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87-451: In civil engineering , a headwall is a small retaining wall placed at the inlet or outlet of a stormwater pipe or culvert . In medicine, a headwall is the wall at the head end of a hospital bedspace. The bed abuts this headwall perpendicularly, which is furnished with equipment such as regulators for supplemental oxygen, regulators for suction, suction canisters, connections for the call bell system, lighting, electrical outlets, and often

174-453: A Royal charter in 1828, formally recognising civil engineering as a profession. Its charter defined civil engineering as: the art of directing the great sources of power in nature for the use and convenience of man, as the means of production and of traffic in states, both for external and internal trade, as applied in the construction of roads, bridges, aqueducts, canals, river navigation and docks for internal intercourse and exchange, and in

261-520: A chartered engineer (in most Commonwealth countries), a chartered professional engineer (in Australia and New Zealand ), or a European engineer (in most countries of the European Union ). There are international agreements between relevant professional bodies to allow engineers to practice across national borders. The benefits of certification vary depending upon location. For example, in

348-496: A "true" smooth-sided pyramid from the outset; the earlier pyramid at Meidum had smooth sides in its finished state, but it was conceived and built as a step pyramid, before having its steps filled in and concealed beneath a smooth outer casing of dressed stone. As a true smooth-sided structure, the Bent Pyramid was only a partial success—albeit a unique, visually imposing one; it is also the only major Egyptian pyramid to retain

435-675: A Kushite ruler of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty, built his pyramid at Nuri. It was the largest in the area (North Sudan). The following table lays out the chronology of the construction of most of the major pyramids mentioned here. Each pyramid is identified through the pharaoh who ordered it built, his approximate reign, and its location. Would have been 91.65 meters (301 feet) or 175 Egyptian Royal cubits . Originally: 143.5 m (471 ft) or 274 Egyptian Royal cubits 47.6 m (156 ft; 91 Egyptian Royal cubits ) 30 meters (99 feet) 50 meters (164 feet) Constructing

522-505: A bachelor's degree in engineering represents the first step towards professional certification , and a professional body certifies the degree program. After completing a certified degree program, the engineer must satisfy a range of requirements including work experience and exam requirements before being certified. Once certified, the engineer is designated as a professional engineer (in the United States, Canada and South Africa),

609-503: A distance. Pyramids were often also named in ways that referred to solar luminescence. For example, the formal name of the Bent Pyramid at Dahshur was The Southern Shining Pyramid , and that of Senusret II at El Lahun was Senusret Shines . While it is generally agreed that pyramids were burial monuments, there is continued disagreement on the particular theological principles that might have given rise to them. One suggestion

696-414: A licensed land surveyor are generally required for boundary surveys (to establish the boundaries of a parcel using its legal description) and subdivision plans (a plot or map based on a survey of a parcel of land, with boundary lines drawn inside the larger parcel to indicate the creation of new boundary lines and roads), both of which are generally referred to as Cadastral surveying . Construction surveying

783-507: A major crossroads made it an easy source of stone. Quarrying, which began in Roman times, has left little apart from about fifteen courses of stone superimposed upon the natural hillock that formed part of the pyramid's core. A small adjacent satellite pyramid is in a better state of preservation. The Giza Plateau is the location of the Pyramid of Khufu (also known as the "Great Pyramid" and

870-722: A means to magically launch the deceased pharaoh's soul directly into the abode of the gods. All Egyptian pyramids were built on the west bank of the Nile, which, as the site of the setting sun , was associated with the realm of the dead in Egyptian mythology . In 1842, Karl Richard Lepsius produced the first modern list of pyramids—now known as the Lepsius list of pyramids —in which he counted 67. A great many more have since been discovered. At least 118 Egyptian pyramids have been identified. The location of Pyramid 29 which Lepsius called

957-402: A number of sub-disciplines within the broad field of civil engineering. General civil engineers work closely with surveyors and specialized civil engineers to design grading, drainage, pavement , water supply, sewer service, dams, electric and communications supply. General civil engineering is also referred to as site engineering, a branch of civil engineering that primarily focuses on converting

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1044-495: A significant proportion of its original smooth outer limestone casing intact. As such it serves as the best contemporary example of how the ancient Egyptians intended their pyramids to look. Several kilometres to the north of the Bent Pyramid is the last—and most successful—of the three pyramids constructed during the reign of Sneferu; the Red Pyramid is the world's first successfully completed smooth-sided pyramid. The structure

1131-403: A step pyramid some 70 m (230 ft) high and then later transformed into a "true" pyramid by having its steps filled in with loose masonry. Major pyramids located here include the Pyramid of Djoser —generally identified as the world's oldest substantial monumental structure to be built of dressed stone—the Pyramid of Userkaf , the Pyramid of Teti and the Pyramid of Merikare , dating to

1218-455: A tract of land from one usage to another. Site engineers spend time visiting project sites, meeting with stakeholders, and preparing construction plans. Civil engineers apply the principles of geotechnical engineering, structural engineering, environmental engineering, transportation engineering and construction engineering to residential, commercial, industrial and public works projects of all sizes and levels of construction. Coastal engineering

1305-515: A vital signs monitor. This article about geography terminology is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Civil engineering Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design , construction , and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment , including public works such as roads, bridges, canals, dams, airports, sewage systems , pipelines, structural components of buildings, and railways. Civil engineering

1392-455: Is a discipline that promotes using systems thinking to manage complexity and change in civil engineering within its broader public context. It posits that the proper development of civil engineering infrastructure requires a holistic , coherent understanding of the relationships between all of the crucial factors that contribute to successful projects while at the same time emphasizing the importance of attention to technical detail. Its purpose

1479-468: Is a sub-discipline of structural engineering. The main objectives of earthquake engineering are to understand interaction of structures on the shaky ground; foresee the consequences of possible earthquakes; and design, construct and maintain structures to perform at earthquake in compliance with building codes . Environmental engineering is the contemporary term for sanitary engineering , though sanitary engineering traditionally had not included much of

1566-482: Is also the best-preserved, Neferirkare Kakai and Sahure . The site is also home to the incomplete Pyramid of Neferefre . Most of the major pyramids at Abusir were built using similar construction techniques, comprising a rubble core surrounded by steps of mudbricks with a limestone outer casing. The largest of these Fifth Dynasty pyramids, the Pyramid of Neferirkare Kakai, is believed to have been built originally as

1653-651: Is also the third-largest pyramid in Egypt, after the pyramids of Khufu and Khafra at Giza. Also at Dahshur is one of two pyramids built by Amenemhat III , known as the Black Pyramid , as well as a number of small, mostly ruined subsidiary pyramids. Located to the south of Dahshur, several mudbrick pyramids were built in this area in the late Middle Kingdom , perhaps for Amenemhat IV and Sobekneferu . Two major pyramids are known to have been built at Lisht: those of Amenemhat I and his son, Senusret I . The latter

1740-628: Is closely related to civil engineering. It studies fundamental characteristics of materials, and deals with ceramics such as concrete and mix asphalt concrete, strong metals such as aluminum and steel, and thermosetting polymers including polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) and carbon fibers. Materials engineering involves protection and prevention (paints and finishes). Alloying combines two types of metals to produce another metal with desired properties. It incorporates elements of applied physics and chemistry . With recent media attention on nanoscience and nanotechnology , materials engineering has been at

1827-857: Is concerned with managing coastal areas. In some jurisdictions, the terms sea defense and coastal protection mean defense against flooding and erosion, respectively. Coastal defense is the more traditional term, but coastal management has become popular as well. Construction engineering involves planning and execution, transportation of materials, and site development based on hydraulic, environmental, structural, and geotechnical engineering. As construction firms tend to have higher business risk than other types of civil engineering firms, construction engineers often engage in more business-like transactions, such as drafting and reviewing contracts, evaluating logistical operations , and monitoring supply prices. Earthquake engineering involves designing structures to withstand hazardous earthquake exposures. Earthquake engineering

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1914-445: Is concerned with municipal infrastructure. This involves specifying, designing, constructing, and maintaining streets, sidewalks , water supply networks , sewers, street lighting , municipal solid waste management and disposal, storage depots for various bulk materials used for maintenance and public works (salt, sand, etc.), public parks and cycling infrastructure . In the case of underground utility networks, it may also include

2001-528: Is converted into a graphical representation of the Earth's surface in the form of a map. This information is then used by civil engineers, contractors and realtors to design from, build on, and trade, respectively. Elements of a structure must be sized and positioned in relation to each other and to site boundaries and adjacent structures. Although surveying is a distinct profession with separate qualifications and licensing arrangements, civil engineers are trained in

2088-786: Is generally performed by specialized technicians. Unlike land surveyors, the resulting plan does not have legal status. Construction surveyors perform the following tasks: Transportation engineering is concerned with moving people and goods efficiently, safely, and in a manner conducive to a vibrant community. This involves specifying, designing, constructing, and maintaining transportation infrastructure which includes streets, canals, highways, rail systems , airports, ports, and mass transit . It includes areas such as transportation design, transportation planning , traffic engineering , some aspects of urban engineering , queueing theory , pavement engineering , Intelligent Transportation System (ITS), and infrastructure management. Municipal engineering

2175-666: Is likely to have exceeded 40 m (130 ft). There are a total of fourteen pyramids at this site, which served as the main royal necropolis during the Fifth Dynasty . The quality of construction of the Abusir pyramids is inferior to those of the Fourth Dynasty—perhaps signaling a decrease in royal power or a less vibrant economy. They are smaller than their predecessors and are built of low-quality local limestone. The three major pyramids are those of Niuserre , which

2262-501: Is limited to the state of Queensland . Almost all certifying bodies maintain a code of ethics which all members must abide by. Engineers must obey contract law in their contractual relationships with other parties. In cases where an engineer's work fails, they may be subject to the law of tort of negligence , and in extreme cases, criminal charges. An engineer's work must also comply with numerous other rules and regulations such as building codes and environmental law . There are

2349-432: Is preceded by three other signs used as phonetics. The meaning of myr is unclear, as it only self-references the built object itself. By comparison, some similar architectural terms become compound words, such as the word for 'temple' ( per-ka ) becoming a compound of the words for 'house' and 'soul'. By graphical analysis, myr uses the same sign, O24, as benben . The benben is the mound of existence that arose out of

2436-473: Is surrounded by the ruins of ten smaller subsidiary pyramids. One of these subsidiary pyramids is known to be that of Amenemhat's cousin, Khaba II. The site which is in the vicinity of the oasis of the Faiyum , midway between Dahshur and Meidum, and about 100 kilometres south of Cairo, is believed to be in the vicinity of the ancient city of Itjtawy (the precise location of which remains unknown), which served as

2523-507: Is that they were designed as a type of "resurrection machine." The Egyptians believed the dark area of the night sky around which the stars appear to revolve was the physical gateway into the heavens. One of the narrow shafts that extend from the main burial chamber through the entire body of the Great Pyramid points directly towards the center of this part of the sky. This suggests the pyramid may have been designed to serve as

2610-590: Is the application of physical and scientific principles for solving the problems of society, and its history is intricately linked to advances in the understanding of physics and mathematics throughout history. Because civil engineering is a broad profession, including several specialized sub-disciplines, its history is linked to knowledge of structures, materials science, geography, geology , soils , hydrology , environmental science , mechanics , project management , and other fields. Throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction

2697-484: Is the investigation of materials, products , structures or components that fail or do not operate or function as intended, causing personal injury or damage to property. The consequences of failure are dealt with by the law of product liability. The field also deals with retracing processes and procedures leading to accidents in operation of vehicles or machinery. The subject is applied most commonly in civil law cases, although it may be of use in criminal law cases. Generally

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2784-597: Is the location for two unfinished Old Kingdom pyramids. The northern structure's owner is believed to be pharaoh Nebka , while the southern structure, known as the Layer Pyramid , may be attributable to the Third Dynasty pharaoh Khaba , a close successor of Sekhemkhet . If this attribution is correct, Khaba's short reign could explain the seemingly unfinished state of this step pyramid. Today it stands around 17 m (56 ft) high; had it been completed, it

2871-465: Is the process by which a surveyor measures certain dimensions that occur on or near the surface of the Earth. Surveying equipment such as levels and theodolites are used for accurate measurement of angular deviation, horizontal, vertical and slope distances. With computerization, electronic distance measurement (EDM), total stations, GPS surveying and laser scanning have to a large extent supplanted traditional instruments. Data collected by survey measurement

2958-472: Is the southernmost royal-tomb pyramid structure in Egypt. Its builders reduced the amount of work necessary to construct it by using as its foundation and core a 12-meter-high natural limestone hill. Piye , the king of Kush who became the first ruler of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty , built a pyramid at El-Kurru. He was the first Egyptian pharaoh to be buried in a pyramid in centuries. Taharqa ,

3045-527: Is the work of Archimedes in the 3rd century BC, including Archimedes' principle , which underpins our understanding of buoyancy , and practical solutions such as Archimedes' screw . Brahmagupta , an Indian mathematician, used arithmetic in the 7th century AD, based on Hindu-Arabic numerals, for excavation (volume) computations. Engineering has been an aspect of life since the beginnings of human existence. The earliest practice of civil engineering may have commenced between 4000 and 2000 BC in ancient Egypt ,

3132-703: Is three to five years, and the completed degree is designated as a bachelor of technology , or a bachelor of engineering . The curriculum generally includes classes in physics, mathematics, project management , design and specific topics in civil engineering. After taking basic courses in most sub-disciplines of civil engineering, they move on to specialize in one or more sub-disciplines at advanced levels. While an undergraduate degree (BEng/BSc) normally provides successful students with industry-accredited qualifications, some academic institutions offer post-graduate degrees (MEng/MSc), which allow students to further specialize in their particular area of interest. In most countries,

3219-514: Is to help integrate the entire civil engineering project life cycle from conception, through planning, designing, making, operating to decommissioning. Egyptian pyramids The Egyptian pyramids are ancient masonry structures located in Egypt . Sources cite at least 118 identified "Egyptian" pyramids . Approximately 80 pyramids were built within the Kingdom of Kush , now located in

3306-477: Is traditionally broken into a number of sub-disciplines. It is considered the second-oldest engineering discipline after military engineering , and it is defined to distinguish non-military engineering from military engineering. Civil engineering can take place in the public sector from municipal public works departments through to federal government agencies, and in the private sector from locally based firms to Fortune Global 500 companies. Civil engineering

3393-500: The Buried Pyramid . Archaeologists believe that had this pyramid been completed, it would have been larger than Djoser's. South of the main pyramid field at Saqqara is a second collection of later, smaller pyramids, including those of Pepi I , Djedkare Isesi , Merenre , Pepi II and Ibi . Most of these are in a poor state of preservation. The Fourth Dynasty pharaoh Shepseskaf either did not share an interest in or have

3480-713: The Eddystone Lighthouse . In 1771 Smeaton and some of his colleagues formed the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers, a group of leaders of the profession who met informally over dinner. Though there was evidence of some technical meetings, it was little more than a social society. In 1818 the Institution of Civil Engineers was founded in London, and in 1820 the eminent engineer Thomas Telford became its first president. The institution received

3567-513: The First Intermediate Period of Egypt . Also at Saqqara is the Pyramid of Unas , which retains a pyramid causeway that is one of the best-preserved in Egypt. Together with the pyramid of Userkaf, this pyramid was the subject of one of the earliest known restoration attempts, conducted by Khaemweset , a son of Ramesses II . Saqqara is also the location of the incomplete step pyramid of Djoser's successor Sekhemkhet , known as

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3654-526: The Indus Valley civilization , and Mesopotamia (ancient Iraq) when humans started to abandon a nomadic existence, creating a need for the construction of shelter. During this time, transportation became increasingly important leading to the development of the wheel and sailing . Until modern times there was no clear distinction between civil engineering and architecture, and the term engineer and architect were mainly geographical variations referring to

3741-956: The Parthenon by Iktinos in Ancient Greece (447–438 BC), the Appian Way by Roman engineers ( c.  312 BC ), the Great Wall of China by General Meng T'ien under orders from Ch'in Emperor Shih Huang Ti ( c.  220 BC ) and the stupas constructed in ancient Sri Lanka like the Jetavanaramaya and the extensive irrigation works in Anuradhapura . The Romans developed civil structures throughout their empire, including especially aqueducts , insulae , harbors, bridges, dams and roads. In

3828-497: The "Headless Pyramid", was lost for a second time when the structure was buried by desert sands after Lepsius's survey. It was found again only during an archaeological dig conducted in 2008. Many pyramids are in a poor state of preservation or buried by desert sands. If visible at all, they may appear as little more than mounds of rubble. As a consequence, archaeologists are continuing to identify and study previously unknown pyramid structures. The most recent pyramid to be discovered

3915-530: The "Pyramid of Cheops"), the somewhat smaller Pyramid of Khafre (or Chephren), the relatively modest-sized Pyramid of Menkaure (or Mykerinus), along with a number of smaller satellite edifices known as "Queen's pyramids", and the Great Sphinx of Giza . Of the three, only Khafre's pyramid retains part of its original polished limestone casing, near its apex. This pyramid appears larger than the adjacent Khufu pyramid by virtue of its more elevated location, and

4002-471: The 18th century, the term civil engineering was coined to incorporate all things civilian as opposed to military engineering. In 1747, the first institution for the teaching of civil engineering, the École Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées , was established in France; and more examples followed in other European countries, like Spain . The first self-proclaimed civil engineer was John Smeaton , who constructed

4089-514: The 4th Dynasty, Shepseskaf , did not build a pyramid and beginning in the 5th Dynasty ; for various reasons, the massive scale and precision of construction decreased significantly leaving these later pyramids smaller, less well-built, and often hastily constructed. By the end of the 6th Dynasty , pyramid building had largely ended and it was not until the Middle Kingdom that large pyramids were built again, though instead of stone, mudbrick

4176-675: The Class of Civil Engineering and Mining was founded at King's College London in 1838, mainly as a response to the growth of the railway system and the need for more qualified engineers, the private College for Civil Engineers in Putney was established in 1839, and the UK's first Chair of Engineering was established at the University of Glasgow in 1840. Civil engineers typically possess an academic degree in civil engineering. The length of study

4263-633: The United States and Canada, "only a licensed professional engineer may prepare, sign and seal, and submit engineering plans and drawings to a public authority for approval, or seal engineering work for public and private clients." This requirement is enforced under provincial law such as the Engineers Act in Quebec . No such legislation has been enacted in other countries including the United Kingdom. In Australia, state licensing of engineers

4350-604: The United States was awarded by Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1835. The first such degree to be awarded to a woman was granted by Cornell University to Nora Stanton Blatch in 1905. In the UK during the early 19th century, the division between civil engineering and military engineering (served by the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich ), coupled with the demands of the Industrial Revolution, spawned new engineering education initiatives:

4437-616: The abyss, known as nun in the Egyptian creation myth. The relationship between myr and benben is further linked by the capstone architectural element of pyramids and obelisks, which was named benbenet , the feminine form of benben . Preceded by assumed earlier sites in the Eastern Sahara , tumuli with megalithic monuments developed as early as 4700 BCE in the Saharan region of Niger . Fekri Hassan (2002) indicates that

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4524-564: The basics of surveying and mapping, as well as geographic information systems . Surveyors also lay out the routes of railways, tramway tracks , highways, roads, pipelines and streets as well as position other infrastructure, such as harbors , before construction. In the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom and most Commonwealth countries land surveying is considered to be a separate and distinct profession. Land surveyors are not considered to be engineers, and have their own professional associations and licensing requirements. The services of

4611-491: The capacity to undertake pyramid construction like his predecessors. His tomb, which is also sited at south Saqqara, was instead built as an unusually large mastaba and offering temple complex. It is commonly known as the Mastabat al-Fir’aun . A previously unknown pyramid was discovered in north Saqqara in late 2008. Believed to be the tomb of Teti's mother, it currently stands approximately 5 m (16 ft) high, although

4698-503: The capital of Egypt during the Twelfth Dynasty . The pyramid at Meidum is one of three constructed during the reign of Sneferu , and is believed by some to have been started by that pharaoh's father and predecessor, Huni . However, that attribution is uncertain, as no record of Huni's name has been found at the site. It was constructed as a step pyramid and then later converted into the first "true" smooth-sided pyramid, when

4785-451: The civil portion (conduits and access chambers) of the local distribution networks of electrical and telecommunications services. It can also include the optimization of waste collection and bus service networks. Some of these disciplines overlap with other civil engineering specialties, however municipal engineering focuses on the coordination of these infrastructure networks and services, as they are often built simultaneously, and managed by

4872-499: The construction of ports, harbours, moles, breakwaters and lighthouses, and in the art of navigation by artificial power for the purposes of commerce, and in the construction and application of machinery, and in the drainage of cities and towns. The first private college to teach civil engineering in the United States was Norwich University , founded in 1819 by Captain Alden Partridge. The first degree in civil engineering in

4959-425: The dynastic Egyptians themselves, contemporaneously or in numerous later dynastic writings about the character, did not credit him with either designing Djoser's pyramid or the invention of stone architecture. The Pyramid of Djoser was first built as a square mastaba-like structure, which as a rule were known to otherwise be rectangular, and was expanded several times by way of a series of accretion layers, to produce

5046-529: The field of soil science , materials science, mechanics , and hydraulics is applied to safely and economically design foundations , retaining walls , and other structures. Environmental efforts to protect groundwater and safely maintain landfills have spawned a new area of research called geo-environmental engineering. Identification of soil properties presents challenges to geotechnical engineers. Boundary conditions are often well defined in other branches of civil engineering, but unlike steel or concrete,

5133-445: The flow and conveyance of fluids, principally water. This area of civil engineering is intimately related to the design of pipelines , water supply network , drainage facilities (including bridges, dams, channels , culverts , levees , storm sewers ), and canals. Hydraulic engineers design these facilities using the concepts of fluid pressure , fluid statics , fluid dynamics , and hydraulics, among others. Civil engineering systems

5220-535: The forefront of academic research. It is also an important part of forensic engineering and failure analysis . Site development , also known as site planning , is focused on the planning and development potential of a site as well as addressing possible impacts from permitting issues and environmental challenges . Structural engineering is concerned with the structural design and structural analysis of buildings, bridges, towers , flyovers (overpasses), tunnels, off shore structures like oil and gas fields in

5307-618: The function they are designed for (to be serviceable ). Due to the nature of some loading conditions, sub-disciplines within structural engineering have emerged, including wind engineering and earthquake engineering. Design considerations will include strength, stiffness, and stability of the structure when subjected to loads which may be static, such as furniture or self-weight, or dynamic, such as wind, seismic, crowd or vehicle loads, or transitory, such as temporary construction loads or impact. Other considerations include cost, constructibility, safety, aesthetics and sustainability . Surveying

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5394-414: The hazardous waste management and environmental remediation work covered by environmental engineering. Public health engineering and environmental health engineering are other terms being used. Environmental engineering deals with treatment of chemical, biological, or thermal wastes, purification of water and air, and remediation of contaminated sites after waste disposal or accidental contamination. Among

5481-480: The latter part of the 1st Dynasty, was discovered to contain a large, independently built step-pyramid-like structure enclosed within the outer palace facade mastaba. Archaeological remains and inscriptions suggest there may have been other similar structures dating to this period. The first historically documented Egyptian pyramid is attributed by Egyptologists to the 3rd Dynasty pharaoh Djoser . Although Egyptologists often credit his vizier Imhotep as its architect,

5568-578: The lower courses and outer casing of the pyramid gave way. Amenemhat III was the last powerful ruler of the Twelfth Dynasty, and the pyramid he built at Hawara, near the Faiyum, is believed to post-date the so-called " Black Pyramid " built by the same ruler at Dahshur. It is the Hawara pyramid that is believed to have been Amenemhet's final resting place. The Pyramid of Senusret II at El Lahun

5655-497: The material properties and behavior of soil are difficult to predict due to its variability and limitation on investigation . Furthermore, soil exhibits nonlinear ( stress -dependent) strength , stiffness, and dilatancy (volume change associated with application of shear stress ), making studying soil mechanics all the more difficult. Geotechnical engineers frequently work with professional geologists , Geological Engineering professionals and soil scientists. Materials science

5742-591: The megalithic monuments in the Saharan region of Niger and the Eastern Sahara may have served as antecedents for the mastabas and pyramids of ancient Egypt . During Predynastic Egypt , tumuli were present at various locations (e.g., Naqada , Helwan ). From the time of the Early Dynastic Period (c. 3150–2686 BCE), Egyptians with sufficient means were buried in bench-like structures known as mastabas . At Saqqara, Mastaba 3808, dating from

5829-535: The modern country of Sudan . Of those located in modern Egypt, most were built as tombs for the country's pharaohs and their consorts during the Old and Middle Kingdom periods. The earliest known Egyptian pyramids are found at Saqqara , northwest of Memphis , although at least one step-pyramid-like structure has been found at Saqqara, dating to the First Dynasty : Mastaba 3808, which has been attributed to

5916-402: The mostly ruined Pyramid of Djedefre , son and successor of Khufu . Originally it was thought that this pyramid had never been completed, but the current archaeological consensus is that not only was it completed, but that it was originally about the same size as the Pyramid of Menkaure , which would have placed it among the half-dozen or so largest pyramids in Egypt. Its location adjacent to

6003-448: The original height was closer to 14 m (46 ft). This area is arguably the most important pyramid field in Egypt outside Giza and Saqqara, although until 1996 the site was inaccessible due to its location within a military base and was relatively unknown outside archaeological circles. The southern Pyramid of Sneferu , commonly known as the Bent Pyramid , is believed to be the first Egyptian pyramid intended by its builders to be

6090-650: The outskirts of Cairo . Several of the Giza pyramids are counted among the largest structures ever built. The Pyramid of Khufu is the largest Egyptian pyramid and the last of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World still in existence, despite being the oldest by about 2,000 years. The name for a pyramid in Egyptian is myr , written with the symbol 𓉴 ( O24 in the Gardner Sign List). Myr

6177-450: The period between 300 BCE and 300 CE), experienced a full-blown pyramid-building revival , which saw about 180 Egyptian-inspired indigenous royal pyramid-tombs constructed in the vicinity of the kingdom's capital cities. Al-Aziz Uthman (1171–1198), the second Ayyubid Sultan of Egypt, tried to destroy the Giza pyramid complex. He gave up after only damaging the Pyramid of Menkaure because

6264-454: The prediction and management of both the quality and the quantity of water in both underground ( aquifers ) and above ground (lakes, rivers, and streams) resources. Water resource engineers analyze and model very small to very large areas of the earth to predict the amount and content of water as it flows into, through, or out of a facility. However, the actual design of the facility may be left to other engineers. Hydraulic engineering concerns

6351-405: The purpose of a Forensic engineering investigation is to locate cause or causes of failure with a view to improve performance or life of a component, or to assist a court in determining the facts of an accident. It can also involve investigation of intellectual property claims, especially patents . Geotechnical engineering studies rock and soil supporting civil engineering systems. Knowledge from

6438-473: The pyramids involved moving huge quantities of stone. While most blocks came from nearby quarries, special stones were transported on great barges from distant locations, for instance white limestone from Tura and granite from Aswan . In 2013, papyri, named Diary of Merer , were discovered at an ancient Egyptian harbor at the Red Sea coast. They are logbooks written over 4,500 years ago by an official with

6525-544: The reign of Pharaoh Anedjib , with inscriptions, and other archaeological remains of the period, suggesting there may have been others. The otherwise earliest among these is the Pyramid of Djoser built c.  2630–2610  BCE during the Third Dynasty . This pyramid and its surrounding complex are generally considered to be the world's oldest monumental structures constructed of dressed masonry . The most famous Egyptian pyramids are those found at Giza , on

6612-558: The same municipal authority. Municipal engineers may also design the site civil works for large buildings, industrial plants or campuses (i.e. access roads, parking lots, potable water supply, treatment or pretreatment of waste water, site drainage, etc.) Water resources engineering is concerned with the collection and management of water (as a natural resource ). As a discipline, it therefore combines elements of hydrology, environmental science, meteorology , conservation , and resource management . This area of civil engineering relates to

6699-460: The same occupation, and often used interchangeably. The constructions of pyramids in Egypt ( c.  2700 –2500 BC) constitute some of the first instances of large structure constructions in history. Other ancient historic civil engineering constructions include the Qanat water management system in modern-day Iran (the oldest is older than 3000 years and longer than 71 kilometres (44 mi) ),

6786-534: The sea, aerostructure and other structures. This involves identifying the loads which act upon a structure and the forces and stresses which arise within that structure due to those loads, and then designing the structure to successfully support and resist those loads. The loads can be self weight of the structures, other dead load, live loads, moving (wheel) load, wind load, earthquake load, load from temperature change etc. The structural engineer must design structures to be safe for their users and to successfully fulfill

6873-506: The steeper angle of inclination of its construction—it is, in fact, smaller in both height and volume. The Giza pyramid complex has been a popular tourist destination since antiquity and was popularized in Hellenistic times when the Great Pyramid was listed by Antipater of Sidon as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World . Today it is the only one of those wonders still in existence. This site, halfway between Giza and Abusir ,

6960-431: The stepped pyramid structure we see today. Egyptologists believe this design served as a gigantic stairway by which the soul of the deceased pharaoh could ascend to the heavens. Though other pyramids were attempted in the 3rd Dynasty after Djoser, it was the 4th Dynasty , transitioning from the step pyramid to true pyramid shape, which gave rise to the great pyramids of Meidum , Dahshur , and Giza. The last pharaoh of

7047-428: The steps were filled in and an outer casing added. The pyramid suffered several catastrophic collapses in ancient and medieval times. Medieval Arab writers described it as having seven steps, although today only the three uppermost of these remain, giving the structure its odd, tower-like appearance. The hill on which the pyramid is situated is not a natural landscape feature, it is the small mountain of debris created when

7134-457: The task proved too large. The shape of Egyptian pyramids is thought to represent the primordial mound from which the Egyptians believed the earth was created. The shape of a pyramid is also thought to be representative of the descending rays of the sun, and most pyramids were faced with polished, highly reflective white limestone, in order to give them a brilliant appearance when viewed from

7221-617: The title inspector , who documented the transport of white limestone from the Tura quarries, along the Nile River, to the Great Pyramid of Giza, the tomb of the Pharaoh Khufu. It is possible that quarried blocks were then transported to the construction site by wooden sleds, with sand in front of the sled wetted to reduce friction . Droplets of water created bridges between the grains of sand, helping them stick together. Workers cut

7308-433: The topics covered by environmental engineering are pollutant transport, water purification , waste water treatment , air pollution, solid waste treatment , recycling , and hazardous waste management . Environmental engineers administer pollution reduction, green engineering , and industrial ecology . Environmental engineers also compile information on environmental consequences of proposed actions. Forensic engineering

7395-416: Was carried out by artisans , such as stonemasons and carpenters , rising to the role of master builder . Knowledge was retained in guilds and seldom supplanted by advances. Structures, roads, and infrastructure that existed were repetitive, and increases in scale were incremental. One of the earliest examples of a scientific approach to physical and mathematical problems applicable to civil engineering

7482-477: Was that of Neith, a wife of Teti . All of Egypt's pyramids, except the small Third Dynasty pyramid at Zawyet el-Maiyitin , are sited on the west bank of the Nile , and most are grouped together in a number of pyramid fields. The most important of these are listed geographically, from north to south, below. Abu Rawash is the site of Egypt's most northerly pyramid (other than the ruins of Lepsius pyramid number one),

7569-441: Was the main construction material. Long after the end of Egypt's own pyramid-building period, a burst of pyramid-building occurred in what is present-day Sudan , after much of Egypt came under the rule of the Kingdom of Kush , which was then based at Napata . Napatan rule, known as the 25th Dynasty , lasted from 750 BCE to 664 BCE. The Meroitic period of Kushite history, when the kingdom was centered on Meroë , (approximately in

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