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133-554: The Hotchkiss H35 or Char léger modèle 1935 H was a French cavalry tank developed prior to World War II . Despite having been designed from 1933 as a rather slow but well-armoured light infantry support tank, the type was initially rejected by the French Infantry because steering proved difficult during cross-country use, and was instead adopted in 1936 by the French Cavalry arm. From 1938 an improved version

266-459: A H38 and a H39; and fitted many with a cupola with a hatch. Panzer-Abteilung 211 was deployed in Finland during Operation Barbarossa , equipped with Hotchkiss tanks. In 1944, three of its vehicles were converted to 7.5 cm self-propelled guns. Additional vehicles were sent to Finland as part of the independent Panzerkampfwagenzüge (tank platoons) 217, 218 and 219, which were attached to

399-554: A class largely neglected by the British. It would be Renault 's excellent small tank design, the FT , incorporating a proper climbing face for the tracks, that was the first tank to incorporate a top-mounted turret with a full 360° traverse capability. In fact the FT was in many respects the first truly 'modern' tank having a layout that has been followed by almost all designs ever since: driver at

532-454: A constant during the decades to come. Already in January and February 1916 quite substantial orders were made, at that moment with a total number of 800 much larger than the British ones. Army enthusiasm and haste would have its immediate drawbacks, however. As a result of the involvement of inexperienced army officers ordered to devise a new tank based on the larger 75 hp Holt chassis in

665-666: A first armoured vehicle based on the Baby Holt tractor but initially the development process was slow until in July they received political, even presidential, support by combining their project with that of a mechanical wire cutter devised by engineer and politician Jean-Louis Bréton. In December 1915, the influential Colonel Estienne made the Supreme Command very enthusiastic about the idea of creating an armoured force based on these vehicles; strong Army support for tanks would be

798-483: A large number of variants, including 195 self-propelled howitzers, 44 AMX-30 Pluton tactical nuclear missile launchers, 183 AMX-30Rs, 134 AMX-30Ds and 48 engineer vehicles (AMX-30EBG). The last 35 new battle tanks were in 1989 ordered by Cyprus and the last new variant vehicles, a batch of twenty GCTs, in 1994 by France. In the late 1990s, the French Army began to accept the new Leclerc main battle tank to replace

931-443: A matériel reserve of two tanks and regimental and brigade commanders in practice had personal tanks too, resulting in a total of 88 vehicles per division. Furthermore, 31 were present in the general matériel reserve, 49 in factory stocks and 26 were being processed for acceptance. These vehicles were later issued to several ad hoc units, such as the 4th DCR (commanded by Charles de Gaulle ) which received 39, part of 3e Cuirassiers ,

1064-571: A recently discovered picture of a Hotchkiss tank with series number 41200 indicates that in June at least 121 were produced for a total of at least 1,200 vehicles, not including prototypes. About 550 Hotchkiss tanks were captured and used by the Germans as Panzerkampfwagen 35H 734(f) or Panzerkampfwagen 38H 735(f) ; most for occupation duty. Like the French, the Germans made no clear distinction between

1197-458: A separate pre-series, had curved bogie sides; in later vehicles the bogies had straight sides. The bogies superficially resembled the R35 type, but used horizontal helical springs instead of rubber cylinders. The sprocket was at the front, the idler—which itself was sprung to automatically control tension—at the rear. There were two top rollers. The rear of the hull formed an engine room, separated from

1330-515: A single Char B1 "Eure" was able to destroy thirteen German tanks within a few minutes in Stonne on 16 May 1940, all of them Panzer III and Panzer IV tanks. The 37mm and 20mm guns the Germans used were ineffective at penetrating the thick armour of the B1, which was able to return safely despite being hit a large number of times. Even German General Rommel was surprised at how the French tanks withstood

1463-538: A standardised common tank project. In 1963, both West Germany and France declared that they would produce purely national tanks. Development towards main battle tank projects such as the AMX-30 occurred soon afterwards. AMX-30 production occurred at the Atelier de Construction de Roanne in the town of Roanne . This heavy manufacturing factory was built during World War I to produce artillery shells, although by 1952

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1596-578: A total order for 2,300 at least 1,601 had been produced until 1 June 1940 serial numbers known to be actually used indicate a production of at least 1670 vehicles. In the Battle of France , despite an advantage in number and armour against the Germans, the French tanks were not used to good enough effect. Ironically, cooperation with the infantry was poor. The Cavalry units alone were too few in number. In armour and firepower, French tanks were generally not inferior to their German counterparts. In one incident,

1729-483: A very short period of time, the first French tanks were poorly designed with respect to the need to cross trenches and did not take the sponson-mounting route of the British tanks. The first, the Char Schneider CA equipped with a short 75 mm howitzer, had poor mobility due to a short track length combined with a hull that overhung front and rear. It was unreliable as well; a maximum of only about 130 of

1862-740: A view to a larger purchase. During the German invasion of Poland in 1939 the Hotchkiss tanks, together with three Renault R 35 tanks, were organised into an ad hoc "half company" unit under lieutenant J. Jakubowicz, formed on 14 September 1939 in Kiwerce , Poland. The unit joined the " Dubno " task force and lost all of its tanks during the marches and fighting against German and Soviet armies, largely due to fuel shortages. Two vehicles were exported by France to Turkey in February 1940. In 1943

1995-473: A water repellent coating for boats , ships , sails , and roofs . In Scandinavia , it was produced as a cash crop. "Peasant Tar" might be named for the district of its production. Wood tar is still used as an additive in the flavoring of candy , alcohol , and other foods. Wood tar is microbicidal . Producing tar from wood was known in ancient Greece and has probably been used in Scandinavia since

2128-735: Is a tendency to use "tar" for more liquid substances and "pitch" for more solid ( viscoelastic ) substances. Both "tar" and "pitch" are applied to viscous forms of asphalt, such as the asphalt found in naturally occurring tar pits (e.g., the La Brea Tar Pits in Los Angeles). "Rangoon tar", also known as "Burmese oil" or "Burmese naphtha", is also a form of petroleum. Oil sands , found extensively in Alberta, Canada , and composed of asphalt, are colloquially referred to as "tar sands". Since prehistoric times wood tar has been used as

2261-535: Is used for the surface treatment of wooden shingle roofs, boats, buckets, and tubs and in the medicine, soap, and rubber industries. Pine tar has good penetration on the rough wood. An old wood tar oil recipe for the treatment of wood is one-third each genuine wood tar, balsam turpentine, and boiled or raw linseed oil or Chinese tung oil. In Finland , wood tar was once considered a panacea reputed to heal "even those cut in twain through their midriff". A Finnish proverb states that "if sauna , vodka and tar won't help,

2394-674: The 1e Régiment de Chasseurs d'Afrique and were allowed to remain there under the armistice conditions; another five were hidden in Morocco . They fought the Allies during the opening stages of Operation Torch , the Allied invasion of French North Africa , near Casablanca in November 1942, destroying three M3 Stuart light tanks. The regiment subsequently joined the Allies and was re-equipped with M4 Sherman medium tanks in summer 1943. After

2527-509: The 1er RCA in Morocco . In the Infantry it equipped the two autonomous battalions mentioned above and two battalions of 45 in each of the three Divisions Cuirassées , the latter with the H39 variant. Most Hotchkiss tanks were thus concentrated in larger motorised units, in the armoured divisions supplementing the core of heavier tanks, though they were mismatched: the slower H35s fought alongside

2660-526: The 3rd Indian Motor Brigade had been annihilated, and two weakened British brigades - the 4th and the motorized 7th Armoured - were forced to retreat to Bir-el-Gubi and to The El-Adem, leaving Bir-Hakeim and the Free French Forces to fight the full brunt of Rommels forces. Rommel's success in the north was very costly, and Rommel's wide flanking plan was proving riskier because of the resistance at Bir Hakeim (his right flank and supply route

2793-478: The 4e Cuirassiers . At the end of 1937 the SA 35 gun became available and deliveries of the main production series could begin. By mid 1938 a hundred had been produced, 270 on 1 September 1939 and 246 delivered. On this date 191 served with the troops, 51 were in depot and four had been sent back to the factory for overhaul. After the outbreak of war a fourth order of 200 was made, bringing the ordered total to 700. Later it

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2926-513: The Ariete Armoured Division - to attack Bir Hakeim from the southeast. This division - formed of the 132nd Armoured Regiment, equipped with M13/40s , of the 8th Reggimento bersaglieri and of the 132nd Artillery Regiment - attacked the French position from the rear in two successive waves. The Italian tanks and armoured vehicles attacked without infantry support and tried to cross the minefield. Six tanks managed to infiltrate

3059-480: The Battle of France . In May 1940 the type equipped in the Cavalry units two tank regiments (of 47) in each of the three Mechanised Light Divisions and served as AMR in the 9th and 25th Mechanised Infantry Division (sixteen vehicles for each), 3rd DLM (22 H35s and 47 H39s) and in three of the five Cavalry Light Divisions (sixteen vehicles each for the 1re , 2e and 3e DLC ). Furthermore, sixteen vehicles were part of

3192-505: The Chrétien type were gradually replaced with episcopes, offering more protection. As the Cavalry wanted an even higher top speed, it was decided to bring to fruition experiments already conducted from October 1936 to install a more powerful engine. A new prototype was built in 1937, with a 120 hp engine instead of the 78 hp one. The hull was enlarged, giving it a higher almost level engine deck, to accommodate it. The track and

3325-649: The Fall of France , work on new designs, such as the Char G1 , officially halted, although there was some clandestine designing done. One of the first key battles the Free French forces fought after they joined the Allies was at Bir Hakeim where they defended against the attack by the Italian Ariete Division in the first phase of the battle of Gazala , and later under attack by a combined force of

3458-532: The Free French , forming the 1e Compagnie de Chars de Combat de la France Libre . This was an exception in June 1940, with most units returning to France. In 1940 and 1941 this 1e CCC fought against Vichy troops in the Battle of Gabon and later in Syria . According to the official army acceptance lists, at the start of World War II 640 Hotchkiss tanks had been delivered. The inventories deviate slightly: of

3591-624: The Hotchkiss company under its own initiative presented a plan to produce a lighter design—this was made possible by the application of a new technology to produce cast steel sections to construct an entire hull. On 30 June 1933, this proposal was approved by the Conseil Consultatif de l'Armement . On 2 August 1933 the specifications were issued: a weight of 6 long tons (6.1 t) and 30 mm (1.2 in) armour protection all around. Three prototypes were ordered from Hotchkiss, but

3724-482: The Iron Age . Production and trade in pine-derived tar was a major contributor in the economies of Northern Europe and Colonial America . Its main use was in preserving wooden sailing vessels against rot. For centuries, dating back at least to the 14th century, tar was among Sweden 's most important exports. Sweden exported 13,000 barrels of tar in 1615 and 227,000 barrels in the peak year of 1863. The largest user

3857-621: The Marder I Panzerjäger ( self-propelled anti-tank artillery ), the 7,5 cm PaK40(Sf) auf Geschützwagen 39H(f) , and 48 into self-propelled artillery with the 10.5 cm leFH 18 as the 10,5 cm leFH18(Sf) auf Geschützwagen 39H(f) , all to be used by units in France. Some vehicles were modified into munition carriers or artillery tractors ( Artillerieschlepper 38H(f) ) or rocket-launchers ( Panzerkampfwagen 35H(f) mit 28/32 cm Wurfrahmen ). A special artillery observation vehicle created,

3990-485: The Renault R 35 , which followed the FT concept quite closely with its very small size, two-man crew, and short 37 mm gun armament. It was, however, heavily armored. The R 35 was mostly used to equip the independent tank battalions, an armoured reserve allocated at army level and intended to reinforce infantry divisions in breakthrough operations. French infantry divisions normally had no organic tank component. The R 35

4123-623: The modifié 39 were further modified by the Germans during World War II. The sole surviving unmodified Hotchkiss H35 was discovered in December 2008, 200 meters off the coast, at Sainte-Cecile beach, Camiers , Pas-de-Calais , France. It is a turretless chassis, probably a remnant of the Dunkerque gap fighting in May–June 1940. The tank was dredged in late 2008 at low tide. The Musée des Blindés at Saumur plans to recover this tank for display in

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4256-415: The "Methodical Battle" concept, adopted because wargaming showed it to be superior. The role of small unit leaders was to execute plans, not to take the initiative in combat. This was nearly the opposite of German doctrine, which stressed initiative and decision-making at low command levels ( Auftragstaktik ). In 1939 a belated effort was made to improve flexibility and increase the number of radios Despite

4389-664: The 20th Mountain Army in February 1942. The platoons were the same as those of Panzerabteilung 211 , consisting of one SOMUA S35 and four Hotchkiss tanks. They were later disbanded, with the tanks being dispersed for use as fortifications and the crews used to form two batteries of Stug III Gs (741 and 742). German H35/39s also saw action in Yugoslavia with 7.SS-Freiwilligen-Gebirgs-Division "Prinz Eugen" , 12. Panzer-Kompanie z.b.V. and I./Panzer-Regiment 202 . Tanks used in France for various training and security units also got caught in

4522-589: The 300 H35s allocated to the Cavalry, 232 were fielded by ten cavalry squadrons, 44 were in depot, eight in factory overhaul and sixteen in North Africa. Of the hundred used by the Infantry, ninety were fielded by the two tank battalions equipped with the type, six were in matériel reserve and two used for driving training. Of the H39s, sixteen were used by the Cavalry in North Africa and six in depot; 180 were fielded by four Infantry tank battalions and fourteen were in

4655-415: The 400 built were ever operational at the same time. Then industrial rivalry began to play a detrimental role: it created the heavy Char Saint-Chamond , a parallel development not ordered by the Army, but approved by government through industrial lobby, which mounted much more impressive weaponry — its 75 mm was the most powerful gun fielded by any operational tank up till 1941 — but also combined many of

4788-455: The 4th DLM (10), and some Corps-francs Motorisés (about 25). Also the destroyed 1st, 2nd and 3rd DLM were reconstituted with a small number of tanks, the first two divisions received ten S 35s, the third twenty; S 35s further served with the 7e Cuirassiers (25) and a platoon of three was present in the 3e RAM of the 3e DLC . In May 1940 during the Battle of France the DLMs were tasked with

4921-642: The AMX-40 began in 1980 as a clean sheet design. In 1983 the first prototype was finished and presented at the Satory Exhibition of that year. Two further prototypes were produced in 1984; the last, fourth, was fabricated in 1985. The design was not intended for service in France, but as a successor to the AMX-32 , the improved export version of the AMX-30 . However the efforts to obtain foreign orders failed,

5054-670: The French camp. and the Free French Forces fought their way back to the British lines, The French 2nd Armoured Division (French: 2e Division Blindée, 2e DB ), was commanded by General Philippe Leclerc , one of the best French tank commanders. General Leclerc joined the Free French forces after the fall of France and adopted the Resistance pseudonym "Jacques-Philippe Leclerc". Charles de Gaulle upon meeting him promoted him from Captain to Major ( commandant ) and ordered him to French Equatorial Africa as governor of French Cameroon from 29 August 1940 to 12 November 1940. He commanded

5187-595: The French industry as a whole was also invited to provide alternative proposals for a nouveau char léger . This allowed the Renault company to beat Hotchkiss in delivering the first prototype, which later was developed into the Renault R35 . On 18 January 1935, the first Hotchkiss prototype, not yet made of armour steel, was presented to the Commission d'Expérience du Matériel Automobile (CEMA) at Vincennes ; it

5320-524: The French lines, avoiding mines and anti-tank fire, but they were eventually destroyed by very close range 75 mm fire, and the crews were captured. The Ariete Division, reduced to only 33 tanks in 45 minutes, had to retreat. The remaining tanks then tried to outflank the French forces by attacking through the V ;zone minefield protecting that face. They eventually regrouped and retreated, leaving behind 32 destroyed tanks. However north of Bir Hakeim,

5453-530: The French used tanks for the first time on 16 April 1917, during the Nivelle Offensive , they had four times more tanks available. But that would not last long as the offensive was a major failure; the Schneiders were badly deployed and suffered 50% losses from German long-range artillery. The Saint-Chamond tanks, first deployed on 5 May, proved to be so badly designed that they were unable to cross

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5586-527: The German 3rd and 4th Panzer Divisions. This was necessitated by the local tactical situation and did not reflect some fundamental difference in doctrine between the use of the DLMs and the Panzerdivisionen . Both types of units were very similar in equipment, training and organisation, as the German armoured divisions too were primarily intended for strategic exploitation, while the breakthrough phase

5719-851: The German military governor of Paris, capitulated at the Hôtel Meurice . After the division liberated Paris, it defeated a Panzer brigade during the armoured clashes in Lorraine, forced the Saverne Gap, and liberated Strasbourg. After taking part in the Battle of the Colmar Pocket , the division was moved west and assaulted the German-held Atlantic port of Royan , before recrossing France in April 1945 and participating in

5852-458: The German tank shells and had to resort to using the German 88 artillery as antitank guns against the French tanks to knock them out. Setbacks the French military suffered were more related to strategy, tactics and organisation than technology and design. Almost 80 percent of French tanks did not have radios, since the battle doctrine employed by the French military was more a slow-paced, deliberate conformance to planned maneuvers. French tank warfare

5985-407: The German tanks. The R 35 was intended to replace the FT as standard light infantry tank from the summer of 1936, but even by May 1940 not enough conscripts had been retrained and therefore eight battalions of the older tank had to be kept operational. On 1 September 1939, at the outbreak of war, 975 vehicles had been delivered out of 1,070 produced; 765 were fielded by tank battalions in France. Of

6118-542: The Germans, against objections, delivered nineteen H39s to Bulgaria for training purposes, when it proved to be impossible to find 25 unmodified Panzer I light tanks, the type the Bulgarians really desired. After the war these vehicles were used by police units. In 1942, the Germans delivered a small number to Croatia . In October 1942, the Hungarian Army received fifteen Hotchkiss H39 tanks, which formed

6251-471: The Infantry matériel reserve. It was decided to concentrate most Allied production capacity for light tanks into the manufacture of a single type, and the Hotchkiss tank was chosen as it had the necessary mobility to be of use in the many armoured divisions the Entente planned to raise for the expected decisive summer offensive of 1941. To this end British and Portuguese heavy industry had to assist in producing

6384-767: The Infantry or the Cavalry. The Renault FT had a long life and saw use in World War II and even later in Indochina. It was utilised as far away as in China, during the Chinese Civil wars, and versions of the tank were used both against and by the Japanese during the invasion of China. A large number found their way into both Republican and Nationalist hands during the Spanish Civil War. They were used in

6517-560: The Musée des Blindés at Saumur has a vehicle in a running condition; at the base of 501/503e RCC at Mourmelon-le-Grand a Hotchkiss serves as a monument restored with a Renault R35 turret, fitted with a dummy gun. Another tank is displayed at Užice , in Serbia . The Bulgarian National Museum of Military History displays one of the vehicles used by the Bulgarian police forces. In Latrun ,

6650-977: The Russian Revolution by both the Bolsheviks and the White Russians, and later by the Finns against the Soviets. France exported the FT right up to World War II . The design was also developed by the Italians as the Fiat 3000 and the USSR as the T-18 . By the mid-1930s the French Army was replacing the aging FT fleet with a mixed force of light tanks both in the Infantry and Cavalry branches, as well as medium and heavy tanks. The Infantry light tanks included

6783-428: The Schneider CA's faults with an even larger overhanging body. Its innovative petro-electrical transmission, while allowing for easy steering, was insufficiently developed and led to a large number of breakdowns. But industrial initiative also led to swift advances. The car industry, already used to vehicle mass production and having much more experience in vehicle layout, in 1916 designed the first practical light tanks,

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6916-420: The Trieste and 90th Light Infantry Division. The battle at Bir Hakeim was at a remote oasis in the Libyan desert, and the former site of a Turkish fort. During the Battle of Gazala, the 1st Free French Division of Général de brigade Marie Pierre Kœnig defended the site from 26 May-11 June 1942 against much larger attacking German and Italian forces directed by Generaloberst Erwin Rommel . The battle

7049-421: The Yad la-Shiryon Museum shows one of the tanks used by the IDF. In Russia , the Kubinka tank museum has a Hotchkiss tank which was captured from 211. Panzerabteilung in the summer of 1944. Tanks in France#Inter War French development into tanks began during World War I as an effort to overcome the stalemate of trench warfare , and largely at the initiative of the manufacturers. The Schneider CA1

7182-433: The antiquated AMX-30. The first units to be outfitted with the new tank were the 501st and 503rd tank regiments, followed by the 6th and 12th Cuirassier Regiments. In the early 1980s the next in the GIAT manufactured, export-driven AMX series was designed. As the AMX-32 had failed to attract any potential sales, the company decided to produce yet another upgrade. This was the AMX-40 Main Battle Tank. The development of

7315-428: The appearance of the German PzKpfw IV Ausf. F2 and Soviet T-34 . The S 35 had a long 47 mm gun that could kill any tank then in service, as well as heavy cast armour and good speed. The French char de bataille Char B1 tank was a very formidable tank, with heavy cast and riveted armour, the same long 47 mm gun as in the S 35, and a hull-mounted 75 mm howitzer. All Char B1s were equipped with radio and

7448-438: The arrival of the rested British divisions: this grain of sand was Bir Hakeim." On the night of 26 May 1942, Rommel started a planned attack with the 15th and 21st Panzer Divisions, and the rest of the 90th Motorized Infantry Division, and the Italian Trieste and Ariete Divisions started the large encircling move south of Bir-Hakeim as planned. The British armoured units were taken by surprise and retreated. Rommel then sent

7581-434: The bulk of the 101st Independent Tank Company, which was used in the counter-partisan role. The unit operated in Ukraine, Belarus and Poland and was finally disbanded after losing 30% of its tanks to enemy action and having to destroy the rest due to lack of fuel and spares. The unit returned to Hungary from Warsaw in September–October 1944. In North Africa, 27 vehicles (thirteen H35 and fourteen H39) were officially serving in

7714-421: The cannon by the Atelier de Construction de Bourges , the cupola and machine-gun by the Manufacture d'Armes de Saint-Étienne and the optics by the Atelier de Construction de Puteaux ; all these again used many subcontractors. In a series of corporate mergers under state guidance, most of these firms would eventually be concentrated into GIAT. Originally, 300 AMX-30s were ordered by the French Army, and by 1971

7847-413: The cast armour sections. It was hoped to increase production to 300 a month in October 1940, and even 500 a month from March 1941, the sections of 75 of which to be provided by Britain in exchange for a monthly delivery of nine Char B1s . This can be compared to the planned production of the R40: 120 per month, reflecting the little importance now attached to infantry support. These plans were disrupted by

7980-411: The cavalry units would be making more use of the road network and of mounted infantry, its cross-country handling problem was of less consequence. The H 35 was, at 28 km/h (17 mph), also somewhat faster than the Renault R35 , which was capable of 20 km/h (12 mph), although in practice its average speed was lower than that of the R 35 because of its inferior gear box. The Hotchkiss H35

8113-405: The column which attacked Axis forces from Chad , and, having marched his troops across West Africa, distinguished himself in Tunisia . The French 2nd Armoured Division was formed around a core of units that had raided Italian Libya since the end of 1940 to entering Tripoli 1943 under Leclerc, but was known for its fight at Kufra in 1941; later renamed the 2nd Light Division, in August 1943, it

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8246-476: The destruction of the historic city if the Germans sought to defend it. Leclerc and de Gaulle had to persuade Eisenhower to send Leclerc's 2nd Armored Division and they entered Paris, and the liberation by Leclerc help cement de Gaulle's claim as leader of the French. On 25 August, the 2nd Armoured and the U.S. 4th Division entered Paris and liberated it. After hard fighting that cost the 2nd Division 35 tanks, 6 self-propelled guns, and 111 vehicles, von Choltitz ,

8379-412: The difficult manoeuvre of carrying out a quick advance into the Low Countries , followed by a holding action to allow the infantry divisions following behind to dig themselves in. The 2nd and 3rd DLM were concentrated in the Gembloux gap between Louvain and Namur , where there were no natural obstacles to impede a German advance. They had to spread out somewhat to hold that sector against incursions by

8512-459: The disease is fatal." Wood tar is used in traditional Finnish medicine because of its microbicidal properties. Wood tar is also available diluted as tar water , which has numerous uses: Mixing tar with linseed oil varnish produces tar paint. Tar paint has a translucent brownish hue and can be used to saturate and tone wood and protect it from weather. Tar paint can also be toned with various pigments, producing translucent colors and preserving

8645-399: The fact that many subcontractors had to be used: at first the armour was made much too soft; when hardness was increased it became brittle and full of bubbles and hence weak spots. There was a crew of two. The driver sat at the right front, behind a large cast double hatch and next to the combined gearbox and steering unit. Behind him was a round escape hatch in the bottom of the hull. Driving

8778-411: The factory had begun producing armoured fighting vehicles. Before producing the AMX-30, for example, it had made 1,900 AMX-13s and variants. The Roanne factory was responsible for final assembly, most components were made elsewhere: the powerplant by the Atelier de Construction de Limoges , the full armour set by the Ateliers et Forges de la Loire , the turret by the Atelier de Construction de Tarbes ,

8911-503: The fall of France a number of S 35s (297 were captured according to some sources) were taken into service with the Wehrmacht as the Panzerkampfwagen 35-S 739(f) . The Germans modified the cupola by cutting its top off and installing a simple hatch. The 21st and 25. Panzerdivision in 1943 used some S 35s when reforming after having been largely destroyed. Some of these units fought in Normandy in 1944, and there were still twelve S 35s listed as in German service on 30 December 1944. After

9044-415: The fighting compartment by a fireproof bulkhead. The tank was powered by a 78 hp six-cylinder 86 x 100 3485 cc engine which was on the left of the engine compartment. A 160-litre fuel tank on the right, combined with a twenty litres reserve reservoir, gave a range of 129 km (80 mi) or eight hours on a varied terrain. The engine was cooled by a centrifugal pump. Also a cooling fan drew air through

9177-488: The fighting in Normandy, such as Panzer Abteilung 206 , Panzer –Ersatz und Ausb. Abt. 100 , and 200. Beute-Sturmgeschütz-Abteilung . In 1942 a project was launched to make use of French equipment as carrier platforms for heavier guns, directed by Major Alfred Becker , an artillery officer who was a mechanical engineer by trade. He had experience making similar conversions with captured Belgian and British vehicles. His unit in Paris converted 24 Hotchkiss tanks in 1942 into

9310-486: The final fighting in southern Germany. After the liberation of France, the next tank to be introduced would be the ARL 44 heavy tank, which came too late to participate in World War II , but was used post-war for a time. The ARL 44s equipped the 503e Régiment de Chars de Combat stationed in Mourmelon-le-Grand and replaced seventeen Panther tanks used earlier by that unit.Later, AMX-50 tank series will be introduced under rarely-known project 141, which developed around

9443-643: The first line of German trenches. The French used a very wide range of tanks, including many unique types. France was the second largest tank producer in the world, behind the Soviet Union (see French armoured fighting vehicle production during World War II ). French cavalry tank designs saw attempts to balance the needs of firepower, protection and mobility. They also fielded a heavy tank design, and several lighter types for scouting and infantry support. In addition to these types, they were also working on super-heavy breakthrough tanks ( FCM F1 ). The French didn't have an independent Tank Corps. All tanks belonged to either

9576-438: The front; main armament in a fully rotating turret on top; engine at the rear. Previous models had been "box tanks" with a single crowded space combining the role of engine room, fighting compartment, ammunition stock and driver's cabin. (A very similar Peugeot prototype, with a fixed casemate mounting a short 75mm cannon, was trialled in 1918, but the idea was not pursued.) The FT would have the largest production run of any tank of

9709-669: The gap was the German Schwerpunkt and tried to preserve their best tanks to block subsequent attacks by the rest of the Panzerwaffe . When it transpired the attack was really a feint and the forces in the north were in danger of being cut off by the German advance south of Namur, the 1st DLM that had very quickly moved 200 kilometres to the north to help the Dutch, was hurriedly rushed south again. The resulting disorder and breakdown of most of its S 35s rendered this unit,

9842-435: The gradual introduction of a longer L/35 37 mm SA38 gun with a much improved anti-tank capability which gave 30 mm (1.2 in) penetration at 1 km (0.62 mi)); about 350 vehicles were (re)built with the better gun, among them about fifty H35s. The new gun became standard on the production lines in April. Before that, the trickle of longer guns becoming available had, from January 1940, gradually been fitted to

9975-404: The gun and to each side. For access there was a hatch at the back of the turret. When opened, the commander could sit on it for better observation, but this left him very vulnerable and slow to reach the gun. The alternative was to fight closed-up, observing through the vertical slits or the visor of the hatchless cupola. The Cavalry liked neither this arrangement nor the weak gun. The latter problem

10108-531: The hold of the Vichy regime in that region. They were issued to the 12e régiment de Chasseurs d'Afrique that, after French West Africa had sided with the Allies, operated them against German and Italian forces during the Tunisia Campaign . After the liberation of France in 1944 an armoured unit was raised, the 13e Régiment de Dragons , using French matériel, among which were seventeen S 35s. After

10241-426: The hulls of ships and boats. For millennia, wood tar was used to waterproof sails and boats, but today, sails made from inherently waterproof synthetic substances have reduced the demand for tar. Wood tar is still used to seal traditional wooden boats and the roofs of historic, shingle-roofed churches, as well as painting exterior walls of log buildings. Tar is also a general disinfectant. Pine tar oil, or wood tar oil,

10374-485: The idea that the large amount of armour required to protect against modern anti-tank threats would significantly affect maneuverability, and that a higher speed and more compact vehicle dimensions would be more effective in protecting the tank from potential threats. A rift formed between France and West Germany following Charles de Gaulle 's decision that France would no longer participate in NATO , with West Germany opposing

10507-509: The largest tank forces in the world along with the Soviet, British and German (about 3000, majority of which were light tanks) forces. The French had planned for a defensive war and built tanks accordingly; many of their tanks - even those called léger ( "light") were well armoured. Within France and its colonies, roughly 5,800 tanks were available during the time of the German offensive, and some when they came into contact were effective against

10640-402: The last hundred tanks to equip just two battalions with the type: the 13e and 38e Bataillon de Chars de Combat . For political reasons however, stopping production of the tank was unacceptable. As a result the first three hundred vehicles of the production run were offered to the Cavalry, which was forced to accept them because it would not have been granted a budget for other tanks anyway. As

10773-413: The light AMR 33 and AMR 35 vehicles, that for want of a better type had been used to form the bulk of the first two Cavalry armoured divisions. As the new medium SOMUA S35 was initially produced in very limited numbers, until early 1939 the Hotchkiss equipped three of the four divisional tank regiments. In April 1940 the 342e CACC ( Compagnie Autonome de Chars de Combat or "Independent Tank Company")

10906-472: The major industries remained passive. Almost all production effort was thus concentrated into the Mark I and its direct successors, all very similar in shape. In France, on the other hand, there were multiple and conflicting lines of development which were badly integrated, resulting in three major and quite disparate production types. A major arms producer, Schneider, took the lead in January 1915 and tried to build

11039-510: The most powerful of all Allied divisions, impotent; it was defeated by the German 5th Panzerdivision on 17 May. The other DLMs fought a delaying battle, participated in the Battle of Arras and then disintegrated. Committing its only strategically mobile armour reserve early in the battle had made the French Army fatally vulnerable to a German strategic surprise. After the June 1940 armistice , S 35s were allowed to be sent to West Africa to bolster

11172-497: The most serious potential customer to have considered the design being Spain . In 1990 it was no longer offered for export. (Only tanks that were built in significant numbers are listed.) Caiti, Pierangelo (1978). Modern Armour — The world's battle tanks today . London: Arms and Armour Press. ISBN   0-85368-412-X Background: History of the tank , Tank classification , Tanks in World War I Background: History of

11305-792: The museum, but its recovery has proved very difficult and costly. One Hotchkiss H35 modifié 39 tank is on display at the Narvik War Museum in Narvik as a memorial of Battle of Narvik in 1940. A second vehicle in Norway is part of the collection of the Panserparken at the camp Rena leir . In England the private The Wheatcroft Collection bought a vehicle from the Norwegian Arquebus Krigshistoriske Museum at Rogaland . In France itself

11438-513: The order had been increased to 900, divided between eight batches, including all variants based on the chassis. Beginning in 1966, ten AMX-30s were assembled per month, and the first five were issued in August 1966 to the 501st Régiment de Chars de Combat . Monthly production grew to 15–20 tanks as new factories began to manufacture components of the vehicle and existing factories increased their production potential. However, in April 1969, production

11571-416: The products are methanol (wood alcohol) and charcoal . Tar kilns ( Swedish : tjärmila , Danish : tjæremile , Norwegian : tjæremile , Finnish : tervahauta ) are dry distillation ovens, historically used in Scandinavia for producing tar from wood. They were built close to the forest, from limestone or from more primitive holes in the ground. The bottom is sloped into an outlet hole to allow

11704-458: The quick capture of important industrial areas, stall any attack until the French Army was fully mobilised, and allow the French to fight a "long war" which would wear down and defeat Germany whose capability to fight a protracted war was limited. If Germany went to the north of the line, it would be met by the French Army, assisted by Britain, in Belgium. At the start of the war, France had one of

11837-479: The radiator and was also expected to cool the fuel tank. The trench-crossing capacity was 1.8 m (5 ft 11 in), the wading capacity 0.85 m (2 ft 9 in). On hard soil a slope of 75 percent could be climbed, on soft soil of 55 percent. Maximum tilt was 50 percent. Ground clearance was 37 cm (15 in). The APX -R turret was the same standard type as used on the R35 and R40 tanks, made of 40 mm (1.6 in) cast steel and armed with

11970-433: The rest of the day. Pitch was familiar in 9th-century Iraq , derived from petroleum that became accessible from natural fields in the region. It was sometimes used in the construction of baths or in shipbuilding. Coal tar was formerly one of the products of gasworks . Tar made from coal or petroleum is considered toxic and carcinogenic because of its high benzene content, though coal tar in low concentrations

12103-402: The right side in fifteen circular magazines with 150 rounds each; with usually an additional magazine on the machine-gun itself. The turret had a rotating cupola with a PPL RX 180 P visor but there was no hatch in the cupola though its top could be lifted a bit for better ventilation. Apart from the cupola there were protected vision devices, a binocular periscope and diascopes, to the front beside

12236-417: The right side); a range decreased to 120 km (75 mi); closed idler wheels; tracks 2 cm (0.79 in) wider at 27 cm (11 in); metal instead of rubber wheel treads; a new exhaust silencer directed to the back and larger, more reliable and effective ventilators. A modernisation programme was initiated in early 1940. Besides the fitting of episcopes, tails and some radio sets, this included

12369-533: The same time when the Pacific campaign was still underway by spring or summer of 1945, which marked a new era of french tanks in post-war era when French tanks needed to be modernized. Various tank designs were built by France after World War II. Tank models such as the AMX-13 and AMX-30 were also exported to various other nations. Newer French tank designs sacrificed armour protection for increased mobility, due to

12502-408: The same type as H39 and it is only possible to refer to the latter with historical accuracy in an informal sense. Parallel to the development of a R40 it was, for a time, considered to create an H40 by adopting the improved AMX suspension of the other vehicle; but this option was ultimately rejected. In the Cavalry arm, the main user at first, the Hotchkiss tanks replaced as main combat tanks

12635-565: The series number 40000 to 40400. By 1 January 1937 132 hulls had been produced. None of these had at that date yet been fitted with a turret. The first series vehicle was again extensively and intensively tested until 4 December 1936. The testing soon showed that its cross-country handling qualities were unacceptably poor; it proved impossible to safely steer the vehicle on a uneven surface, posing an extreme danger to nearby friendly infantry. The Infantry therefore initially rejected any further procurement. Eventually, in 1937, it decided to accept only

12768-426: The short 37 mm SA 18 gun, which had a maximum armour penetration of only 23 mm (0.91 in). Traverse of the turret was with a handwheel. The commander sat in a saddle suspended from the turret. The tank carried about 100 rounds for the gun, and 2,400 rounds for the coaxial 7.5 mm Reibel machine gun – the 37 mm ammunition was racked on the left hand side of the hull, the 7.5 mm ammunition on

12901-458: The suspension elements were improved, raising the weight to 12.1 t (11.9 long tons). This improved type was faster, with a top speed of 36.5 km/h (22.7 mph), but also proved much easier to drive. As this removed one of the objections of the Infantry, it was first presented to the Commission d'Expérimentations de l'Infanterie on 31 January 1939 to see whether the original negative decision could be changed. The commission indeed accepted

13034-471: The swifter SOMUA S35s , whereas the faster H39s joined the slow Char B1s. The vast majority of these vehicles still had the short gun. Several ad hoc and reconstituted units were formed with the type after the invasion. These included 4e DCR (forty vehicles) and 7e DLM (47). Most of these later units were equipped with new vehicles built with the long gun, but 7e DLM also deployed twenty-two old H35s in its 8e dragons-chars . In May deliveries peaked at 122;

13167-544: The tank , Tank classification , interwar period Background: History of the tank , Tank classification , Tanks in the Cold War Tar Mineral products resembling tar can be produced from fossil hydrocarbons , such as petroleum . Coal tar is produced from coal as a byproduct of coke production. "Tar" and " pitch " can be used interchangeably. Asphalt (naturally occurring pitch) may also be called either "mineral tar" or "mineral pitch". There

13300-468: The tank was nearly invulnerable to most tanks and towed antitank guns. They equipped the armoured divisions of the Infantry, which were specialised breakthrough units. The French plan of 1926, calling for the creation of a Light Infantry Support Tank, led to the development of the existing Renault NC1 prototype into the Char D1. On 23 December 1930 a first order of 70 main production series of Char D1 tanks

13433-485: The tanks of platoon, company and battalion commanders; about half of the commander vehicles in Hotchkiss units were modified in this way. It had been intended to fit the longer gun to all vehicles during the second half of 1940. After the war it was wrongly assumed for a time that H38 was the official name of the tank with the new engine but without the new gun and that H39 was the name of the type that had both major improvements. H38 however, in contemporary use indicated

13566-417: The tar to pour out. The wood is split into dimensions of a finger, stacked densely, and finally covered tight with earth and moss. If oxygen can enter, the wood might catch fire, and the production would be ruined. On top of this, a fire is stacked and lit. After a few hours, the tar starts to pour out and continues to do so for a few days. Tar was used as seal for roofing shingles and tar paper and to seal

13699-629: The third prototype was delivered, equipped with a cast APX turret and featuring a redesigned hull; it was tested until 20 September and accepted. On 6 November 1935 a first order was made for 200 vehicles. Though it should have been completed between July 1936 and July 1937, the first production vehicle was in fact delivered on 12 September 1936. A first additional order had already been made of 92 on 7 September 1936, to be completed in November 1937. A third one of 108 vehicles followed on 23 January 1937, to be completed in September 1938. These vehicles had

13832-451: The type, the Char léger modèle 1935 H modifié 39 ; and it was decided on 18 February to let it succeed the original version from the 401st vehicle onwards, which was just as well as both in 1937 and 1938 an order had been made of two hundred vehicles and production had already started, the total orders of the improved type thereafter being expanded to nine hundred. The factory identifier however,

13965-509: The vaunted Char B1 had a commander who was tasked with commanding the vehicle, aiming the main gun, and loading the main gun. If he were a platoon leader or company commander, he had the additional tasks of controlling his other units. Such a heavy set of tasks was overwhelming, and greatly reduced the effectiveness of the tanks. The lack of radios with the light tanks was not seen as a major drawback, since French doctrine called for slow-paced, deliberate manoeuvers in close conformance to plans:

14098-488: The vehicle was very hard work. The Hotchkiss lacked the Cleveland differential ("Cletrac") of its Renault competitor, and it responded unpredictably to changes of direction. The brakes could not sufficiently compensate for this, being too weak, especially when driving down-slope. No less troublesome was the gearbox: it was difficult to engage the highest fifth gear and so the theoretical top speed of 28 km/h (17 mph)

14231-408: The very small number of just ten, but it would be the first tank with a three-man turret; the heaviest to enter service until late in World War II and still the largest ever operational. French production at first lagged behind the British. After August 1916 however, British tank manufacture was temporarily halted to wait for better designs, allowing the French to overtake their allies in numbers. When

14364-552: The views of Estienne and later Charles de Gaulle , the French general staff failed in defining an effective military doctrine regarding their use, due to the division of labour between infantry and cavalry tanks. The French strategy was informed by its experience of the First World War. The long French border with Germany was protected by the Maginot Line , a series of supporting defensive measures, which would prevent

14497-537: The war was the Renault FT light tank, which set the general layout for future tank designs and was used or redesigned by various military forces, including those of the United States. While the British began the design and use of tanks in World War I, France at the same time developed its own tracked AFVs, but the situation there was very different. In Britain a single committee had coordinated design, while

14630-468: The war with over 3,700 built, more numerous than all British tanks combined. That this would happen was at first far from certain; some in the French army lobbied for the alternative mass production of super-heavy tanks. Much design effort was put in this line of development resulting in the gigantic Char 2C , the most complex and technologically advanced tank of its day. Its very complexity ensured it being produced too late to participate in World War I and in

14763-551: The war, some Hotchkiss tanks were used by French security forces in the colonies, such as French Indochina , and occupation forces in Germany. Ten H39s were clandestinely sold to Israel – they were shipped from Marseilles to Haifa in 1948. At least one remained in service with the Israel Defense Forces until 1952. One Hotchkiss H35 and nine Hotchkiss H35s modifié 39 have survived to this present day, all of

14896-403: The wood texture. Tar was once used for public humiliation , known as tarring and feathering . By pouring hot wood tar onto somebody's bare skin and waiting for it to cool, they would remain stuck in one position. From there, people would attach feathers to the tar, which would remain stuck on the tarred person for the duration of the punishment. That person would then become a public example for

15029-525: Was Char léger Hotchkiss modèle 38 série D , its predecessor having been the série B . The factory designation has caused much confusion; this was still officially the same tank as the H35, only in a later variant; even at the time, many began to refer to it as the 38 H or the 39 H . The new subtype differed from the original one in having a raised and more angular engine deck (in later production vehicles with crosswise instead of longitudinal ventilation slits on

15162-406: Was 4.22 m (13 ft 10 in) long, 1.95 m (6 ft 5 in) wide and 2.13 m (7 ft 0 in) tall and weighing 10.6–11.4 t (10.4–11.2 long tons). The hull consisted of six cast armour sections, bolted together: the engine deck, the fighting compartment, the front of the hull, the back of the hull and two longitudinal sections left and right forming the bottom. The hull

15295-440: Was a machine gun-armed tankette without turret. It was tested until 4 March 1935, when it was replaced by the second identical prototype to be tested until 6 May. Both had to be rejected because new specifications had been made on 21 June 1934 that increased the desired armour thickness to 40 mm (1.6 in). On 27 June 1935 the commission approved the type on the provision that the necessary changes would be made. On 19 August

15428-498: Was again reduced to ten per month. By 1971 about 180 vehicles were in service; in 1975 delivery began of the last 143 units of the final eighth batch of the original order. In 1985 the number of AMX-30s had risen to 1173. By the end of production, France had accepted 1,355 AMX-30s into service, including 166 brand-new AMX-30B2s. Another 493 tanks were refitted and modernized to AMX-30B2 standards; originally 271 new and 820 refitted vehicles had been planned. The French Army also accepted

15561-601: Was decided that from the 451st vehicle onward the tanks would be of the improved S 40 type. Production in fact totalled 430 by June 1940, including the prototype and the preseries. Of these about 288 were in front-line service at the beginning of the Battle of France , with the three armoured divisions of the Cavalry, the Divisions Légères Mécaniques or Mechanised Light Divisions ("light" here meaning "mobile"). Each of these had an organic strength of eight squadrons with ten S35s; each squadron however had

15694-549: Was exported to Poland and Romania. The cavalry had the similar Hotchkiss H 35 , armed with the same 37 mm, as well as light recon tanks such as the AMR 35 . France also produced what may have been the best tank of the 1930s, the SOMUA S35 . This tank equipped the armoured divisions of the Cavalry which had to execute the exploitation phase of a battle and was probably the best combination of armour, firepower and mobility prior to

15827-452: Was later greatly used for propaganda purposes by all involved parties. Tobruk was taken 10 days later by Rommel's troops. Rommel continued to advance against delaying actions by the British until halted at First Battle of El Alamein in July. Général Bernard Saint-Hillier said in an October 1991 interview: "A grain of sand had curbed the Axis advance, which reached Al-Alamein only after

15960-402: Was lessened by enlarging the breech so that special rounds with a larger charge could be used. This increased muzzle velocity to about 600 m/s (2,000 ft/s) and maximum penetration to about 30 mm (1.2 in). Only a small number of the tanks, and limited to the Cavalry, were modified however, because it greatly increased barrel wear. In the spring of 1940 the original diascopes of

16093-536: Was limited to about 1200 vehicles. For the remainder of the war Germany and its allies used captured Hotchkiss tanks in several modifications. In 1926, it had been decided to provide armour support to the regular infantry divisions by creating autonomous tank battalions equipped with a light and cheap infantry tank , a char d'accompagnement . For this role at first the Char D1 was developed which type however, proved to be neither particularly light nor cheap. In 1933,

16226-424: Was made water-tight by cementing these sections together with Aslic , a product based on tar mixed with lime . The casting allowed for sloped armour , avoiding shot traps, to optimise the chance of deflection but the protection levels did not satisfy the Infantry. Maximum armour thickness was not the specified 40 mm (1.6 in) but 34 mm (1.3 in). There were persistent quality problems, worsened by

16359-432: Was made, followed on 12 July 1932 by a second order of 30; the last order on 16 October 1933 was of 50 vehicles, for a total of 150, delivered between January 1932 and early 1935. In general, French tanks of the 1930s were well-armoured, innovative vehicles that owed little to foreign designs. However, the light tanks lacked firepower, tended to be slow, and almost all French tanks were weakened by their one-man turrets. Even

16492-470: Was often restricted with tanks being assigned for infantry support. Unlike Germany, which had special Panzerwaffe divisions, France did not separate tanks from the Infantry arm, and were unable to respond quickly to the Blitzkrieg tactics employed by the Germans, which involved rapid movement, mission-type orders and combined-arms tactics. The S35 medium tank entered service in January 1936 with

16625-577: Was organized under the US light armoured division organization. After landing in Normandy on 1 August 1944, his 2nd Armoured Division participated in the battle of the Falaise Pocket (12 to 21 August) where they all but destroyed the 9th Panzer Division and went on to liberate Paris . Allied troops were avoiding Paris, moving around it clockwise towards Germany. This was to minimize the danger of

16758-490: Was preferably left to the infantry. The resulting tank battle from 13 to 15 May, the Battle of Hannut , was with about 1700 AFVs participating the largest until that day and is still one of the largest of all time. The S 35s gave a good account of themselves, proving to be indeed superior to the German tanks in direct combat, but they were rather hesitantly deployed as the French High Command mistakenly supposed

16891-426: Was produced with a more powerful engine, the Char léger modèle 1935 H modifié 39 , which from 1940 was also fitted with a longer, more powerful 37 mm gun. It was intended to make this improved variant the standard light tank, with at least four thousand produced to equip new armoured divisions of both the Cavalry and the Infantry arms, but due to the defeat of France in June 1940, total production of both subtypes

17024-414: Was rarely reached. There was one reverse gear. The inevitable rough handling of the tank by the driver resulted in much wear and tear. Mechanical reliability was poor. The suspension consisted of three bogies per side—each formed of two bell cranks arranged as "scissors" with springs at the top. Each bogie carried two rubber-rimmed wheels. The first ten production vehicles, which can be considered as forming

17157-594: Was sent to Norway after Operation Weserübung , the German invasion of that country, having first been intended to form part of an expeditionary force to assist Finland in the Winter War . This autonomous company, equipped with fifteen H39s, all with short guns, fought in the later phase of the Battles of Narvik , after having landed on 7 May. After the temporary liberation of that city, the twelve remaining vehicles were withdrawn to Britain on 8 June, where they joined

17290-615: Was the Panzerbeobachtungswagen 38H (f) . In June 1943, 361 Hotchkiss tanks were still listed in the German Army inventories as 37 mm gun tanks; this number had decreased to sixty in December 1944. Three Hotchkiss H39 tanks had been exported by France to Poland in July 1939 for testing by the Polish Bureau of Technical Studies of Armoured Weapons ( Polish : Biuro Badań Technicznych Broni Pancernych ) with

17423-769: Was the Royal Navy of the United Kingdom . Demand for tar declined with the advent of iron and steel ships. Production nearly stopped in the early 20th century. Traditional wooden boats are still sometimes tarred. The heating ( dry distilling ) of pine wood causes tar and pitch to drip away from the wood and leave behind charcoal. Birch bark is used to make particularly fine tar, known as " Russian oil", used in Russian leather protection. The by-products of wood tar are turpentine and charcoal . When deciduous tree woods are subjected to destructive distillation ,

17556-528: Was the first tank produced by France, and 400 units were built. The French also experimented with various tank designs, such as the Frot-Laffly landship , Boirault machine and Souain experiment . Another 400 Saint-Chamond tanks were manufactured from April 1917 to July 1918 but they were underpowered and were of limited utility because the caterpillar tracks were too short for the tank's length and weight. The most significant French tank development during

17689-515: Was threatened by this position). The Afrika Korps had to take Bir Hakeim. So Rommel sent the Trieste division, the 90th Light Infantry Division, and 3 recon armored regiments from the Pavia division against Bir Hakeim. The German infantry launched a full attack, supported by the 15th Panzerdivision, with heavy barrages from the artillery. A breach was made and on 9 June, the evacuation order reached

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