented following this announcement. A contract for a 1965 Beatles concert at the Cow Palace in Daly City, California , specifies that the band "not be required to perform in front of a segregated audience". Despite all the legal changes that have taken place since the 1940s and especially in the 1960s (see Desegregation ),

2440-919: A series of race riots. In 1898 white citizens of Wilmington, North Carolina , resenting African Americans' involvement in local government and incensed by an editorial in an African-American newspaper accusing white women of loose sexual behavior, rioted and killed dozens of blacks. In the fury's wake, white supremacists overthrew the city government , expelling black and white officeholders, and instituted restrictions to prevent blacks from voting . In Atlanta in 1906, newspaper accounts alleging attacks by black men on white women provoked an outburst of shooting and killing that left twelve blacks dead and seventy injured. An influx of unskilled black strikebreakers into East St Louis, Illinois , heightened racial tensions in 1917. Rumors that blacks were arming themselves for an attack on whites resulted in numerous attacks by white mobs on black neighborhoods. On July 1, blacks fired back at

2562-554: A similar requirement existed. The federal government required them to be explicitly segregated to be federally backed. The federal government's financial backing also required the use of racially restrictive covenants , that banned white homeowners from reselling their house to any Black buyers, effectively locking Black Americans out of the housing market. The government encouraged white families to move into suburbs by granting them loans, which were refused to Black Americans. Many established African American communities were disrupted by

SECTION 20

#1732802257846

2684-410: A single space; clustering often leads to one big ghetto and the formation of "hyperghettoization". Centralization measures the tendency of members of a minority group to be located in the middle of an urban area, often computed as a percentage of a minority group living in the middle of a city (as opposed to the outlying areas). Concentration is the dimension that relates to the actual amount of land

2806-592: Is by the national road network; of these trips, about one-third (by the total number of miles driven in the country in 2003) utilize the Interstate system. In addition to the routes of the Interstate system, there are those of the U.S. highway system . These routes, which are unrelated to those of the National Highway System, are supplemented by State Highways , and the local roads of counties , municipal streets , and federal agencies, such as

2928-449: Is no single national flag airline ; passenger airlines in the United States have always been privately owned. There are over 200 domestic passenger and cargo airlines and a number of international carriers. The major international carriers of the United States are Delta Air Lines , American Airlines , and United Airlines . Low-cost carrier Southwest Airlines operates few international routes, but has grown its domestic operations to

3050-896: Is partly funded by the federal government but owned and maintained by individual state governments. There are a few private highways in the United States , which use tolls to pay for construction and maintenance. There are many local private roads , generally serving remote or insular residences. Passenger and freight rail systems, bus systems, water ferries, and dams may be under either public or private ownership and operation. Civilian airlines are all privately owned. Most airports are owned and operated by local government authorities, but there are also some private airports. The Transportation Security Administration has provided security at most major airports since 2001. The U.S. Department of Transportation and its divisions provide regulation, supervision, and funding for all aspects of transportation, except for customs, immigration, and security, which are

3172-574: Is shared between the state and federal governments, while the United States Coast Guard is the primary enforcer of law and security on U.S. waterways. Passenger transportation is dominated by a network of over 3.9 million miles of highways which is pervasive and highly developed by global standards. Passenger transportation is dominated by passenger vehicles (including cars , trucks , vans, and motorcycles ), which account for 86% of passenger-miles traveled. The remaining 14%

3294-451: Is typically used only for perishables and premium express shipments. Transportation is the largest source of greenhouse gas emissions in the United States . The overwhelming majority of roads in the United States are owned and maintained by state and local governments. Federally maintained roads are generally found only on federal lands (such as national parks ) and at federal facilities (like military bases). The Interstate Highway System

3416-621: The 12th Academy Awards ceremony at the Ambassador Hotel in Los Angeles she was required to sit at a segregated table at the far wall of the room; the hotel had a no-blacks policy, but allowed McDaniel in as a favor. McDaniel's final wish to be buried in Hollywood Cemetery was denied because the graveyard was restricted to whites only. On September 11, 1964, John Lennon announced The Beatles would not play to

3538-661: The Accelerated Bridge Program in Massachusetts , but after some debate no increase in federal funding. The I-5 Skagit River bridge collapse in 2013, caused by a collision with an over-height truck , highlighted fracture critical bridges in which the failure of only one structural member will lead to complete collapse. According to the National Bridge Inventory , there are at least 600,000 bridges of 20 feet or more in length in

3660-543: The American economy by transporting large quantities of raw materials , works in process , and finished goods over land—typically from manufacturing plants to retail distribution centers. Trucks are also important to the construction industry, as dump trucks and portable concrete mixers are necessary to move the large amounts of rocks, dirt, concrete, and other construction material. Trucks in America are responsible for

3782-456: The Bureau of Indian Affairs . The five inhabited U.S. territories also have their own road networks. There are approximately 4,161,000 miles (6,696,000 km) of roads in the United States, 2,844,000 miles (4,577,000 km) paved and 1,317,000 miles (2,120,000 km) unpaved. State highways are constructed by each state, but frequently maintained by county governments aided by funding from

Kentucky Avenue Renaissance Festival - Misplaced Pages Continue

3904-602: The Civil Rights Act of 1875 , but it was overturned by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1883 in the Civil Rights Cases . The U.S. Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of segregation in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), so long as " separate but equal " facilities were provided, a requirement that was rarely met. The doctrine's applicability to public schools was unanimously overturned in Brown v. Board of Education (1954). In

4026-656: The Constitution of Massachusetts . Emlen Institution was a boarding school for African American and Native American orphans in Ohio and then Pennsylvania. Richard Humphreys bequeathed money to establish the Institute for Colored Youth in Philadelphia. Yale Law School co-founder, judge, and mayor of New Haven David Daggett was a leader in the fight against schools for African Americans and helped block plans for

4148-603: The Deep South . The legitimacy of laws requiring segregation of black people was upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court in the 1896 case of Plessy v. Ferguson , 163 U.S. 537. The Supreme Court sustained the constitutionality of a Louisiana statute that required railroad companies to provide " separate but equal " accommodations for white and black passengers, and prohibited white people and black people from using railroad cars that were not assigned to their race. Plessy thus allowed segregation, which became standard throughout

4270-595: The Marines had no blacks enlisted in their ranks. There were blacks in the Navy Seabees . Before the war, the army had only five African-American officers. No African American received the Medal of Honor during the war, and they were mostly relegated to non-combat units. Black soldiers were sometimes forced to give up their seats in trains to Nazi prisoners of war. World War II saw the first black military pilots in

4392-571: The Officer Candidate School became the Army's first formal experiment with integration – with all Officer Candidates, regardless of race, living and training together. During World War II , 110,000 people of Japanese descent (whether citizens or not) were placed in internment camps . Hundreds of people of German and Italian descent were also imprisoned (see German American internment and Italian American internment ). While

4514-705: The Republican Party in the South splintered and lost support, leading to the conservatives (calling themselves " Redeemers ") taking control of all the Southern states. 'Jim Crow' segregation began somewhat later, in the 1880s. Disfranchisement of black people began in the 1890s. Although the Republican Party had championed African-American rights during the Civil War and had become a platform for black political influence during Reconstruction,

4636-583: The Toledo War between Ohio and Michigan in the 1830s. The disputed Erie Triangle was awarded to Pennsylvania, giving that state access to Lake Erie . Most of West Florida was given to Mississippi and Alabama to guarantee their access to the Gulf of Mexico . Development of the mid-western and southern states drained by the Mississippi River system ( Mississippi , Ohio and Missouri Rivers )

4758-734: The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency implemented revised emission standards for diesel trucks (reducing airborne pollutants emitted by diesel engines) which promises to improve air quality and public health. Within the United States: With adjacent countries: Each state has its own traffic code , although most of the rules of the road are similar for the purpose of uniformity, given that all states grant reciprocal driving privileges (and penalties ) to each other's licensed drivers. The United States has advanced air transportation infrastructure which utilizes approximately 5,000 paved runways. In terms of passenger traffic, 17 of

4880-419: The federal civil service , according to Brian J. Cook in his work, Democracy And Administration: Woodrow Wilson's Ideas And The Challenges Of Public Management . White and black people were sometimes required to eat separately, go to separate schools, use separate public toilets, park benches, train, buses, and water fountains, etc. In some locales, stores and restaurants refused to serve different races under

5002-681: The hours of service , which are regulations governing the driving hours of commercial drivers. These, and all other rules regarding the safety of interstate commercial driving, are issued by the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration (FMCSA). The FMCSA is also a division of the United States Department of Transportation (USDOT), which governs all transportation-related industries such as trucking, shipping , railroads , and airlines . Some other issues are handled by another branch of

Kentucky Avenue Renaissance Festival - Misplaced Pages Continue

5124-587: The southern United States , and represented the institutionalization of the Jim Crow period. Everyone was supposed to receive the same public services (schools, hospitals, prisons, etc.), but with separate facilities for each race. In practice, the services and facilities reserved for African-Americans were almost always of lower quality than those reserved for white people, if they existed at all; for example, most African-American schools received less public funding per student than nearby white schools. Segregation

5246-678: The " Black Cabinet " advisors and the March on Washington Movement , just prior to America's entry into World War II, Roosevelt issued Executive Order 8802 , the first anti-discrimination order at the federal level and established the Fair Employment Practices Committee . Roosevelt's successor, President Harry Truman appointed the President's Committee on Civil Rights , and issued Executive Order 9980 and Executive Order 9981 providing for desegregation throughout

5368-503: The 1930s . The US government heavily advertised the suburbs to them and the subsidized mortgages the government provided were typically cheaper than monthly rent. These same mortgages were not provided to Black Americans in public housing , leading to overcrowding, while white public housing sat vacant. As industry began to move out of the inner city, the African-American residents lost the stable jobs that had brought them to

5490-726: The 1930s as a whole was racially segregated; black people and whites rarely worked alongside each other in New Deal programs. The largest relief program by far was the Works Progress Administration (WPA); it operated segregated units, as did its youth affiliate, the National Youth Administration (NYA). Black people were hired by the WPA as supervisors in the North; of 10,000 WPA supervisors in

5612-648: The 1990s there have been some small experiments with toll roads operated by private companies. After the collapse of the I-35W Mississippi River bridge in Minnesota in August 2007, the backlog of road and bridge maintenance across the country became an issue in transportation funding. The collapse prompted a tax increase in Minnesota to speed up bridge repairs, and action in other states, such as

5734-489: The 19th Century gradually reduced their presence. The rapid expansion of railroads brought the canal boom to a sudden end, providing a quick, scheduled and year-round mode of transportation that quickly spread to interconnect the states by the mid-19th century. During the industrialization of the United States after the Civil War , railroads, led by the transcontinental rail system in the 1860s, expanded quickly across

5856-410: The 46,000 mile (75,000 km) nationwide Interstate highway network. Changes by state initiative may be made with federal approval. A large number of expressways are actually government or privately operated toll roads in many East Coast and Midwestern states. West Coast freeways are generally free to users, which is the basis of their name, since freeways have no toll charged per use, although since

5978-438: The Casino Reinvestment Development Authority commissioned a mural honoring the former Kentucky Avenue entertainment district. Painted on a brick wall near the corner of Kentucky and Baltic Avenues, the 10-by-64-foot (3.0 m × 19.5 m) mural depicts leading musicians who once performed in the area's nightclubs, such as singers Sammy Davis Jr. , Billy Eckstine , and Ella Fitzgerald , and drummer Chris Columbo. The mural

6100-591: The Club Harlem orchestra for 34 years, performed, as did a dance troupe recreating the "Smart Affairs" revue headquartered at Club Harlem. Reintroduced in 2011 after a ten-year hiatus, the renamed Historical Kentucky Avenue Renaissance Festival drew an estimated 1,000 attendees over the course of the day. Together with live R&B and jazz music, dance groups, and street performers , the festival features historical exhibits. Attendees come from Atlantic City as well as nearby Philadelphia , Pennsylvania. In July 1996

6222-498: The German Autobahn system. By 1945, after the end of World War II , nearly every city in America had at least one electric tram company providing intra-city transportation. There were an estimated 36,377 light rail vehicles in operation. Increased automobile ownership cut this number by 1/3 by 1965. The airline industry began to successfully compete with intercity rail as a result of government investment, which suffered

SECTION 50

#1732802257846

6344-625: The South helped allow many black people to vote and elect their own political leaders. The Reconstruction amendments asserted the supremacy of the national state and they also asserted that everyone within it was formally equal under the law. However, it did not prohibit segregation in schools. When the Republicans came to power in the Southern states after 1867, they created the first system of taxpayer-funded public schools. Southern black people wanted public schools for their children, but they did not demand racially integrated schools. Almost all

6466-457: The South, only 11 were black. Historian Anthony Badger argues, "New Deal programs in the South routinely discriminated against black people and perpetuated segregation." In its first few weeks of operation, Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) camps in the North were integrated. By July 1935, practically all the CCC camps in the United States were segregated, and black people were strictly limited in

6588-627: The South, with a budget of about $ 1 million. They employed 1600 teachers and taught 46,000 students. Prominent schools included Howard University , a private, federally chartered institution based in Washington, D.C.; Fisk University in Nashville, Atlanta University , Hampton Institute in Virginia, and others. By the early 1870s, the North lost interest in further reconstruction efforts, and, when federal troops were withdrawn in 1877,

6710-409: The U.S. These five dimensions are evenness, clustering, exposure, centralization and concentration. Evenness is the difference between the percentage of a minority group in a particular part of a city, compared to the city as a whole. Exposure is the likelihood that a minority and a majority party will come in contact with one another. Clustering is the gathering of different minority groups into

6832-496: The U.S., he responded, "I hope not; I don’t believe in it", before asking a question often aimed at anyone advocating racial integration, "Would you want your daughter to marry a Negro? She won't love someone who isn't her color." In 1958, officers in Virginia entered the home of Richard and Mildred Loving and dragged them out of bed for living together as an interracial couple, on the basis that "any white person intermarry with

6954-504: The U.S., the Tuskegee Airmen , 99th Fighter Squadron, and also saw the segregated 183rd Engineer Combat Battalion participate in the liberation of Jewish survivors at Buchenwald concentration camp . Despite the institutional policy of racially segregated training for enlisted members and in tactical units; Army policy dictated that black and white soldiers train together in officer candidate schools (beginning in 1942). Thus,

7076-594: The USDOT, the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). Developments in technology, such as computers, satellite communication , and the internet, have contributed to many improvements within the industry. These developments have increased the productivity of company operations, saved the time and effort of drivers, and provided new, more accessible forms of entertainment to men and women who often spend long periods of time away from home. In 2006,

7198-731: The United States Armed Forces. A club central to the Harlem Renaissance in the 1920s, the Cotton Club in Harlem, New York City, was a whites-only establishment, with blacks (such as Duke Ellington ) allowed to perform, but to a white audience. The first black Oscar recipient Hattie McDaniel was not permitted to attend the premiere of Gone with the Wind with Atlanta being racially segregated , and at

7320-693: The United States and Canada rely more heavily on motorized transit over walking and bicycling with 86% of American workers commuting to work via private vehicle, costing an estimated additional $ 1500 per year commuting compared to Western European counterparts. Car ownership is on the decline but still 91% nationally. Car ownership is universal, except in the largest cities where extensive mass transit and railroad systems have been built, with lowest car ownership rates in New York City (44%), Washington, D.C. (62%), Boston (63%), Philadelphia (67%), San Francisco (69%), and Baltimore (69%). With

7442-407: The United States remains, to some degree, a segregated society, with housing patterns, school enrollment, church membership, employment opportunities, and even college admissions all reflecting significant de facto segregation. Supporters of affirmative action argue that the persistence of such disparities reflects either racial discrimination or the persistence of its effects. Gates v. Collier

SECTION 60

#1732802257846

7564-452: The United States to serve industries and the growing cities. During the late 19th century, railroads often had built redundant routes to a competitor's road or built through sparsely populated regions that generated little traffic. These marginal rail routes survived the pricing pressures of competition, or the lack of revenue generated by low traffic, as long as railroads provided the only efficient economical way to move goods and people across

7686-535: The United States, all subject to deterioration in the absence of preventative maintenance. In December 2008, 72,868 bridges in the United States (12.1%) were categorized as "structurally deficient", representing an estimated $ 48 billion in repairs. President Barack Obama proposed $ 50 billion of spending on road and bridge repair, plus a national infrastructure bank, but Congress did not act on these proposals. President Donald Trump also failed to get infrastructure funding approved. In 2021, President Joe Biden signed

7808-557: The United States, especially in the South, signs were used to indicate where African Americans could legally walk, talk, drink, rest, or eat. With the passing of National Housing Act of 1934 , the United States government began to make low-interest mortgages available to families through the Federal Housing Administration (FHA). Black families were explicitly denied these loans. While technically legally allowed these loans, in practice they were barred. This

7930-422: The United States. In addition to the intercity passenger network running on Class I and II railroads, a large network of interurban ( trolley or "street running") rail lines extended out from the cities and interchanged passenger and freight traffic with the railroads and also provided competition. The advent of the automobile signaled the end of railroads as the predominant transportation for people and began

8052-724: The area. Many were unable to leave the inner city and became increasingly poor. This created the inner-city ghettos that make up the core of hypersegregation. Though the Civil Rights Act of 1968 banned discrimination in housing, housing patterns established earlier saw the perpetuation of hypersegregation. Data from the 2000 census shows that 29 metropolitan areas displayed black-white hypersegregation. Two areas—Los Angeles and New York City—displayed Hispanic-white hypersegregation. No metropolitan area displayed hypersegregation for Asians or for Native Americans. President Woodrow Wilson removed many Blacks from public office. He did not oppose segregation practices by autonomous department heads of

8174-465: The ban on interracial marriage was still enforced in 29 states. While interracial marriage had been legal in California since 1948, in 1957 actor Sammy Davis Jr. faced a backlash for his involvement with white actress Kim Novak . Harry Cohn , the president of Columbia Pictures (with whom Novak was under contract) gave in to his concerns that a racist backlash against the relationship could hurt

8296-642: The boarding school to one for only African American girls, but Crandall was jailed for her efforts for violating a Black Law . In 1835, an anti- abolitionist mob attacked and destroyed Noyes Academy , an integrated school in Canaan, New Hampshire founded by abolitionists in New England . In the 1849 case Roberts v. City of Boston , the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court ruled that segregated schools were allowed under

8418-560: The building of canals to speed goods to market. One such prominent example was the Erie Canal . Numerous modes of transportation fought for supremacy throughout the Industrial revolution of the 19th century. Canals swiftly took the role of turnpikes, stagecoaches , and wagon routes, which in turn were shortly replaced by steam-powered riverboats . During this period, the advancement in transportation inspired many artists to display

8540-499: The clubs. On summer weekends, the music and entertainment went on around the clock. The district went into decline after an April 2, 1972 Easter morning shootout at Club Harlem. Four members of the Black Mafia entered the club during a show attended by an estimated 600 people and shot a rival operative point-blank at his table, ostensibly in retaliation for a drug deal. The dealer's bodyguard and three other women were killed in

8662-510: The delivery of overland mail, such as the Boston Post Road between New York City and Boston . Due to the distances between these population centers and the cost to maintain the roads, many highways in the late 18th century and early 19th century were private turnpikes . Other highways were mainly unimproved and impassable by wagon at least some of the year. Economic expansion in the late 18th century to early 19th century spurred

8784-567: The development of the extensive Eisenhower Interstate Highway System in the 1950s, both long distance trips and daily commutes were mostly by private automobile . This network was designed to exacting federal standards in order to receive federal funding. The system, as of 2010 , has a total length of 47,182 miles (75,932 km), making it the world's second longest after China 's, and the largest public works project in US history. The Interstate system joined an existing National Highway System ,

8906-422: The early 1970s almost all passenger rail operation and ownership had been transferred to various federal, municipal and state agencies. Freight railroads continued to decline as motor freight captured a significant portion of the less-than-carload business. This loss of business, when combined with the highly regulated operating environment and constrained pricing power , forced many railroads into receivership and

9028-451: The early 20th century. African-Americans who moved to large cities often moved into the inner city in order to gain industrial jobs. The influx of new African-American residents caused many white residents to move to the new suburbs (federally subsidized for white families only ) in a case of white flight . This was encouraged by the government, as many were white middle-class families who lived in segregated public housing first established in

9150-553: The federal government and the armed forces. In an often-cited 1988 study, Douglas Massey and Nancy Denton compiled 20 existing segregation measures and reduced them to five dimensions of residential segregation. Dudley L. Poston and Michael Micklin argue that Massey and Denton "brought conceptual clarity to the theory of segregation measurement by identifying five dimensions". African Americans are considered to be racially segregated because of all five dimensions of segregation being applied to them within these inner cities across

9272-479: The festival as a way to cultivate interest in reviving the former entertainment district. The festival has been held annually since, aside from another break in 2014. In 2015 bad weather led to the rescheduling of the festival in November at The Claridge Hotel . The first festival, in 1992, featured free concerts, arts and crafts, and concessions selling barbecued ribs and other foods. Chris Columbo , who conducted

9394-421: The following years the court further ruled against racial segregation in several landmark cases including Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States (1964), which helped bring an end to the Jim Crow laws . Segregation was enforced across the U.S. for much of its history. Racial segregation follows two forms, De jure and De facto . De jure segregation mandated the separation of races by law, and

9516-495: The government program of Japanese American internment targeted all the Japanese in America as enemies, most German and Italian Americans were left in peace and were allowed to serve in the U.S. military. Pressure to end racial segregation in the government grew among African Americans and progressives after the end of World War II. On July 26, 1948, President Harry S. Truman signed Executive Order 9981 , ending segregation in

9638-582: The government to break down their resistance. On at least six occasions over nearly 60 years, the Supreme Court held, either explicitly or by necessary implication, that the "separate but equal" rule announced in Plessy was the correct rule of law, although, toward the end of that period, the Court began to focus on whether the separate facilities were in fact equal. The repeal of "separate but equal" laws

9760-525: The grand contrast from the past to the new. Taking a look at Samuel Colman 's work, one piece in particular, Storm King on the Hudson (1866) [1] displayed both the older sailboats and the grand steamboats that were overtaking the Hudson River . Access to water transportation shaped the geography of early settlements and boundaries. For example, the Erie Canal escalated the boundary dispute called

9882-546: The growth of automobile manufacturing briefly and contributed to the nation's declining rail network. In the 1950s, however, the United States renewed building a network of high-capacity, high-speed highways to link its vast territory. The most important element is the Interstate Highway system, first commissioned in the 1950s by President Dwight D. Eisenhower and modeled partly after the Italian autostrada and

10004-665: The highest rate of per-capita vehicle ownership in the world, with 865 vehicles per 1,000 Americans. Bicycle usage is minimal with the American Community Survey reporting that bicycle commuting had a 0.61% mode share in 2012 (representing 856,000 American workers nationwide). Freight transportation is carried by a variety of networks. The largest percentage of US freight is carried by trucks (60%), followed by pipelines (18%), rail (10%), ship (8%), and air (0.01%). Other modes of transportation, such as parcels and intermodal freight accounted for about 3% of

10126-492: The historical legacy of de jure segregation. Schools were segregated in the U.S. and educational opportunities for Black people were restricted. Efforts to establish schools for them were met with violent opposition from the public. The U.S. government established Indian boarding school where Native Americans were sent. The African Free School was established in New York City in the 18th century. Education during

10248-473: The largest freight transportation occupation, with approximately 2.83 million truck drivers. About 57.5 percent of these professional truck drivers operate heavy or tractor-trailer trucks and 28.2 percent drive light or delivery service trucks. According to Freight Facts and Figures 2015 , U.S. freight transportation system handled a record amount of freight in 2014. A daily average of approximately 55 million tons of freight valued at $ 49.3 billion moved across

10370-480: The late 18th century, overland transportation was by horse, while water and river transportation was primarily by sailing vessel. The United States population was centered on its Atlantic coast , with all major population centers located on a natural harbor or navigable waterway. Low population density between these centers resulted in a heavy reliance on coastwise and riverboat shipping. The first government expenditures on highway transportation were funded to speed

10492-401: The majority of freight movement over land, and are vital tools in the manufacturing, transportation, and warehousing industries. Large trucks and buses require a commercial driver's license (CDL) to operate. Obtaining a CDL requires extra education and training dealing with the special knowledge requirements and handling characteristics of such a large vehicle. Drivers of CMVs must adhere to

10614-458: The melee that ensued. The introduction of hotel casinos to Atlantic City further eroded the popularity of the district. Club Harlem was the last nightclub operating by the 1980s; it was shuttered in 1986 and demolished in 1992. The first Kentucky Avenue Renaissance Festival was held a few months after Club Harlem's demolition, in June 1992. The festival was held on and around the site of the club, now

10736-657: The nationalization of several critical eastern carriers into the Consolidated Rail Corporation (Conrail). Deregulation of the railroads by the Staggers Act in 1980 created a regulatory environment more favorable to the economics of the railroad industry. In the 1990s, the increase in foreign trade and intermodal container shipping led to a revival of the freight railroads, which have effectively consolidated into two eastern and two western private transportation networks: Union Pacific and BNSF in

10858-614: The new public schools were segregated, apart from a few in New Orleans . After the Republicans lost power in the mid-1870s, Southern Democrats retained the public school systems but sharply cut their funding. Almost all private academies and colleges in the South were strictly segregated by race. The American Missionary Association supported the development and establishment of several historically black colleges including Fisk University and Shaw University . In this period,

10980-544: The only way blacks could relieve the pressure of crowding that resulted from increasing migration was to expand residential borders into surrounding previously white neighborhoods, a process that often resulted in harassment and attacks by white residents whose intolerant attitudes were intensified by fears that black neighbors would cause property values to decline. Moreover, the increased presence of African Americans in cities, North and South, as well as their competition with whites for housing, jobs, and political influence sparked

11102-524: The package and cargo delivery market. The U.S. government's National Center for Health Statistics reported 33,736 motor vehicle traffic deaths in 2014. This exceeded the number of firearm deaths, which was 33,599 in 2014. In 2020 there was 115% more road fatalities in the US than in the European Union, or 53% less in the EU than in the US, with nearly 38,680 in the US, and nearly 18,800 in the EU. In

11224-455: The past decade, and despite the declining traffic volumes caused by the economic downturn, Americans still waste more than 2.8 billion US gallons (11 million cubic metres) of fuel each year as a result of traffic congestion. Motorists also waste 4.2 billion hours annually, or one full workweek per traveler. Moreover, it is estimated that drivers are wasting 6.9 billion hours per year or about 42 hours per driver in traffic congestion as

11346-606: The races shows that he did not intend the races to mix. In World War I , blacks served in the United States Armed Forces in segregated units. The 369th Infantry (formerly 15th New York National Guard) Regiment distinguished themselves, and were known as the " Harlem Hellfighters ". The U.S. military was still very segregated in World War II. The Army Air Corps (forerunner of the Air Force ) and

11468-437: The remainder. Air freight is commonly used only for perishables and premium express shipments. The difference in percentage of rail's share by ton-miles and by weight (10% vs 38%) is accounted for by the extreme efficiency of trains. A single railroad locomotive may pull fifty boxcars full of freight while a truck only pulls one. Trucks surpass trains in the weight category due their greater numbers, while trains surpass trucks in

11590-557: The responsibility of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security . Each state has its own Department of Transportation , which builds and maintains state highways, and depending upon the state, may either directly operate or supervise other modes of transportation. Aviation law is almost entirely the jurisdiction of the U.S. federal government , and automobile traffic laws are enacted and enforced by state and local authorities except on highways or roads on federal property or in unorganized territories . Economic jurisdiction over tidelands

11712-476: The routing of interstate highways through their neighborhoods. In order to build these elevated highways, the government destroyed tens of thousands of single-family homes. Because these properties were summarily declared to be "in decline", families were given pittances for their properties, and forced to move into federally-funded housing which was called " the projects ". To build these projects, still more single-family homes were demolished. The New Deal of

11834-639: The same roof. Public segregation was challenged by individual citizens on rare occasions but had minimal impact on civil rights issues, until December 1955, in Montgomery, Alabama, Rosa Parks refused to be moved to the back of a bus for a white passenger. Parks' civil disobedience had the effect of sparking the Montgomery bus boycott . Parks' act of defiance became an important symbol of the modern Civil Rights Movement and Parks became an international icon of resistance to racial segregation. Segregation

11956-460: The separation of roles within an institution. The U.S. Armed Forces were formally segregated until 1948 , as black units were separated from white units but were still typically led by white officers. In the 1857 Dred Scott case ( Dred Scott v. Sandford ), the U.S. Supreme Court found that Black people were not and could never be U.S. citizens and that the U.S. Constitution and civil rights were not applicable to them. Congress passed

12078-469: The slave period in the United States was limited. Richard Humphreys , Samuel Powers Emlen Jr , and Prudence Crandall established schools for African Americans in the decades preceding the Civil War. In 1832, Prudence Crandall admitted an African American girl to her all-white Canterbury Female Boarding School in Canterbury, Connecticut , resulting in public backlash and protests. She converted

12200-497: The state, where such counties exist as governing entities in mostly every state outside of the northeast . Counties construct and maintain all remaining roads outside cities, except in private communities. Local, unnumbered roads are often constructed by private contractors to local standards, then maintenance is assumed by the local government. All federal highways are maintained by state governments, although they receive federal aid to build and maintain freeways signed as part of

12322-510: The studio. Davis briefly married black dancer Loray White in 1958 to protect himself from mob violence. Inebriated at the wedding ceremony, Davis despairingly said to his best friend, Arthur Silber Jr., "Why won't they let me live my life?" The couple never lived together and commenced divorce proceedings in September 1958. When former president Harry S. Truman was asked by a reporter in 1963 if interracial marriage would become widespread in

12444-670: The supervisory roles they were assigned. Philip Klinkner and Rogers Smith argue that "even the most prominent racial liberals in the New Deal did not dare to criticize Jim Crow." Secretary of the Interior Harold Ickes was one of the Roosevelt Administration 's most prominent supporters of black people and former president of the Chicago chapter of the NAACP . In 1937, when Senator Josiah Bailey ,

12566-438: The terminal and booking facilities provided by Greyhound. Intercity bus is, in most cases, the least expensive way to travel long distances in the United States. Traffic congestion, especially at rush hour, is often considered a problem in many of the country's larger cities. A 2009 study claimed that traffic congestion costs the United States almost $ 87.2 billion. The economic costs of traffic congestion have increased 63% over

12688-434: The ton-miles category due to the vast distances they travel carrying large amounts of freight. Usually cargo, apart from petroleum and other bulk commodities, is imported in containers through seaports, then distributed by road and rail. The quasi-governmental United States Postal Service has a monopoly on letter delivery (except for express services) but several large private companies such as FedEx and UPS compete in

12810-423: The transportation or logistics industry) involves the transport and distribution of commercial and industrial goods using commercial motor vehicles (CMV). In this case, CMVs are most often trucks ; usually semi trucks , box trucks , or dump trucks . A truck driver (commonly referred to as a "trucker") is a person who earns a living as the driver of a CMV. The trucking industry provides an essential service to

12932-476: The transportation system in 2014 to meet the needs of the nation's 122.5 million households, 7.5 million business establishments, and 90,056 Government units. Wartime expediency encouraged long distance pipeline transport of petroleum and natural gas, which was greatly expanded in the middle 20th century to take over most of the domestic long-haul market. In comparison to some parts of the Western world , both

13054-518: The trusty system, which allowed certain inmates to have power and control over others, was also abolished. Transportation in the United States Employment The vast majority of passenger travel in the United States occurs by automobile for shorter distances and airplane or railroad for longer distances. Most cargo in the U.S. is transported by, in descending order, railroad, truck, pipeline, or boat; air shipping

13176-527: The west, and CSX and Norfolk Southern in the east. Canadian National Railway took over the Illinois Central route down the Mississippi River valley. In 2014, freight transportation establishments serving for-hire transportation and warehousing operations employed nearly 4.6 million workers and comprised 9.5 percent of the Nation's economic activity as measured by GDP. Truck driving is by far

13298-468: The world's 30 busiest airports in 2004 were in the United States, including the world's busiest, Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport . In terms of cargo, in the same year, twelve of the world's thirty busiest airports were in the United States, including the world's busiest, Memphis International Airport . Private aircraft are also used for medical emergencies, government agencies, large businesses, and individuals, see general aviation . There

13420-600: Was Club Harlem , where the leading black entertainers of their time appeared. Other popular nightclubs were Grace's Little Belmont , the Wonder Gardens , and the Paradise Club . The street also had numerous barbecue chicken and ribs joints, such as Jerry's Ribs, Sapp's, and Booker the Bone Cooker, and a small soul food restaurant, Wash's Restaurant , popular with the black entertainers and patrons of

13542-416: Was a case decided in federal court that brought an end to the trusty system and flagrant inmate abuse at the notorious Mississippi State Penitentiary at Parchman, Mississippi . In 1972 federal judge , William C. Keady found that Parchman Farm violated modern standards of decency. He ordered an immediate end to all unconstitutional conditions and practices. Racial segregation of inmates was abolished. And

13664-440: Was a major focus of the civil rights movement . In Brown v. Board of Education , 347 U.S. 483 (1954), the Supreme Court outlawed segregated public education facilities for black people and white people at the state level. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 superseded all state and local laws requiring segregation. Compliance with the new law came slowly, and it took years with many cases in lower courts to enforce it. In parts of

13786-410: Was accelerated by the introduction of steamboats on these rivers in the early 19th Century. These three rivers ( among others ) also form the borders of several states. Prior to the introduction of steamboats, transit upstream was impractical because of strong currents on parts of these waterways. Steamboats provided both passenger and freight transportation until the development of railroads later in

13908-447: Was also pervasive in housing. State constitutions (for example, that of California ) had clauses giving local jurisdictions the right to regulate where members of certain races could live. In 1917, the Supreme Court in the case of Buchanan v. Warley declared municipal resident segregation ordinances unconstitutional. In response, whites resorted to the restrictive covenant , a formal deed restriction binding white property owners in

14030-587: Was because eligibility for federally backed loans was largely determined by redlining maps created by the Home Owners' Loan Corporation (HOLC). Any neighborhood with "inharmonious racial groups" would either be marked red or yellow, depending on the proportion of Black residents. This was explicitly stated within the FHA underwriting manual that the HOLC used as for its maps. For neighborhood building projects,

14152-491: Was evident in living conditions, grocery markets, job applications, etc. As segregation shaped different lifestyles in those that live in the suburbs compare to areas with public housing, the Concentration dimension of segregation played a significant role. Concentration increased poverty in black neighborhoods by providing more expensive and less ideal living situations to African Americans. This rise of poverty created

14274-475: Was handled by planes , trains , and buses . Public transit use is highly concentrated in large older cities, with only six above 25% and only New York City above 50% of trips on transit. Airlines carry almost all non-commuter intercity traffic, except the Northeast Corridor where Amtrak carries more than all airlines combined. The world's second largest automobile market, the United States has

14396-488: Was not mandated by law in the Northern states, but a de facto system grew for schools, in which nearly all black students attended schools that were nearly all-black. In the South, white schools had only white pupils and teachers, while black schools had only black teachers and black students. President Woodrow Wilson , a Southern Democrat, initiated the segregation of federal workplaces in 1913. Some streetcar companies did not segregate voluntarily. It took 15 years for

14518-572: Was painted by students of Atlantic City High School , who received $ 6 per hour from the Casino Authority and were entertained by jazz musicians while they painted. Racial segregation in the United States Facilities and services such as housing , healthcare , education , employment , and transportation have been systematically separated in the United States based on racial categorizations . Segregation

14640-580: Was passed by the Maryland General Assembly in 1691, criminalizing interracial marriage. During one of his famous debates with Stephen A. Douglas in Charleston, Illinois in 1858, Abraham Lincoln stated, "I am not, nor ever have been in favor of making voters or jurors of negroes, nor of qualifying them to hold office, nor to intermarry with white people". By the late 1800s, 38 US states had anti-miscegenation statutes. By 1924,

14762-660: Was the form imposed by slave codes before the Civil War and by Black Codes and Jim Crow laws following the war. De jure segregation was outlawed by the Civil Rights Act of 1964 , the Voting Rights Act of 1965 , and the Fair Housing Act of 1968. De facto segregation, or segregation "in fact", is that which exists without sanction of the law. De facto segregation continues today in such closely related areas as residential segregation and school segregation because of both contemporary behavior and

14884-412: Was the legally or socially enforced separation of African Americans from whites , as well as the separation of other ethnic minorities from majority and mainstream communities. While mainly referring to the physical separation and provision of separate facilities, it can also refer to other manifestations such as prohibitions against interracial marriage (enforced with anti-miscegenation laws ), and

#845154