120-494: The Krasue ( Thai : กระสือ , pronounced [krā.sɯ̌ː] ) is a nocturnal female spirit of Southeast Asian folklore . It manifests as the floating, disembodied head of a woman, usually young and beautiful, with her internal organs still attached and trailing down from the neck. The Krasue belongs to a constellation of similar mythological entities across different regions of Southeast Asia; these regional variations all share in common that they are characterized by
240-602: A Krasue in the season three episode "Drug Traffic". Representations of Krasue, often humorous, are very common in Thai comic books . Since the Krasue is a popular subject in some places of Southeast Asia, especially in Thailand, there are even costumes, dolls, keyholders and lamps sold and worn in Krasue form. A Krasue features as the main antagonist of the 2013 horror game Eyes: The Horror Game . This interpretation shows
360-570: A Krasue spitting flames and firing laser beams and that was dubbed in Thai as Krasue Sawat (กระสือสวาท), meaning "Lovely Krasue", and Indonesia 's Mystics in Bali (1981) also feature local versions of Krasue. In the Vietnam War -era drama Freedom Deal by Camerado , President Nixon orders the 1970 military incursion into Cambodia, unwittingly unleashing a legion of local ghosts similar to
480-567: A dominant language in all aspects of society in Thailand, Thai initially saw gradual and later widespread adoption as a second language among the country's minority ethnic groups from the mid-late Ayutthaya period onward. Ethnic minorities today are predominantly bilingual, speaking Thai alongside their native language or dialect. Standard Thai is classified as one of the Chiang Saen languages—others being Northern Thai , Southern Thai and numerous smaller languages, which together with
600-621: A phut ( Thai : ภูต ) that has to live off wasted, uncooked or rotten food. In recent time, the Thai entertainment industry has fictionalized the origin of Krasue as cursed from an Ancient Khmer princess, as in Demonic Beauty (2002). The kidnapped princess of the Khmer kingdom cheated on her husband (the general), with a soldier. The soldier was decapitated while the Khmer princess was burned to death. However, before she died, she chanted
720-453: A Chinese Ming emperor sent a princess, Hang Li Po , to Malacca, with a retinue of 500, to marry Sultan Mansur Shah after the emperor was impressed by the wisdom of the sultan. Hang Li Poh's Well (constructed 1459) is now a tourist attraction there, as is Bukit Cina , where her retinue settled. The strategic value of the Strait of Malacca , which was controlled by Sultanate of Malacca in
840-509: A central role, but she also appears in many other movies in lesser roles, such as in Phi Ta Wan Kap Achan Ta Bo (2008) Thai : ผีตาหวานกับอาจารย์ตาโบ๋ , among others. More recently, the Krasue appears in the 2019 horror film Inhuman Kiss (Thai: แสงกระสือ), and its 2023 sequel, Inhuman Kiss: The Last Breath ( Thai : แสงกระสือ2 ), released in Thailand on 30 March 2023. Krasue, as Ahp (also spelt Arp or Aap ),
960-858: A community are suspected of becoming nightly a Krasue by other members of the village. អាប (Ahp/Aap), derived from a Sanskrit word आप्यति (āpyati, 'to cause anyone to suffer'), in Cambodian folklore is usually a woman who is half spirit and half-mortal. During the daytime, they appeared to look like normal human beings but during nighttime they ascended, leaving their mortal body with only their head and their organs, gravitating to find food. They were believed to feast on smelly things; blood, raw meats, villager's farm animals, corpses, feces, placentas, newborns, etc. Their weaknesses are thorns and guard dogs. Ahp are witches who failed practicing powerful black magic, causing it to backfire and cursing themselves. Others believe that Ahp are black magic practitioners, borrowing
1080-550: A cultural or linguistic perspective the definitions of "Southeast Asia" may vary, the most common definitions nowadays include the area represented by the countries (sovereign states and dependent territories) listed below. Ten of the eleven states of Southeast Asia are members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), while East Timor is an observer state. Papua New Guinea has stated that it might join ASEAN, and
1200-663: A demon (evil spirit)'s power by letting them possess their body at night, as an exchange. Ahp have to pass their curse onto another woman to be able to enter the cycle of reincarnation; it could be their daughter, granddaughter, relatives or any other women that is in their womanhood also practicing witchcraft but some believe it could just be passed through the exchanged of bodily fluid to any women, usually tricked. Witches in khmer are called mae thmob (ម៉ែធ្មប់ 'mother witch') or yeay thmob (យាយធ្មប់ 'grandmother witch'). In order to protect pregnant women and their children from becoming victims, their relatives place thorny branches around
1320-933: A disembodied woman's head with organs and entrails hanging from its neck. Along with the Krasue , there is the Ahp ( Khmer : អាប ) in Cambodia ; the Kasu ( Lao : ກະສື , pronounced [kā.sɯ̌ː] ) in Laos ; the Kuyang ( Indonesian : Kui'yang ), Pok-Pok ( Indonesian : Pok'Pok ) , or Leyak ( Indonesian : lei'yak ) in Indonesia ; the Ma lai ( Vietnamese : ma lai ) in Vietnam ; manananggal ( Tagalog : mana'nang'gal ) in
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#17327906461911440-643: A dominant maritime power of Indian subcontinent, in 1025. The invasion reshaped power and trade in the region, resulted in the rise of new regional powers such as the Khmer Empire and Kahuripan . Continued commercial contacts with the Chinese Empire enabled the Cholas to influence the local cultures. Many of the surviving examples of the Hindu cultural influence found today throughout Southeast Asia are
1560-533: A four-way distinction among stops and affricates . The maximal four-way occurred in labials ( /p pʰ b ʔb/ ) and denti-alveolars ( /t tʰ d ʔd/ ); the three-way distinction among velars ( /k kʰ ɡ/ ) and palatals ( /tɕ tɕʰ dʑ/ ), with the glottalized member of each set apparently missing. The major change between old and modern Thai was due to voicing distinction losses and the concomitant tone split . This may have happened between about 1300 and 1600 CE, possibly occurring at different times in different parts of
1680-788: A framework for the integration of commerce and regional responses to international concerns. China has asserted broad claims over the South China Sea , based on its nine-dash line , and has built artificial islands in an attempt to bolster its claims. China also has asserted an exclusive economic zone based on the Spratly Islands . The Philippines challenged China in the Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague in 2013, and in Philippines v. China (2016),
1800-521: A new local power emerged. Myinsaing Kingdom became the real ruler of Central Burma and challenged the Mongol rule. This resulted in the second Mongol invasion of Burma in 1300, which was repulsed by Myinsaing. The Mongols would later in 1303 withdrawn from Burma. In 1292, The Mongols sent envoys to Singhasari Kingdom in Java to ask for submission to Mongol rule. Singhasari rejected the proposal and injured
1920-495: A normal person during the day, although having a sleepy look. To crush the still headless body of the krasue is fatal to the spirit. The flying head will return after hunting but rejoin with the wrong body which will lead it to suffer torment until death. If the top part of the body fails to find the lower half before daybreak it will die in terrible pain. The Krasue will also die if its intestines get cut off or if its body disappears or gets hidden by someone. Some folk beliefs hold that
2040-471: A previous life will become a Krasue as punishment. Other folk stories talk about a person being cursed to become a Krasue after having consumed food and drink contaminated with a krasue's saliva or flesh. Popular imagination also claims that the transformation into a Krasue is largely restricted to the relatives of women practicing witchcraft "Mae Mot" (แม่มด) or "Yai Mot" (ยายมด), especially their daughters or granddaughters. Often women acting strangely in
2160-566: A result of famine and forced labour during the Japanese occupation. The Allied powers who then defeated Japan (and other allies of Axis ) in the South-East Asian theatre of World War II then contended with nationalists to whom the occupation authorities had granted independence. Gujarat , India had a flourishing trade relationship with Southeast Asia in the 15th and 16th centuries. The trade relationship with Gujarat declined after
2280-439: A spell to protect her mortal body but was only able to save her head and her organs. This depiction, however, merely is just an attempt to put a royal touch or to reinvent a mythical beginning to a well-known story of an essentially folk origin, strictly for entertainment and commercial purpose. There are other oral traditions that say that this spirit was formerly a rich lady that had a length of black gauze or ribbon tied around
2400-530: A syllable that formerly began with a voiceless consonant (including glottalized stops). An additional complication is that formerly voiceless unaspirated stops/affricates (original /p t k tɕ ʔb ʔd/ ) also caused original tone 1 to lower, but had no such effect on original tones 2 or 3. The above consonant mergers and tone splits account for the complex relationship between spelling and sound in modern Thai. Modern "low"-class consonants were voiced in Old Thai, and
2520-590: Is Insulindia (Indian Islands), used to describe the region between Indochina and Australasia . The term "Southeast Asia" was first used in 1839 by American pastor Howard Malcolm in his book Travels in South-Eastern Asia . Malcolm only included the Mainland section and excluded the Maritime section in his definition of Southeast Asia. The term was officially used in the midst of World War II by
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#17327906461912640-506: Is based on the register of the educated classes by Central Thai and ethnic minorities in the area along the ring surrounding the Metropolis . In addition to Central Thai, Thailand is home to other related Tai languages . Although most linguists classify these dialects as related but distinct languages, native speakers often identify them as regional variants or dialects of the "same" Thai language, or as "different kinds of Thai". As
2760-507: Is based on the dialect of the central Thai people, and it is written in the Thai script . Hlai languages Kam-Sui languages Kra languages Be language Northern Tai languages Central Tai languages Khamti language Tai Lue language Shan language others Northern Thai language Thai language Southern Thai language Tai Yo language Phuthai language Lao language (PDR Lao, Isan language ) Thai has undergone various historical sound changes. Some of
2880-598: Is currently an observer. Sovereignty issues exist over some islands in the South China Sea . * Administrative centre in Putrajaya . Southeast Asia is geographically divided into two subregions, namely Mainland Southeast Asia (or the Indochinese Peninsula) and Maritime Southeast Asia . Mainland Southeast Asia includes : Maritime Southeast Asia includes : While Peninsular Malaysia
3000-497: Is evident in the Arab-Indonesian, Arab-Singaporean, and Arab-Malay populations who were at one time very prominent in each of their countries. Finally, the ruling classes embraced Islam and that further aided the permeation of the religion throughout the region. The ruler of the region's most important port, Malacca Sultanate , embraced Islam in the 15th century, heralding a period of accelerated conversion of Islam throughout
3120-643: Is geographically situated in Mainland Southeast Asia, it shares many similar cultural and ecological affinities with surrounding islands, thus it is often grouped with them as part of Maritime Southeast Asia. Geographically, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India is also considered a part of Maritime Southeast Asia. Eastern Bangladesh and Northeast India have strong cultural ties with Mainland Southeast Asia and are sometimes considered transregional areas between South Asia and Southeast Asia. To
3240-404: Is impossible because not enough methane is emitted from rotten organic matter to be able to cause an ignition and that even if the methane gas particles did ignite, the burning would be confined to the surface of the organic, flammable matter and would not lead to floating flames that allegedly give the illusion of the Krasue. When the head is pulled off from a real human body, other organs such as
3360-618: Is intimately related to a Chinese Muslim, Admiral Zheng He ." There are several theories to the Islamization process in Southeast Asia. Another theory is trade. The expansion of trade among West Asia, India, and Southeast Asia helped the spread of the religion as Muslim traders from South Arabia ( Hadhramaut ) brought Islam to the region with their large volume of trade. Many settled in Indonesia, Singapore, and Malaysia. This
3480-669: Is politically represented through the Pacific Islands Forum , a governing body which, up until 2022, included Australia, New Zealand and all independent territories in Melanesia , Micronesia, and Polynesia . Several countries of Maritime Southeast Asia, such as Indonesia and the Philippines, are dialogue partners of the Pacific Islands Forum, but none have full membership. Maritime Southeast Asia
3600-528: Is present in the Cambodian horror films Neang Arp (Lady Vampire) (2004), Tiyen Arp រឿង ទាយាទអាប (Heredity of Krasue) (2007), Arp Kalum (The Sexiest Ahp) (2009) and Phlerng Chhes Arp Ahp Wearing A Helmet Season 1 រឿង អាបពាក់មួកសុវត្ថិភាព វគ្គ១ Ahp Wearing A Helmet Season 2 រឿង អាបពាក់មួកសុវត្ថិភាព វគ្គ2 (Released in 2012) Hong Kong 's Witch with the Flying Head (飛頭魔女) (1977), which includes
3720-411: Is that Krasue sightings are caused by blazing flames from methane gas particles emitted from rotten organic matter found in farms and fields, where Krasue sightings are commonly reported. However, according to Associate Professor Dr. Sirintornthep Towprayoon, an energy researcher from King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi , the hypothesis that the Krasue is actually burning methane gas particles
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3840-635: Is the geographical southeastern region of Asia , consisting of the regions that are situated south of China , east of the Indian subcontinent , and northwest of the Australian mainland , which is part of Oceania . Southeast Asia is bordered to the north by East Asia , to the west by South Asia and the Bay of Bengal , to the east by Oceania and the Pacific Ocean , and to the south by Australia and
3960-486: Is the language of television, education, news reporting, and all forms of media. A recent research found that the speakers of the Northern Thai language (also known as Phasa Mueang or Kham Mueang) have become so few, as most people in northern Thailand now invariably speak Standard Thai, so that they are now using mostly Central Thai words and only seasoning their speech with the "Kham Mueang" accent. Standard Thai
4080-670: Is the only country where its folk religion makes up the plurality. Recently, Vietnamese folk religion is undergoing a revival with the support of the government. Elsewhere, there are ethnic groups in Southeast Asia that resisted conversion and still retain their original animist beliefs, such as the Dayaks in Kalimantan , the Igorots in Luzon, and the Shans in eastern Myanmar. After
4200-483: Is the sole official language of Thailand . Thai is the most spoken of over 60 languages of Thailand by both number of native and overall speakers. Over half of its vocabulary is derived from or borrowed from Pali , Sanskrit , Mon and Old Khmer . It is a tonal and analytic language . Thai has a complex orthography and system of relational markers . Spoken Thai, depending on standard sociolinguistic factors such as age, gender, class, spatial proximity, and
4320-551: The Allies , through the formation of South East Asia Command (SEAC) in 1943. SEAC popularised the use of the term "Southeast Asia", although what constituted Southeast Asia was not fixed; for example, SEAC excluded the Philippines and a large part of Indonesia while including Ceylon . However, by the late 1970s, a roughly standard usage of the term "Southeast Asia" and the territories it encompasses had emerged. Although from
4440-716: The Austronesian peoples , who form the majority of the modern population in Brunei, Indonesia, East Timor, Malaysia, and the Philippines, migrated to Southeast Asia from Taiwan in the first seaborne human migration known as the Austronesian Expansion . They arrived in the northern Philippines between 7,000 BC to 2,200 BC and rapidly spread further into the Northern Mariana Islands and Borneo by 1500 BC; Island Melanesia by 1300 BC; and to
4560-809: The Indian Ocean . Apart from the British Indian Ocean Territory and two out of 26 atolls of the Maldives in South Asia, Maritime Southeast Asia is the only other subregion of Asia that lies partly within the Southern Hemisphere . Mainland Southeast Asia is entirely in the Northern Hemisphere . East Timor and the southern portion of Indonesia are the parts of Southeast Asia that lie south of
4680-544: The Indonesian region of Western New Guinea (Papua and West Papua ). Both countries share the island of New Guinea . Islands to the east of the Philippines make up the region of Micronesia . These islands are not biogeographically, geologically or historically linked to mainland Asia, and are considered part of Oceania by the United Nations , The World Factbook , and other organisations. The Oceania region
4800-562: The Khmer Rouge era. In the Philippines there is a similar ghost, manananggal , a local spirit that haunts pregnant women . Belief in the existence of the Krasue is shared across Southeast Asia , and its origin is difficult to verify. However, it likely originates from folklore. In Thailand, the Krasue is believed to be a cursed individual (usually a female) who engaged in various sins and fraudulent conduct during her previous life. After she dies, her sins cause her to be reborn as
4920-517: The Philippines and Indonesia . It covers about 4,500,000 km (1,700,000 sq mi), which is 8% of Eurasia and 3% of Earth's total land area. Its total population is more than 675 million, about 8.5% of the world's population. It is the third most populous geographical region in Asia after South Asia and East Asia. The region is culturally and ethnically diverse, with hundreds of languages spoken by different ethnic groups. Ten countries in
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5040-469: The Philippines ; Pelasik , Pelesit , penanggalan or penanggal ( Malay : Pe'nang'gal ) in Indonesia , Malaysia , Brunei and Singapore . Japanese folklore also has yokai creatures called nukekubi and rokurokubi that are quite similar to their Southeast Asian counterparts. According to Thai ethnographer Phraya Anuman Rajadhon , the Krasue is accompanied by a will-o'-the-wisp -like luminescent glow. The explanations attempted about
5160-587: The Srivijaya kingdom of Sangrama Vijayatungavarman in Kadaram ( Kedah ); the capital of the powerful maritime kingdom was sacked and the king was taken captive. Along with Kadaram, Pannai in present-day Sumatra and Malaiyur and the Malayan peninsula were attacked too. Soon after that, the king of Kedah Phra Ong Mahawangsa became the first ruler to abandon the traditional Hindu faith, and converted to Islam with
5280-547: The Sultanate of Kedah established in 1136. Samudera Pasai converted to Islam in 1267, the King of Malacca Parameswara married the princess of Pasai, and the son became the first sultan of Malacca. Soon, Malacca became the center of Islamic study and maritime trade, and other rulers followed suit. Indonesian religious leader and Islamic scholar Hamka (1908–1981) wrote in 1961: "The development of Islam in Indonesia and Malaya
5400-574: The Sunda Trench . Even though they are geographically closer to Maritime Southeast Asia than mainland Australia , these two Australian external territories are not geologically associated with Asia as none of them is actually on the Sunda Plate . The UN Statistics Division 's geoscheme , which is a UN political geography tool created specifically for statistical purposes, has classified both island territories as parts of Oceania , under
5520-520: The UNSD subregion "Australia and New Zealand" ( Australasia ). Some definitions of Southeast Asia may include Taiwan . Taiwan has sometimes been included in Southeast Asia as well as East Asia but is not a member of ASEAN . Likewise, a similar argument could be applied to some southern parts of mainland China , as well as Hong Kong and Macau , may also considered as part of Southeast Asia as well as East Asia but are not members of ASEAN . The region
5640-648: The Wallace Line in the region of Wallacea ) are considered to be geographically associated with Oceania due to their distinctive faunal features. Geologically, the island of New Guinea and its surrounding islands are considered as parts of the Australian continent , connected via the Sahul Shelf . Both Christmas Island and the Cocos (Keeling) Islands are located on the Australian Plate , south of
5760-477: The equator . The region lies near the intersection of geological plates , with both heavy seismic and volcanic activities. The Sunda Plate is the main plate of the region, featuring almost all Southeast Asian countries except Myanmar , northern Thailand , northern Laos , northern Vietnam , and northern Luzon of the Philippines , while the Sunda Plate only includes western Indonesia to as far east as
5880-528: The heart and the stomach with a length of intestine, the intestinal tract emphasizing the ghost's voracious nature. In the Thai film Krasue Valentine , this ghost is represented with more internal organs, such as lungs and liver , but much reduced in size and anatomically out of proportion with the head. The viscera are sometimes represented freshly daubed with blood , as well as glowing. In contemporary representations her teeth often include pointed fangs in yakkha ( Thai : ยักษ์ ) or vampire fashion. In
6000-641: The 15th and early 16th century, did not go unnoticed by Portuguese writer Tomé Pires , who wrote in the Suma Oriental : "Whoever is lord of Malacca has his hand on the throat of Venice ." (Venice was a major European trading partner, and goods were transported there via the Straight.) Western influence started to enter in the 16th century, with the arrival of the Portuguese in Malacca, Maluku , and
6120-504: The 1994 Krasue TV soap opera became very famous. There was a remake in 2011 named Krasue Cham Sin (กระสือจำศีล), but it was poorly cast and produced, not being able to reach the popularity of the 1994 lakhon . A Krasue has been also comically featured in a Sylvania light bulb commercial for Thai audiences and in a more recent dietary supplement ad. A rather ugly Krasue also appears in the animated film Nak . The American anthology streaming television series Creepshow features
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#17327906461916240-498: The Court ruled in favour of the Philippines and rejected China's claims. Indonesia is the largest country in Southeast Asia and is also the largest archipelago in the world by size (according to the CIA World Factbook ). Geologically, the Indonesian Archipelago is one of the most volcanically active regions in the world. Geological uplifts in the region have also produced some impressive mountains, culminating in Puncak Jaya in Papua , Indonesia at 5,030 metres (16,503 feet), on
6360-434: The Indian Ocean aided the colonisation of Madagascar, as well as commerce between Western Asia, eastern coast of India and Chinese southern coast. Gold from Sumatra is thought to have reached as far west as Rome. Pliny the Elder wrote in his Natural History about Chryse and Argyre , two legendary islands rich in gold and silver, located in the Indian Ocean. Their vessels, such as the vinta , were capable to sail across
6480-415: The Indian subcontinent and its having cultural influences from both neighbouring regions. In the 20th century, however, the term became more restricted to territories of the former French Indochina (Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam). The maritime section of Southeast Asia is also known as the Malay Archipelago , a term derived from the European concept of a Malay race . Another term for Maritime Southeast Asia
6600-484: The Indonesian province of Bali . The mountain ranges in Myanmar, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia , and the Indonesian islands of Sumatra , Java , Bali , Lesser Sunda Islands , and Timor are part of the Alpide belt , while the islands of the Philippines and Indonesia as well as East Timor are part of the Pacific Ring of Fire . Both seismic belts meet in Indonesia, causing the region to have relatively high occurrences of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, particularly in
6720-452: The Khmer system first before the Thai borrowed. Old Thai had a three-way tone distinction on "live syllables" (those not ending in a stop), with no possible distinction on "dead syllables" (those ending in a stop, i.e. either /p/, /t/, /k/ or the glottal stop that automatically closes syllables otherwise ending in a short vowel). There was a two-way voiced vs. voiceless distinction among all fricative and sonorant consonants, and up to
6840-403: The Krasue as a woman who was abused by her husband to the point of death, being reincarnated as a ghost to enact revenge. The Krasue lurks around an abandoned mansion, where the player acts as the role of a thief, where they must retrieve an allocated amount of money bags (depends on difficulty), before being able to leave. The game's story-line, has some reference to the original folktale story, as
6960-456: The Krasue from coming inside the house. House-owners usually build spiky fences or grow spiky bamboo to protect themselves from the Krasue. The Krasue is scared of spiky things because it fears its intestines will get stuck and it will not be able to escape. There is information from The Royal Academy which provides examples of how belief in the Krasue has been reflected in Thai culture for centuries, for example: A possible scientific explanation
7080-570: The Krasue to a Khmer curse; Krasue Valentine (2006) by Yuthlert Sippapak , Krasue (The Gluttonous Fear) Thai : กระสือ made in 2007, with Jedsada Roongsakorn and Sirintorn Parnsamutr, Krasue Fat Pop Thai : กระสือฟัดปอบ (2009) with Chutima Naiyana , in which Krasue fights against Phi Pop , and Fullmoon Devil (2011) Thai : กระสือ by Komson Thripong. Krasue also appears in erotic movies such as Krasue Rak Krasue Sawat (2014) Thai : กระสือรัก กระสือสวาท and Wan Krasue Sao (2013) Thai : ว่านกระสือสาว In all these movies Krasue plays
7200-422: The Krasue. This ghost appears periodically in Thai television soap operas (ละคร). Krasue , a popular lakhon aired between 20 December 1994 and 21 March 1995, as well as the more recent Krasue Mahanakhon (กระสือมหานคร) —in which the ghost story for a change is against a background of young city people instead of the usual rural or traditional setting— feature a Krasue in the central role. The theme song of
7320-423: The Mongols tried to invade Đại Việt and Champa . The invasions were unsuccessful, yet both Dai Viet and Champa agreed to become tributary states to Yuan dynasty to avoid further conflicts. The Mongols also invaded Pagan Kingdom in Burma from 1277 to 1287, resulted in fragmentation of the Kingdom and rise of smaller Shan States ruled by local chieftains nominally submitted to Yuan dynasty. However, in 1297,
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#17327906461917440-444: The Northwestern Tai and Lao-Phutai languages, form the Southwestern branch of Tai languages . The Tai languages are a branch of the Kra–Dai language family , which encompasses a large number of indigenous languages spoken in an arc from Hainan and Guangxi south through Laos and Northern Vietnam to the Cambodian border. Standard Thai is the principal language of education and government and spoken throughout Thailand. The standard
7560-438: The Papuan-related and East Asian-related branches of the Eastern non-African lineage. The hunter-gatherer individual had approximately ~50% "Basal-East Asian" ancestry, and was positioned in between modern East Asians and Papuans of Oceania. The authors concluded that East Asian-related ancestry expanded from Mainland Southeast Asia into Maritime Southeast Asia much earlier than previously suggested, as early as 25,000BC, long before
7680-425: The Philippines, the latter being settled by the Spaniards years later, which they used to trade between Asia and Latin America . Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, the Dutch established the Dutch East Indies ; the French Indochina ; and the British Strait Settlements . By the 19th century, all Southeast Asian countries were colonised except for Thailand . European explorers were reaching Southeast Asia from
7800-493: The Portuguese invasion of Southeast Asia in the 17th century. The United States took the Philippines from Spain in 1898. Internal autonomy was granted in 1934, and independence in 1946. Most countries in the region maintain national autonomy. Democratic forms of government are practised in most Southeast Asian countries and human rights is recognised but dependent on each nation state. Socialist or communist countries in Southeast Asia include Vietnam and Laos. ASEAN provides
7920-426: The South China Sea. Mayon Volcano , despite being dangerously active , holds the record of the world's most perfect cone which is built from past and continuous eruption . Geographically, Southeast Asia is bounded to the southeast by the Australian continent , the boundary between these two regions is most often considered to run through Wallacea . Geopolitically, the boundary lies between Papua New Guinea and
8040-428: The Thai-speaking area. All voiced–voiceless pairs of consonants lost the voicing distinction: However, in the process of these mergers, the former distinction of voice was transferred into a new set of tonal distinctions. In essence, every tone in Old Thai split into two new tones, with a lower-pitched tone corresponding to a syllable that formerly began with a voiced consonant, and a higher-pitched tone corresponding to
8160-438: The caves of Borneo . Homo floresiensis also lived in the area up until at least 50,000 years ago, after which they became extinct. During much of this time the present-day islands of western Indonesia were joined into a single landmass known as Sundaland due to lower sea levels. Ancient remains of hunter-gatherers in Maritime Southeast Asia, such as one Holocene hunter-gatherer from South Sulawesi , had ancestry from both
8280-449: The creature can be destroyed by burning it. The main foes of the Krasue are mobs of angry villagers carrying torches and machetes . They may catch the Krasue and kill it or watch where she goes before dawn and destroy her body. There is a legend said that the people who are wounded should be aware of the Krasue because it can smell the blood and will come to eat the blood at night when people fall asleep. However, there are ways to prevent
8400-555: The departure of the Mongols, Wijaya established the Majapahit Empire in eastern Java in 1293. Majapahit would soon grow into a regional power. Its greatest ruler was Hayam Wuruk , whose reign from 1350 to 1389 marked the empire's peak when other kingdoms in the southern Malay Peninsula , Borneo , Sumatra , and Bali came under its influence. Various sources such as the Nagarakertagama also mention that its influence spanned over parts of Sulawesi , Maluku , and some areas of western New Guinea and southern Philippines , making it one of
8520-416: The dominant trading power in mainland Southeast Asia for about five centuries, provided passage for Indian and Chinese goods and assumed authority over the flow of commerce through Southeast Asia. In maritime Southeast Asia, the first recorded Indianised kingdom was Salakanagara , established in western Java circa second century CE. This Hindu kingdom was known by the Greeks as Argyre (Land of Silver). By
8640-530: The early people travelled along the south coast of Asia, first entered the Malay Peninsula 50,000–90,000 years ago. The Orang Asli, in particular the Semang who show Negrito characteristics, are the direct descendants of these earliest settlers of Southeast Asia. These early people diversified and travelled slowly northwards to China, and the populations of Southeast Asia show greater genetic diversity than
8760-460: The east, Hong Kong is sometimes regarded as part of Southeast Asia. Similarly, Christmas Island and the Cocos (Keeling) Islands have strong cultural ties with Maritime Southeast Asia and are sometimes considered transregional areas between Southeast Asia and Australia/Oceania. On some occasions, Sri Lanka has been considered a part of Southeast Asia because of its cultural and religious ties to Mainland Southeast Asia. The eastern half of
8880-527: The elite language of the region, which effectively made Southeast Asia part of the Indosphere . Most of the region had been Indianised during the first centuries, while the Philippines later Indianised c. ninth century when Kingdom of Tondo was established in Luzon. Vietnam, especially its northern part, was never fully Indianised due to the many periods of Chinese domination it experienced. The first Indian-influenced polities established in
9000-513: The envoys, enraged the Mongols and made them sent a large invasion fleet to Java. Unbeknownst to them, Singhasari collapsed in 1293 due to a revolt by Kadiri, one of its vassals. When the Mongols arrived in Java, a local prince named Raden Wijaya offered his service to assist the Mongols in punishing Kadiri. After Kadiri was defeated, Wijaya turned on his Mongol allies, ambushed their invasion fleet and forced them to immediately leave Java. After
9120-522: The expansion of Austroasiatic and Austronesian groups. Distinctive Basal-East Asian (East-Eurasian) ancestry was recently found to have originated in Mainland Southeast Asia at ~50,000BC, and expanded through multiple migration waves southwards and northwards respectively. Geneflow of East Asian-related ancestry into Maritime Southeast Asia and Oceania could be estimated to ~25,000BC (possibly also earlier). The pre-Neolithic Papuan-related populations of Maritime Southeast Asia were largely replaced by
9240-411: The expansion of various East Asian-related populations, beginning about 50,000BC to 25,000BC years ago from Mainland Southeast Asia. The remainders, known as Negritos, form small minority groups in geographically isolated regions. Southeast Asia was dominated by East Asian-related ancestry already in 15,000BC, predating the expansion of Austroasiatic and Austronesian peoples . In the late Neolithic ,
9360-590: The fifth century CE, trade networking between East and West was concentrated in the maritime route. Foreign traders were starting to use new routes such as Malacca and Sunda Strait due to the development of maritime Southeast Asia. This change resulted in the decline of Funan, while new maritime powers such as Srivijaya , Tarumanagara , and Mataram emerged. Srivijaya especially became the dominant maritime power for more than 5 centuries, controlling both Strait of Malacca and Sunda Strait . This dominance started to decline when Srivijaya were invaded by Chola Empire ,
9480-597: The former western colonies under the concept of " Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere ". However, the Shōwa occupation regime committed violent actions against civilians such as live human experimentation, sexual slavery under the brutal " comfort women " system, the Manila massacre and the implementation of a system of forced labour , such as the one involving four to ten million romusha in Indonesia. A later UN report stated that four million people died in Indonesia as
9600-442: The head and neck as protection from the sunlight. This woman was then possessed by an evil spirit and was cursed to become a Krasue. Other popular legends claim that the origin of the spirit may have been a woman trying to learn black magic that made a mistake or used the wrong spell so that her head and body became separated. Past sins are also related to the transmission of the Krasue curse; women who aborted or killed someone in
9720-484: The house as a barrier. This improvised thorny fence discourages the Ahp from coming to suck the blood and causing other suffering to the pregnant woman. After delivery, the woman's relatives must take the cut placenta far away for burial to hide it from the Ahp. If the placenta is buried deep enough the spirit will not be able to find it. It is believed that it would bring great calamities to the child and its family if an Ahp ate
9840-851: The intestines, heart, and lungs would not come off with the head. Countries where the Krasue tale is popular have adapted it to film. Several Thai films depict this spirit, including 1973 movie Krasue Sao (Ghosts of Guts Eater), Thai : กระสือสาว with Sombat Metanee , which features a fight between two Krasues, Krasue krahai lveat / Filth Eating Spirit' (1985) Itthirit Nam Man Phrai Thai : อิทธิฤทธิ์น้ำมันพราย (Oil of Eternal Life) made in 1984, with Tanid Pongmanoon and Praew Mardmarud, Krasue Kat Pop Thai : กระสือกัดปอบ (1990) with Bin Bunluerit and Trirak Rakkarndee, Krasue Krahailueat (Bloodthirsty Krasue), Thai : กระสือกระหายเลือด , made in 1995 with Thida Teerarat, Tamnan Krasue Thai : ตำนานกระสือ (Demonic Beauty) released in 2002, which ties
9960-475: The island of New Guinea , which is not a part of Indonesia, namely, Papua New Guinea, is sometimes included as a part of Maritime Southeast Asia, and so are Guam , the Northern Mariana Islands , and Palau , which were all parts of the Spanish East Indies with strong cultural and linguistic ties to the region, specifically, the Philippines. East Timor and the eastern half of Indonesia (east of
10080-461: The island of New Guinea ; it is the only place where ice glaciers can be found in Southeast Asia. The highest mountain in Southeast Asia is Hkakabo Razi at 5,967 metres (19,577 feet) and can be found in northern Burma sharing the same range of its parent peak, Mount Everest . The South China Sea is the major body of water within Southeast Asia. The Philippines, Vietnam, Malaysia, Brunei, Indonesia, and Singapore, have integral rivers that flow into
10200-472: The largest empire to ever exist in Southeast Asian history. By the 15th century CE however, Majapahit's influence began to wane due to many war of successions it experienced and the rise of new Islamic states such as Samudera Pasai and Malacca Sultanate around the strategic Strait of Malacca . Majapahit then collapsed around 1500. It was the last major Hindu kingdom and the last regional power in
10320-528: The local patois as pronounced in Guangdong Ayutthaya , the old capital of Thailand from 1351 - 1767 A.D., was from the beginning a bilingual society, speaking Thai and Khmer . Bilingualism must have been strengthened and maintained for some time by the great number of Khmer-speaking captives the Thais took from Angkor Thom after their victories in 1369, 1388 and 1431. Gradually toward the end of
10440-551: The most significant changes occurred during the evolution from Old Thai to modern Thai. The Thai writing system has an eight-century history and many of these changes, especially in consonants and tones, are evidenced in the modern orthography . According to a Chinese source, during the Ming dynasty , Yingya Shenglan (1405–1433), Ma Huan reported on the language of the Xiānluó (暹羅) or Ayutthaya Kingdom, saying that it somewhat resembled
10560-415: The mother's placenta. The Krasue is under a curse that makes it ever hungry and always active in the night when it goes out hunting to satisfy its gluttony , seeking blood to drink or raw flesh to devour. It may attack cattle or chickens in the darkness, drinking their blood and eating their internal organs. It may also prey on pieces of cattle, such as water buffalo that have died of other causes during
10680-495: The movie Ghosts of Guts Eater she has a halo around her head. The Krasue has been the subject of a number of films in the region, including My Mother Is Arb ( Khmer : កូនអើយ ម្តាយអាប ). Also known as Krasue Mom , this Cambodian horror film has the distinction of being the first film made in the People's Republic of Kampuchea after the absence of locally-made films and the repression of local folklore in Cambodia during
10800-430: The night. If blood is not available the Krasue may eat feces or carrion . Clothes left outside would be found soiled with blood and excrement in the morning, allegedly after she had wiped her mouth. Therefore, villagers would not leave clothes hanging to dry outside during the night hours. The Krasue hides the headless body from which it originates in a quiet place because it needs to join it before daybreak, living like
10920-667: The ocean. Magellan's voyage records how much more manoeuvrable their vessels were, as compared to the European ships. A slave from the Sulu Sea was believed to have been used in the Magellan expedition as a translator. Studies presented by the Human Genome Organisation (HUGO) through genetic studies of the various peoples of Asia show empirically that there was a single migration event from Africa, whereby
11040-419: The origin of the glow include the presence of methane in marshy areas. The Krasue is often said to live in the same areas as Krahang , a male spirit of the Thai folklore . This spirit moves about by hovering in the air above the ground, for it has no lower body. The throat may be represented in different ways, either as only the trachea or with the whole neck . The organs below the head usually include
11160-415: The period, a language shift took place. Khmer fell out of use. Both Thai and Khmer descendants whose great-grand parents or earlier ancestors were bilingual came to use only Thai. In the process of language shift, an abundance of Khmer elements were transferred into Thai and permeated all aspects of the language. Consequently, the Thai of the late Ayutthaya Period which later became Ratanakosin or Bangkok Thai,
11280-645: The region and Sri Lanka . Buddhism later established a strong presence in Funan region in the fifth century. In present-day mainland Southeast Asia, Theravada is still the dominant branch of Buddhism, practised by the Thai, Burmese, and Cambodian Buddhists. This branch was fused with the Hindu-influenced Khmer culture. Mahayana Buddhism established presence in Maritime Southeast Asia, brought by Chinese monks during their transit in
11400-407: The region and made contacts with local courts. Local rulers converted to Hinduism or Buddhism and adopted Indian religious traditions to reinforce their legitimacy, elevate ritual status above their fellow chief counterparts and facilitate trade with South Asian states. They periodically invited Indian Brahmins into their realms and began a gradual process of Indianisation in the region. Shaivism
11520-500: The region are members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), a regional organisation established for economic, political, military, educational, and cultural integration among its members. Southeast Asia is one of the most culturally diverse regions of the world. There are many different languages and ethnicities in the region. Historically, Southeast Asia was significantly influenced by Indian , Chinese , Muslim , and colonial cultures, which became core components of
11640-423: The region as Islam provided a positive force among the ruling and trading classes. Gujarati Muslims played a pivotal role in establishing Islam in Southeast Asia. Trade among Southeast Asian countries has a long tradition. The consequences of colonial rule, struggle for independence, and in some cases war influenced the economic attitudes and policies of each country. From 111 BC to 938 AD northern Vietnam
11760-523: The region before the arrival of the Europeans. Islam began to make contacts with Southeast Asia in the eighth-century CE, when the Umayyads established trade with the region via sea routes. However its spread into the region happened centuries later. In the 11th century, a turbulent period occurred in the history of Maritime Southeast Asia . The Indian Chola navy crossed the ocean and attacked
11880-576: The region came under contact with the Indian subcontinent c. 400 BCE , it began a gradual process of Indianisation where Indian ideas such as religions, cultures, architectures, and political administrations were brought by traders and religious figures and adopted by local rulers. In turn, Indian Brahmins and monks were invited by local rulers to live in their realms and help transforming local polities to become more Indianised, blending Indian and indigenous traditions. Sanskrit and Pali became
12000-591: The region decolonised. Today, Southeast Asia is predominantly governed by independent states. The region, together with part of South Asia, was well known by Europeans as the East Indies or simply the Indies until the 20th century. Chinese sources referred to the region as Nanyang (" 南洋 "), which literally means the "Southern Ocean". The mainland section of Southeast Asia was referred to as Indochina by European geographers due to its location between China and
12120-644: The region en route to Nalanda . It is still the dominant branch of Buddhism practised by Indonesian and Malaysian Buddhists. The spread of these two Indian religions confined the adherents of Southeast Asian indigenous beliefs into remote inland areas. The Maluku Islands and New Guinea were never Indianised and its native people were predominantly animists until the 15th century when Islam began to spread in those areas. While in Vietnam, Buddhism never managed to develop strong institutional networks due to strong Chinese influence. In present-day Southeast Asia, Vietnam
12240-635: The region were the Pyu city-states that already existed circa second century BCE, located in inland Myanmar. It served as an overland trading hub between India and China. Theravada Buddhism was the predominant religion of these city states, while the presence of other Indian religions such as Mahayana Buddhism and Hinduism were also widespread. In the first century, the Funan states centered in Mekong Delta were established, encompassed modern-day Cambodia, southern Vietnam, Laos, and eastern Thailand. It became
12360-493: The region's cultural and political institutions. Most modern Southeast Asian countries were colonised by European powers. European colonisation exploited natural resources and labour from the lands they conquered, and attempted to spread European institutions to the region. Several Southeast Asian countries were also briefly occupied by the Japanese Empire during World War II . The aftermath of World War II saw most of
12480-487: The rest of Indonesia , Malaysia , southern Vietnam , and Palau by 1000 BC. They often settled along coastal areas, replacing and assimilating the diverse preexisting peoples. The Austronesian peoples of Southeast Asia have been seafarers for thousands of years. They spread eastwards to Micronesia and Polynesia , as well as westwards to Madagascar , becoming the ancestors of modern-day Malagasy , Micronesians , Melanesians , and Polynesians . Passage through
12600-457: The result of the Chola expeditions. As Srivijaya influence in the region declined, The Hindu Khmer Empire experienced a golden age during the 11th to 13th century CE. The empire's capital Angkor hosts majestic monuments—such as Angkor Wat and Bayon . Satellite imaging has revealed that Angkor, during its peak, was the largest pre-industrial urban centre in the world. The Champa civilisation
12720-492: The royal vocabulary according to their immediate environment. Thai and Pali, the latter from Theravada Buddhism, were added to the vocabulary. An investigation of the Ayutthaya Rajasap reveals that three languages, Thai, Khmer and Khmero-Indic were at work closely both in formulaic expressions and in normal discourse. In fact, Khmero-Indic may be classified in the same category as Khmer because Indic had been adapted to
12840-578: The story talks of a "curse", and "flames", which is supposedly trapped in a photo. Thai language Thai , or Central Thai (historically Siamese ; Thai: ภาษาไทย ), is a Tai language of the Kra–Dai language family spoken by the Central Thai , Mon , Lao Wiang , Phuan people in Central Thailand and the vast majority of Thai Chinese enclaves throughout the country. It
12960-535: The terminology "low" reflects the lower tone variants that resulted. Modern "mid"-class consonants were voiceless unaspirated stops or affricates in Old Thai—precisely the class that triggered lowering in original tone 1 but not tones 2 or 3. Modern "high"-class consonants were the remaining voiceless consonants in Old Thai (voiceless fricatives, voiceless sonorants, voiceless aspirated stops). The three most common tone "marks" (the lack of any tone mark, as well as
13080-408: The three tones of Old Thai were split have since merged into five in standard Thai, with the lower variant of former tone 2 merging with the higher variant of former tone 3, becoming the modern "falling" tone. หม ม หน น, ณ หญ ญ หง ง ป ผ พ, ภ บ ฏ, ต ฐ, ถ ท, ธ ฎ, ด จ ฉ ช Southeast Asia Southeast Asia
13200-423: The two marks termed mai ek and mai tho ) represent the three tones of Old Thai, and the complex relationship between tone mark and actual tone is due to the various tonal changes since then. Since the tone split, the tones have changed in actual representation to the point that the former relationship between lower and higher tonal variants has been completely obscured. Furthermore, the six tones that resulted after
13320-508: The urban/rural divide, is partly mutually intelligible with Lao , Isan , and some fellow Thai topolects . These languages are written with slightly different scripts, but are linguistically similar and effectively form a dialect continuum . Thai language is spoken by over 69 million people (2020). Moreover, most Thais in the northern (Lanna) and the northeastern (Isan) parts of the country today are bilingual speakers of Central Thai and their respective regional dialects because Central Thai
13440-463: The west and from the east. Regular trade between the ships sailing east from the Indian Ocean and south from mainland Asia provided goods in return for natural products, such as honey and hornbill beaks from the islands of the archipelago. Before the 18th and 19th centuries, the Europeans mostly were interested in expanding trade links. For the majority of the populations in each country, there
13560-533: The younger population of China. Solheim and others have shown evidence for a Nusantao maritime trading network ranging from Vietnam to the rest of the archipelago as early as 5000 BC to 1 AD. The Bronze Age Dong Son culture flourished in Northern Vietnam from about 1000 BC to 1 BC. Its influence spread to other parts Southeast Asia. The region entered the Iron Age era in 500 BC, when iron
13680-453: Was a thorough mixture of Thai and Khmer. There were more Khmer words in use than Tai cognates. Khmer grammatical rules were used actively to coin new disyllabic and polysyllabic words and phrases. Khmer expressions, sayings, and proverbs were expressed in Thai through transference. Thais borrowed both the Royal vocabulary and rules to enlarge the vocabulary from Khmer. The Thais later developed
13800-509: Was already inhabited by Homo erectus from approximately 1,500,000 years ago during the Middle Pleistocene age. Distinct Homo sapiens groups, ancestral to Eastern non-African (related to East Asians as well as Papuans) populations, reached the region by between 50,000BC to 70,000BC, with some arguing earlier. Rock art (parietal art) dating from 40,000 years ago (which is currently the world's oldest) has been discovered in
13920-598: Was comparatively little interaction with Europeans and traditional social routines and relationships continued. For most, a life with subsistence-level agriculture, fishing and, in less developed civilisations, hunting and gathering was still hard. Europeans brought Christianity allowing Christian missionaries to become widespread. Thailand also allowed Western scientists to enter its country to develop its own education system as well as start sending royal members and Thai scholars to get higher education from Europe and Russia. During World War II, Imperial Japan invaded most of
14040-459: Was forged also in northern Vietnam still under Dong Son, due to its frequent interactions with neighbouring China. Most Southeast Asian people were originally animist , engaged in ancestors, nature, and spirits worship. These belief systems were later supplanted by Hinduism and Buddhism after the region, especially coastal areas, came under contact with Indian subcontinent during the first century. Indian Brahmins and traders brought Hinduism to
14160-548: Was located in what is today central Vietnam, and was a highly Indianised Hindu Kingdom. The Vietnamese launched a massive conquest against the Cham people during the 1471 Vietnamese invasion of Champa , ransacking and burning Champa, slaughtering thousands of Cham people, and forcibly assimilating them into Vietnamese culture. During the 13th century CE, the region experienced Mongol invasions , affected areas such as Vietnamese coast, inland Burma and Java . In 1258, 1285 and 1287,
14280-436: Was the dominant religious tradition of many southern Indian Hindu kingdoms during the first century. It then spread into Southeast Asia via Bay of Bengal , Indochina, then Malay Archipelago, leading to thousands of Shiva temples on the islands of Indonesia as well as Cambodia and Vietnam, co-evolving with Buddhism in the region. Theravada Buddhism entered the region during the third century, via maritime trade routes between
14400-508: Was under Chinese rule. Vietnam was successfully governed by a series of Chinese dynasties including the Han , Eastern Han , Eastern Wu , Cao Wei , Jin , Liu Song , Southern Qi , Liang , Sui , Tang , and Southern Han . Records from Magellan's voyage show that Brunei possessed more cannon than European ships, so the Chinese must have been trading with them. Malaysian legend has it that
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