Hydraulic engineering as a sub-discipline of civil engineering is concerned with the flow and conveyance of fluids , principally water and sewage. One feature of these systems is the extensive use of gravity as the motive force to cause the movement of the fluids. This area of civil engineering is intimately related to the design of bridges , dams , channels , canals , and levees , and to both sanitary and environmental engineering .
127-482: The Volkerakdam (English: Volkerak Dam ) or Volkerakwerken ( Volkerak Works ) is the name given to a group of hydraulic engineering structures between Goeree-Overflakkee and North Brabant in the Netherlands. The works are not a single dam, but are composed of three distinct structures: a dam between Goeree-Overflakkee and Hellegatsplein, a series of locks from Hellegatsplein to North Brabant, and
254-514: A sandbank with low levels of flow, at around sea level, and requiring the closure of only one gully (the Ventjagersgaatje ). The construction of this section of the works had little influence on the local tidal movement. Approximately 1.8 million cubic metres of sand was used in the construction of this part of the works, undertaken by the contractor Dirk Verstoep for approximately six million Dutch guilders . The next phase
381-467: A balanced budget, some tax reforms , a labor-market reform, scheduled nuclear phase-out and instigated legislation allowing more stringent war crime and more lenient soft drug usage prosecution. Restrictions on euthanasia were reduced, and in 2003, Belgium became one of the first countries in the world to legalise same-sex marriage . The government promoted active diplomacy in Africa and opposed
508-635: A bridge from Hellegatsplein to Hoekse Waard . The works cross three separate bodies of water: the Haringvliet , Hollands Diep and Volkerak . The works together comprise the fifth project of the Delta Works . The works were conceived in response to the North Sea flood of 1953 , as a result of which it was decided to close the inlets in Zeeland and South Holland . The committee which oversaw
635-547: A casting basin next to the locks. The embankments were constructed between 1967 and 1968, allowing the precast caissons to be placed. With the caissons sunk and completed, the final dam body was constructed, with the crown located 6 metres above sea level. The bidding process for constructing the caissons necessary for the closure project was finalized in August 1966. Thirteen standard caissons were constructed, including one spare, as well as two skewed approach caissons. The design of
762-484: A committee had investigated the possibility of establishing a permanent bridge connection between the island of Goeree-Overflakkee and South Holland. Following the disruption brought about by the Second World War , the plans for the bridge connection had come forward again in 1947, and by 1952 a route across Tiengemeten was proposed, but these plans were superseded after the 1953 North Sea flood disaster and
889-860: A decade after the other regions) is included in both the Flemish and French Communities, and the territory of the German-speaking Community lies wholly within the Walloon Region. Conflicts about jurisdiction between the bodies are resolved by the Constitutional Court of Belgium . The structure is intended as a compromise to allow different cultures to live together peacefully. The Federal State's authority includes justice, defense, federal police, social security, nuclear energy, monetary policy and public debt, and other aspects of public finances. State-owned companies include
1016-726: A fixed water level on the Zeeland Lake was desirable for the purpose of shipping between Antwerp and Rotterdam , as the water level on the Haringvliet would vary due to the varying discharge of the Rhine . The construction of the Volkerakdam modified tidal movements across the entire area of the lower rivers, with extensive calculations made using the Deltar analogue computer to analyse these tidal variations. The Volkerakdam has
1143-441: A greater discharge. The influence of the flow-through openings' shape was expressed as the discharge coefficient. Model research revealed that steel diagonal members in the flow-through openings negatively impacted the discharge coefficient due to their rectangular shape, causing poor flow behavior. However, experiments demonstrated that circular members increased the discharge coefficient by 8 to 10%. The caisson placement sequence
1270-693: A large semi-independent enclave. The Eighty Years' War (1568–1648) was triggered by the Spanish government's policy towards Protestantism , which was becoming popular in the Low Countries. The rebellious northern United Provinces ( Belgica Foederata in Latin , the "Federated Netherlands") eventually separated from the Southern Netherlands ( Belgica Regia , the "Royal Netherlands"). The southern part continued to be ruled successively by
1397-552: A new government . By 30 March 2011, this set a new world record for the elapsed time without an official government, previously held by war-torn Iraq . Finally, in December 2011 the Di Rupo Government led by Walloon socialist Prime Minister Elio Di Rupo was sworn in. The 2014 federal election (coinciding with the regional elections ) resulted in a further electoral gain for the Flemish nationalist N-VA, although
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#17327808773141524-986: A policy of mediation. The Belgians have been strong advocates of European integration . The headquarters of NATO and of several of the institutions of the European Union are located in Belgium. The Belgian Armed Forces had 23,200 active personnel in 2023, including 8,500 in the Land Component , 1,400 in the Naval Component , 4,900 in the Air Component , 1,450 in the Medical Component , and 6,950 in joint service, in addition to 5,900 reserve personnel. In 2019, Belgium's defense budget totaled €4.303 billion ($ 4.921 billion) representing .93% of its GDP. The operational commands of
1651-754: A respectable position in China. In the Archaic epoch of the Philippines , hydraulic engineering also developed specially in the Island of Luzon , the Ifugaos of the mountainous region of the Cordilleras built irrigations, dams and hydraulic works and the famous Banaue Rice Terraces as a way for assisting in growing crops around 1000 BC. These Rice Terraces are 2,000-year-old terraces that were carved into
1778-627: A small carved oak male human figure. Subsequent radiocarbon analysis dated the figure to the 5th millennium BC , during the Mesolithic period. The figure is known as the Mannetje van Willemstad (English: Willemstad Man) and is displayed in The Rijksmuseum van Oudheden (English: National Museum of Antiquities) in Leiden . Hydraulic engineering Hydraulic engineering
1905-854: A supporting environmental function with regard to the primary dams of the Oosterscheldekering , the Brouwersdam and the Haringvlietdam , controlling volumes of freshwater from the Maas and the Waal which enter the waters around Zeeland. As a result of the closure of the Volkerak, the volume of fresh Rhine water entering the estuary decreased. Consequently, the salinity of the Oosterschelde remained relatively constant, increasing
2032-595: A technique known as hushing , and applied the methods to other ores such as those of tin and lead . In the 15th century, the Somali Ajuran Empire was the only hydraulic empire in Africa. As a hydraulic empire, the Ajuran State monopolized the water resources of the Jubba and Shebelle Rivers . Through hydraulic engineering, it also constructed many of the limestone wells and cisterns of
2159-447: A thin, viscosity-dominated boundary layer near solid surfaces, and an effectively inviscid outer zone away from the boundaries. This concept explained many former paradoxes and enabled subsequent engineers to analyze far more complex flows. However, we still have no complete theory for the nature of turbulence, and so modern fluid mechanics continues to be combination of experimental results and theory. The modern hydraulic engineer uses
2286-605: Is a sovereign state and a federal constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system . Its institutional organization is complex and is structured on both regional and linguistic grounds. It is divided into three highly autonomous regions : the Flemish Region (Flanders) in the north, the Walloon Region (Wallonia) in the south, and the Brussels-Capital Region in the middle. Brussels
2413-440: Is around 23% of the total land area, equivalent to 689,300 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, up from 677,400 hectares (ha) in 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forest covered 251,200 hectares (ha) and planted forest covered 438,200 hectares (ha). For the year 2015, 47% of the forest area was reported to be under public ownership , 53% private ownership and 0% with ownership listed as other or unknown. The territory of Belgium
2540-483: Is based on civil law and originates from the Napoleonic code . The Court of Cassation is the court of last resort, with the courts of appeal one level below. Belgium's political institutions are complex; most political power rests on representation of the main cultural communities . Since about 1970, the significant national Belgian political parties have split into distinct components that mainly represent
2667-505: Is divided into three Regions, two of which, the Flemish Region and Walloon Region , are in turn subdivided into provinces ; the third Region, the Brussels Capital Region , is neither a province nor a part of a province. Belgium is a constitutional , popular monarchy and a federal parliamentary democracy . The bicameral federal parliament is composed of a Senate and a Chamber of Representatives . The former
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#17327808773142794-442: Is incompressible and has no viscosity. Real fluid has viscosity. Ideal fluid is only an imaginary fluid as all fluids that exist have some viscosity. A viscous fluid will deform continuously under a shear force by the pascles law, whereas an ideal fluid does not deform. The various effects of disturbance on a viscous flow are a stable, transition and unstable. For an ideal fluid, Bernoulli's equation holds along streamlines. As
2921-667: Is lowest in January at 3 °C (37.4 °F) and highest in July at 18 °C (64.4 °F). The average precipitation per month varies between 54 mm (2.1 in) for February and April, to 78 mm (3.1 in) for July. Averages for the years 2000 to 2006 show daily temperature minimums of 7 °C (44.6 °F) and maximums of 14 °C (57.2 °F) and monthly rainfall of 74 mm (2.9 in); these are about 1 °C and nearly 10 millimeters above last century's normal values, respectively. Phytogeographically , Belgium
3048-497: Is made up of 50 senators appointed by the parliaments of the communities and regions and 10 co-opted senators . Prior to 2014, most of the Senate's members were directly elected. The Chamber 's 150 representatives are elected under a proportional voting system from 11 electoral districts . Belgium has compulsory voting and thus maintains one of the highest rates of voter turnout in the world. The King (currently Philippe )
3175-668: Is more than double that of Flanders, which boomed after the Second World War. Belgium is a developed country , with an advanced high-income economy . The country is one of the six founding members of the European Union , and its capital, Brussels, is the de facto capital of the European Union itself, hosting the official seats of the European Commission , the Council of the European Union , and
3302-632: Is now the Benelux, the so-called Burgundian Netherlands . "Burgundy" and "Flanders" were the first two common names used for the Burgundian Netherlands which was the predecessor of the Austrian Netherlands, the predecessor of modern Belgium. The union, technically stretching between two kingdoms, gave the area economic and political stability which led to an even greater prosperity and artistic creation. Born in Belgium,
3429-729: Is shared between the Atlantic European and Central European provinces of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom . According to the World Wide Fund for Nature , the territory of Belgium belongs to the terrestrial ecoregions of Atlantic mixed forests and Western European broadleaf forests . Belgium had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 1.36/10, ranking it 163rd globally out of 172 countries. In Belgium forest cover
3556-631: Is the head of state , though with limited prerogatives . He appoints ministers, including a Prime Minister, that have the confidence of the Chamber of Representatives to form the federal government . The Council of Ministers is composed of no more than fifteen members. With the possible exception of the Prime Minister, the Council of Ministers is composed of an equal number of Dutch-speaking members and French-speaking members. The judicial system
3683-409: Is the application of the principles of fluid mechanics to problems dealing with the collection, storage, control, transport, regulation, measurement, and use of water. Before beginning a hydraulic engineering project, one must figure out how much water is involved. The hydraulic engineer is concerned with the transport of sediment by the river, the interaction of the water with its alluvial boundary, and
3810-570: Is the smallest and most densely populated region, as well as the richest region in terms of GDP per capita . Belgium is also home to two main linguistic communities: the Flemish Community ( Dutch -speaking), which constitutes about 60 percent of the population, and the French Community ( French -speaking), which constitutes about 40 percent of the population. A small German-speaking Community , making up around one percent of
3937-646: Is true for many of our world's largest cities. In much the same way, the central valley of California could not have become such an important agricultural region without effective water management and distribution for irrigation. In a somewhat parallel way to what happened in California, the creation of the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) brought work and prosperity to the South by building dams to generate cheap electricity and control flooding in
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4064-612: The Hellegatsplein , where the roads from Zierikzee (N59), Rotterdam (A29) and West Brabant (A29/A59) converge, is located in the middle of the dam, on the artificial island of Hellegatsplaat . The Haringvliet Bridge is not part of the Volkerakdam, but forms part of the Volkerak Works ( Volkerakwerken ). Plans for a bridge crossing of the Haringvliet had existed independently of the Delta Works since 1937, when
4191-670: The 22nd most densely populated country in the world and the 6th most densely populated country in Europe, with a density of 383/km (990/sq mi). Belgium is part of an area known as the Low Countries , historically a somewhat larger region than the Benelux group of states, as it also included parts of northern France. The capital and largest metropolitan region is Brussels ; other major cities are Antwerp , Ghent , Charleroi , Liège , Bruges , Namur , and Leuven . Belgium
4318-500: The Belgian Post Group and Belgian Railways . The Federal Government is responsible for the obligations of Belgium and its federalized institutions towards the European Union and NATO. It controls substantial parts of public health, home affairs and foreign affairs. The budget—without the debt—controlled by the federal government amounts to about 50% of the national fiscal income. The federal government employs around 12% of
4445-715: The European Council , as well as one of two seats of the European Parliament (the other being Strasbourg ). Belgium is also a founding member of the Eurozone , NATO , OECD , and WTO , and a part of the trilateral Benelux Union and the Schengen Area . Brussels also hosts the headquarters of many major international organizations, such as NATO . According to Julius Caesar , the Belgae were
4572-608: The European Union (light green) Belgium , officially the Kingdom of Belgium , is a country in Northwestern Europe . The country is bordered by the Netherlands to the north, Germany to the east, Luxembourg to the southeast, France to the south, and the North Sea to the west. It covers an area of 30,689 km (11,849 sq mi) and has a population of more than 11.7 million, making it
4699-758: The Habsburg Emperor Charles ;V was heir of the Burgundians, but also of the royal families of Austria , Castile and Aragon . With the Pragmatic Sanction of 1549 he gave the Seventeen Provinces more legitimacy as a stable entity, rather than just a temporary personal union . He also increased the influence of these Netherlands over the Prince-Bishopric of Liège , which continued to exist as
4826-537: The Holy Roman Empire . The lordships and bishoprics along the "March" (frontier) between the two great kingdoms maintained important connections between each other. For example, the county of Flanders expanded over the Scheldt into the empire, and during several periods was ruled by the same lords as the county of Hainaut . In the 13th and 14th centuries, the cloth industry and commerce boomed especially in
4953-724: The Industrial Revolution , and during the course of the 20th century, possessed a number of colonies , notably the Belgian Congo and Ruanda-Urundi . These colonies gained independence between 1960 and 1962. The second half of the 20th century was marked by rising tensions between the Dutch-speakers and French-speakers, fueled by differences in political culture and the unequal economic development of Flanders and Wallonia. This continuing antagonism has led to several far-reaching state reforms , resulting in
5080-460: The Michel Government . It was the first time N-VA was part of the federal cabinet, while the French-speaking side was represented only by the MR, which achieved a minority of the public votes in Wallonia. In May 2019 federal elections in the Flemish-speaking northern region of Flanders far-right Vlaams Belang party made major gains. In the French-speaking southern area of Wallonia the Socialists were strong. The moderate Flemish nationalist party
5207-412: The Netherlands ( 450 km ). Its total surface, including water area, is 30,689 km (11,849 sq mi). Before 2018, its total area was believed to be 30,528 km (11,787 sq mi). However, when the country's statistics were measured in 2018, a new calculation method was used. Unlike previous calculations, this one included the area from the coast to the low-water line, revealing
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5334-401: The Spanish ( Spanish Netherlands ) and the Austrian House of Habsburgs ( Austrian Netherlands ) and comprised most of modern Belgium. This was the theatre of several more protracted conflicts during much of the 17th and 18th centuries involving France, including the Franco-Dutch War (1672–1678), the Nine Years' War (1688–1697), the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714), and part of
5461-429: The United Kingdom of the Netherlands occurred at the dissolution of the First French Empire in 1814, after the abdication of Napoleon. In 1830, the Belgian Revolution led to the re-separation of the Southern Provinces from the Netherlands and to the establishment of a Catholic and bourgeois, officially French-speaking and neutral, independent Belgium under a provisional government and a national congress . Since
5588-399: The War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748). Following the campaigns of 1794 in the French Revolutionary Wars , the Low Countries – including territories that were never nominally under Habsburg rule, such as the Prince-Bishopric of Liège – were annexed by the French First Republic , ending Austrian rule in the region. A reunification of the Low Countries as
5715-425: The Western Roman Empire , the Roman provinces of Belgica and Germania were inhabited by a mix of a Romanized population and Germanic -speaking Franks who came to dominate the military and political class. During the 5th century, the area came under the rule of the Frankish Merovingian kings, who initially established a kingdom ruling over the Romanized population in what is now northern France, and then conquered
5842-463: The pressure head p ρ g = y {\displaystyle {\frac {p}{\rho g}}=y} . Four basic devices for pressure measurement are a piezometer , manometer , differential manometer, Bourdon gauge , as well as an inclined manometer. As Prasuhn states: The main difference between an ideal fluid and a real fluid is that for ideal flow p 1 = p 2 and for real flow p 1 > p 2 . Ideal fluid
5969-449: The windmill from Islamic Afghanistan . Other original Islamic developments included the saqiya with a flywheel effect from Islamic Spain, the reciprocating suction pump and crankshaft - connecting rod mechanism from Iraq , and the geared and hydropowered water supply system from Syria . In many respects, the fundamentals of hydraulic engineering have not changed since ancient times. Liquids are still moved for
6096-401: The ' water management technological complex ' which was central to the Islamic Green Revolution . The various components of this 'toolkit' were developed in different parts of the Afro-Eurasian landmass, both within and beyond the Islamic world. However, it was in the medieval Islamic lands where the technological complex was assembled and standardized, and subsequently diffused to the rest of
6223-470: The 17th and 18th centuries found the inviscid flow solutions unsuitable, and by experimentation they developed empirical equations, thus establishing the science of hydraulics. Late in the 19th century, the importance of dimensionless numbers and their relationship to turbulence was recognized, and dimensional analysis was born. In 1904 Ludwig Prandtl published a key paper, proposing that the flow fields of low-viscosity fluids be divided into two zones, namely
6350-422: The 19th century were the Catholic Party and the Liberal Party , with the Belgian Labour Party emerging towards the end of the 19th century. French was originally the official language used by the nobility and the bourgeoisie , especially after the rejection of the Dutch monarchy. French progressively lost its dominance as Dutch began to recover its status. This recognition became official in 1898, and in 1967,
6477-474: The Ardennes are more rugged and rocky with caves and small gorges . Extending westward into France, this area is eastwardly connected to the Eifel in Germany by the High Fens plateau, on which the Signal de Botrange forms the country's highest point at 694 m (2,277 ft). The climate is maritime temperate with significant precipitation in all seasons ( Köppen climate classification : Cfb ), like most of northwest Europe. The average temperature
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#17327808773146604-428: The Belgian state to assume responsibility for the government of the colony, henceforth called the Belgian Congo . A Belgian commission in 1919 estimated that Congo's population was half what it was in 1879. Germany invaded Belgium in August 1914 as part of the Schlieffen Plan to attack France , and much of the Western Front fighting of World War I occurred in western parts of the country. The opening months of
6731-428: The Communities and Regions were created in 1980, Flemish politicians decided to merge both. Thus the Flemings just have one single institutional body of parliament and government is empowered for all except federal and specific municipal matters. The overlapping boundaries of the Regions and Communities have created two notable peculiarities: the territory of the Brussels-Capital Region (which came into existence nearly
6858-490: The County of Flanders and it became one of the richest areas in Europe. This prosperity played a role in conflicts between Flanders and the king of France . Famously, Flemish militias scored a surprise victory at the Battle of the Golden Spurs against a strong force of mounted knights in 1302, but France soon regained control of the rebellious province. In the 15th century, the Duke of Burgundy in France took control of Flanders, and from there proceeded to unite much of what
6985-452: The Delta Works concluded that it was necessary to construct two compartmentalisation dams , the Grevelingendam and the Volkerakdam, to close the inlets. It was also deemed necessary to separate the Haringvliet from the waters to the south, to ensure the transport of drift ice from the Hollands Diep to the sea, and to keep the water quality of the (planned) Zeeland Lake acceptable, preserving it from contaminated Rhine water. In addition,
7112-416: The Delta Works plan. The option of including a bridge crossing as part of the Volkerak Works then began to be explored. Construction of the bridge started in 1961, and was completed in 1964. Funding for the bridge did not come from the Delta Works budget, with the investment required to construct it covered by implementing a toll on vehicles using it. In 1975, the bridge was taken into public ownership under
7239-548: The European Union, for which Belgium hosts major administrations and institutions, including the European Commission , the Council of the European Union and the extraordinary and committee sessions of the European Parliament . In the early 1990s, Belgium saw several large corruption scandals notably surrounding Marc Dutroux , Andre Cools , the Dioxin Affair , Agusta Scandal and the murder of Karel van Noppen . Belgium shares borders with France ( 620 km ), Germany ( 162/167 km ), Luxembourg ( 148 km ), and
7366-491: The Flemings refused to do so and succeeded progressively in making Dutch an equal language in the education system. Following World War II, Belgian politics became increasingly dominated by the autonomy of its two main linguistic communities. Intercommunal tensions rose and the constitution was amended to minimize the potential for conflict. Based on the four language areas defined in 1962–63 (the Dutch, bilingual, French and German language areas), consecutive revisions of
7493-400: The Latin name of a large Roman province covering most of Northern Gaul, including the Belgae and Treveri. However, areas closer to the lower Rhine frontier, including the eastern part of modern Belgium, subsequently became part of the frontier province of Germania Inferior , which continued to interact with their neighbours outside the empire. At the time when central government collapsed in
7620-475: The Middle East and Africa . Controlling the movement and supply of water for growing food has been used for many thousands of years. One of the earliest hydraulic machines, the water clock was used in the early 2nd millennium BC. Other early examples of using gravity to move water include the Qanat system in ancient Persia and the very similar Turpan water system in ancient China as well as irrigation canals in Peru. In ancient China , hydraulic engineering
7747-458: The N-VA remained the largest party in parliament. In July 2019 prime minister Charles Michel was selected to hold the post of President of the European Council . His successor Sophie Wilmès was Belgium's first female prime minister. She led the caretaker government since October 2019. The Flemish Liberal party politician Alexander De Croo became new prime minister in October 2020. The parties had agreed on federal government 16 months after
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#17327808773147874-415: The Old World. Under the rule of a single Islamic caliphate , different regional hydraulic technologies were assembled into "an identifiable water management technological complex that was to have a global impact." The various components of this complex included canals , dams , the qanat system from Persia, regional water-lifting devices such as the noria , shaduf and screwpump from Egypt , and
8001-426: The Regions' and Communities' Governments is the broadest of all the Federating units of all the Federations all over the world. Because of its location at the crossroads of Western Europe , Belgium has historically been the route of invading armies from its larger neighbors. With virtually defenseless borders, Belgium has traditionally sought to avoid domination by the more powerful nations which surround it through
8128-403: The Roman province of Gallia Belgica in 22 BC. In the Middle Ages , the region was part of the Carolingian Empire , and much of it was later part of the Holy Roman Empire , and subsequently the Burgundian Netherlands . Belgium's central location has meant that the area has been relatively prosperous, connected commercially and politically to its bigger neighbours. The country as it exists today
8255-467: The ability for shipping to pass between Rotterdam and Antwerp . The overall length of the Volkerak works is approximately 9.7 km (6.0 mi). The Volkerakdam is 4.5 km (2.8 mi), the Haringvliet bridge is 1.2 km (0.75 mi) and the control lock complex is 4 km (2.5 mi). The first phase of the construction was the section of the dam from the shore of Overflakkee to Hellegat. The works in this location were constructed over
8382-399: The cabinet to the king, as no progress in constitutional reforms had been made. In December 2008, Leterme once more offered his resignation after a crisis surrounding the sale of Fortis to BNP Paribas . At this juncture, his resignation was accepted and Christian Democratic and Flemish Herman Van Rompuy was sworn in as Prime Minister on 30 December 2008. After Herman Van Rompuy
8509-429: The centre of each caisson unit. After completion of the closure, the re-usable elements from the caisson sinking procedure, including winches and sealing bulkheads, were removed and reused in the caissons of the Brouwersdam. The temporary casting basin for the Volkerak locks was also constructed in this section, with the soil dredged to construct this basin subsequently used as fill for the construction of ring dikes and
8636-731: The civil servants. Communities exercise their authority only within linguistically determined geographical boundaries, originally oriented towards the individuals of a Community's language: culture (including audiovisual media), education and the use of the relevant language. Extensions to personal matters less directly connected with language comprise health policy (curative and preventive medicine) and assistance to individuals (protection of youth, social welfare, aid to families, immigrant assistance services, and so on.). Regions have authority in fields that can be broadly associated with their territory. These include economy, employment, agriculture, water policy, housing, public works, energy, transport,
8763-422: The closure works. To determine water levels on either side of the closure and the strength of the current passing through the caissons, it was essential to ascertain the discharge coefficients of the caissons. The water flow rate, primarily determined by the difference in water levels on either side of the closure, also depended on the shape of the flow-through openings in the caissons. Improved flow guidance led to
8890-431: The closure's shape aimed to ensure regular flow distribution and minimize vortex street occurrences. Measurements taken during the closure confirmed that the model research results satisfactorily aligned with real-world conditions. The caissons were placed during slack water , with the intention of the structure reaching the bottom exactly at the moment of tidal reversal. Research during the design stage showed that there
9017-408: The connecting road to Willemstad. The scale of the works meant that construction was undertaken by a number of companies, including joint venture arrangements of Dutch and Belgian companies, formed from the contractors listed in the table below. Roads were constructed over the dam, creating traffic connections between South Holland, Zeeland and the west of North Brabant. The intersection known as
9144-464: The construction dock involved processing 115,000 cubic metres of sand and excavating 65,000 cubic metres of peat and clay. Excavation and transportation of the sand was undertaken without much difficulty, as the sand could be processed as fill in the immediate vicinity of the construction dock, with much of it being used as soil improvement at the location of the excavated clay and peat layers. The caissons were prefabricated using precast concrete in
9271-410: The construction of the Volkerakdam on tide levels in the area of the lower rivers has been identified at several locations around adjacent water bodies, as shown in the table and graph below. The changes to the tidal range were dependent on the direction and distance from the dam to the station location. In areas south of the dam, the tidal range increased considerably, whereas in areas on the north side
9398-574: The country in May 1940 , and 40,690 Belgians, over half of them Jews, were killed during the subsequent occupation and the Holocaust . From September 1944 to February 1945 the Allies liberated Belgium. After World War II , a general strike forced King Leopold III to abdicate in 1951 in favour of his son, Prince Baudouin , since many Belgians thought he had collaborated with Germany during
9525-535: The country to be 160 km (62 sq mi) larger in surface area than previously thought. Its land area alone is 30,494 square kilometers. It lies between latitudes 49°30' and 51°30' N, and longitudes 2°33' and 6°24' E. Belgium has three main geographical regions; the coastal plain in the northwest and the central plateau both belong to the Anglo-Belgian Basin, and the Ardennes uplands in
9652-407: The country's constitution in 1970, 1980, 1988 and 1993 established a unique form of a federal state with segregated political power into three levels: The constitutional language areas determine the official languages in their municipalities, as well as the geographical limits of the empowered institutions for specific matters. Although this would allow for seven parliaments and governments when
9779-636: The development of the design. The increased cost of the resulting longer dam was mitigated by the fact that the more northerly location facilitated construction at a much reduced water depth. As was the case with two other Delta Works projects, the Grevelingendam and the Zandkreekdam, the Volkerakdam was designed as a secondary compartmentalisation dam, with the goal of reducing tidal current velocities in four surrounding estuaries to allow subsequent construction of primary dams. The effects of
9906-633: The difference becoming smaller along the Dordtsche Kil and the Noord . However, in the Biesbosch (Mouth of the Donge and Werkendam/Bakkerskil), the tidal range has been significantly reduced. The design of the abutment caissons was undertaken to minimize scour downstream of the dam, arising from vortices generated by the large vertical head above the sill of the structure. The solution adopted
10033-529: The ecological value of the estuary. The Volkerakdam works also removed the difficulties experienced by shipping from the limited (but very unpredictable) tidal currents in the Hellegat, which had previously resulted in many ships being lost. The shipping channel which formed the connection between the Hollands Diep and Volkerak was noted for the complex and unpredictable nature of tidal currents and
10160-647: The elections. Following a usage which can be traced back to the Burgundian and Habsburg courts, in the 19th century it was necessary to speak French to belong to the governing upper class, and those who could only speak Dutch were effectively second-class citizens. Late that century, and continuing into the 20th century, Flemish movements evolved to counter this situation. While the people in Southern Belgium spoke French or dialects of French, and most Brusselers adopted French as their first language,
10287-681: The environment, town and country planning, nature conservation, credit and foreign trade. They supervise the provinces, municipalities and intercommunal utility companies. In several fields, the different levels each have their own say on specifics. With education, for instance, the autonomy of the Communities neither includes decisions about the compulsory aspect nor allows for setting minimum requirements for awarding qualifications, which remain federal matters. Each level of government can be involved in scientific research and international relations associated with its powers. The treaty-making power of
10414-428: The flow comes into contact with the plate, the layer of fluid actually "adheres" to a solid surface. There is then a considerable shearing action between the layer of fluid on the plate surface and the second layer of fluid. The second layer is therefore forced to decelerate (though it is not quite brought to rest), creating a shearing action with the third layer of fluid, and so on. As the fluid passes further along with
10541-795: The four components are subordinate to the Staff Department for Operations and Training of the Ministry of Defense , which is headed by the Assistant Chief of Staff Operations and Training , and to the Chief of Defense . The Belgian military consists of volunteers (conscription was abolished in 1995), and citizens of other EU states, Iceland, Norway, Switzerland, or Lichtenstein are also able to join. Belgium has troops deployed in several African countries as part of UN or EU missions, in Iraq for
10668-604: The government, and on 26 April 2010 King Albert officially accepted the resignation. The Parliamentary elections in Belgium on 13 June 2010 saw the Flemish nationalist N-VA become the largest party in Flanders, and the Socialist Party PS the largest party in Wallonia. Until December 2011, Belgium was governed by Leterme's caretaker government awaiting the end of the deadlocked negotiations for formation of
10795-568: The incumbent coalition (composed of Flemish and French-speaking Social Democrats, Liberals, and Christian Democrats) maintains a solid majority in Parliament and in all electoral constituencies. On 22 July 2014, King Philippe nominated Charles Michel (MR) and Kris Peeters (CD&V) to lead the formation of a new federal cabinet composed of the Flemish parties N-VA, CD&V, Open Vld and the French-speaking MR, which resulted in
10922-475: The inhabitants of the northernmost part of Gaul . They lived in a region stretching from Paris to the Rhine , which is much bigger than modern Belgium. However, he also specifically used the Latin word " Belgium " to refer to a politically dominant part of that region, which is now in northernmost France. In contrast, modern Belgium, together with neighbouring parts of the Netherlands and Germany, corresponds to
11049-463: The installation of Leopold I as king on 21 July 1831, now celebrated as Belgium's National Day , Belgium has been a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy , with a laicist constitution based on the Napoleonic code . Although the franchise was initially restricted, universal suffrage for men was introduced after the general strike of 1893 (with plural voting until 1919) and for women in 1949. The main political parties of
11176-471: The invasion of Iraq . It is the only country that does not have age restrictions on euthanasia. Verhofstadt's coalition fared badly in the June 2007 elections . For more than a year, the country experienced a political crisis . This crisis was such that many observers speculated on a possible partition of Belgium . From 21 December 2007 until 20 March 2008 the temporary Verhofstadt III Government
11303-620: The lands of the most northerly Belgae – the Morini , Menapii , Nervii , Germani Cisrhenani , and Aduatuci . Caesar found these peoples particularly warlike and economically undeveloped, and described them as kinsmen of the Germanic tribes east of the Rhine. The area around Arlon in southern Belgium was a part of the country of the powerful Treveri , to whom some of them paid tribute. After Caesar's conquests, Gallia Belgica first came to be
11430-467: The management of Rijkswaterstaat, and the toll requirement was removed. The level of annual average daily traffic using the bridge far exceeded original estimates, which contributed to deterioration of the bridge resulting in emergency weight restrictions and bridge strengthening measures being introduced in the 2010s. On 21 April 1966, during excavations for the Volkerak lock complex casting basin, construction workers M. Ten Hove and A. Roelants discovered
11557-540: The most part by gravity through systems of canals and aqueducts, though the supply reservoirs may now be filled using pumps. The need for water has steadily increased from ancient times and the role of the hydraulic engineer is a critical one in supplying it. For example, without the efforts of people like William Mulholland the Los Angeles area would not have been able to grow as it has because it simply does not have enough local water to support its population. The same
11684-531: The mountains of Ifugao in the Philippines by ancestors of the indigenous people . The Rice Terraces are commonly referred to as the " Eighth Wonder of the World ". It is commonly thought that the terraces were built with minimal equipment, largely by hand. The terraces are located approximately 1500 metres (5000 ft) above sea level. They are fed by an ancient irrigation system from the rainforests above
11811-456: The objectives of increasing safety from storm surges and providing protection against saltwater intrusion from the sea. The body responsible for design of the overall Delta Works scheme, known as The Delta Works Committee ( Deltacommissie ), had originally proposed to dam the Volkerak at the level of the Dintel river, and selected the location of the works in a more southerly location than
11938-689: The occurrence of scour and deposition. "The hydraulic engineer actually develops conceptual designs for the various features which interact with water such as spillways and outlet works for dams, culverts for highways, canals and related structures for irrigation projects, and cooling-water facilities for thermal power plants ." A few examples of the fundamental principles of hydraulic engineering include fluid mechanics , fluid flow, behavior of real fluids, hydrology , pipelines, open channel hydraulics, mechanics of sediment transport, physical modeling, hydraulic machines, and drainage hydraulics. Fundamentals of Hydraulic Engineering defines hydrostatics as
12065-657: The other Frankish kingdoms. During the 8th century, the empire of the Franks came to be ruled by the Carolingian dynasty , whose centre of power included the area which is now eastern Belgium. Over the centuries, it was divided up in many ways, but the Treaty of Verdun in 843 divided the Carolingian Empire into three kingdoms whose borders had a lasting impact on medieval political boundaries. Most of modern Belgium
12192-852: The parliament accepted a Dutch version of the Constitution . The Berlin Conference of 1885 ceded control of the Congo Free State to King Leopold II as his private possession. From around 1900 there was growing international concern for the extreme and savage treatment of the Congolese population under Leopold II , for whom the Congo was primarily a source of revenue from ivory and rubber production. Many Congolese were killed by Leopold's agents for failing to meet production quotas for ivory and rubber. In 1908, this outcry led
12319-443: The plate, the zone in which shearing action occurs tends to spread further outwards. This zone is known as the "boundary layer". The flow outside the boundary layer is free of shear and viscous-related forces so it is assumed to act as an ideal fluid. The intermolecular cohesive forces in a fluid are not great enough to hold fluid together. Hence a fluid will flow under the action of the slightest stress and flow will continue as long as
12446-504: The political and linguistic interests of these communities. The major parties in each community, though close to the political center, belong to three main groups: Christian Democrats , Liberals , and Social Democrats . Further notable parties came into being well after the middle of last century, mainly to represent linguistic , nationalist, or environmental interests, and recently smaller ones of some specific liberal nature. A string of Christian Democrat coalition governments from 1958
12573-586: The population, exists in the East Cantons . The Brussels-Capital Region is officially bilingual in French and Dutch, although French is the majority language and lingua franca . Belgium's linguistic diversity and related political conflicts are reflected in its complex system of governance, made up of six different governments . In antiquity the region around Belgium was inhabited by the Belgae , and became
12700-487: The potential for scour. The project was constructed in stages between 1957 and 1977. By 1969, the dam works were complete, however Rijkswaterstaat then added a third lock and a sluice which took the overall project completion date through until 1977. The section of the works located between the Hellegatsplein and North Brabant is composed of a solid dam, made up of 14 caissons in combination with locks, providing
12827-483: The presence of dangerous shoals in the area of the Hellegat (English: Hellhole) , which had led to a number of incidents with shipping navigating between Rotterdam and Antwerp. Johan van Veen made extensive studies of the Volkerak with a view to improving the situation, and in 1929 he came up with a solution in the form of guiding dams. Van Veen's work was successfully completed in 1931, and along with increasing
12954-458: The present position, with a shorter dam. During initial feasibility studies, the advantages of moving the works northward with a bridge crossing between Hellegatsplein and Hoekse Waard were identified, resulting in a decision to build the works in the present location. Due to the potential effects of the works on shipping between Antwerp and Rotterdam, the authorities in Belgium were involved in
13081-503: The principles of fluid dynamics and fluid mechanics are widely utilized by other engineering disciplines such as mechanical, aeronautical and even traffic engineers. Related branches include hydrology and rheology while related applications include hydraulic modeling, flood mapping, catchment flood management plans, shoreline management plans, estuarine strategies, coastal protection, and flood alleviation. Earliest uses of hydraulic engineering were to irrigate crops and dates back to
13208-594: The region, making rivers navigable and generally modernizing life in the region. Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) performed experiments, investigated and speculated on waves and jets, eddies and streamlining. Isaac Newton (1642–1727) by formulating the laws of motion and his law of viscosity, in addition to developing the calculus, paved the way for many great developments in fluid mechanics. Using Newton's laws of motion, numerous 18th-century mathematicians solved many frictionless (zero-viscosity) flow problems. However, most flows are dominated by viscous effects, so engineers of
13335-409: The safety for navigation in the area, the works and his extensive studies provided significant detailed information essential for the design of the Volkerakdam over twenty years later. The work started by van Veen continued with an extensive study of the tidal movements and associated phenomena such as sediment transport , tidal channels and detailed bathymetry being made over a number of years, with
13462-545: The same kinds of computer-aided design (CAD) tools as many of the other engineering disciplines while also making use of technologies like computational fluid dynamics to perform the calculations to accurately predict flow characteristics, GPS mapping to assist in locating the best paths for installing a system and laser-based surveying tools to aid in the actual construction of a system. Belgium – in Europe (light green & dark grey) – in
13589-533: The southeast to the Hercynian orogenic belt . The Paris Basin reaches a small fourth area at Belgium's southernmost tip, Belgian Lorraine . The coastal plain consists mainly of sand dunes and polders . Further inland lies a smooth, slowly rising landscape irrigated by numerous waterways, with fertile valleys and the northeastern sandy plain of the Campine ( Kempen ). The thickly forested hills and plateaus of
13716-472: The standard caissons was a modified version of those used in the Veerse Gat closure, with dimensions of 45 meters in length, 15 meters in width, and 13.3 meters in height. Skewed caissons were specifically designed to eliminate the need for vertical abutment construction. The construction dock was strategically located to minimize towing requirements, placing the completed caissons as close as possible to
13843-569: The state that are still operative and in use today. The rulers developed new systems for agriculture and taxation , which continued to be used in parts of the Horn of Africa as late as the 19th century. Further advances in hydraulic engineering occurred in the Muslim world between the 8th and 16th centuries, during what is known as the Islamic Golden Age . Of particular importance was
13970-567: The stress is present. The flow inside the layer can be either vicious or turbulent, depending on Reynolds number. Common topics of design for hydraulic engineers include hydraulic structures such as dams , levees , water distribution networks including both domestic and fire water supply, distribution and automatic sprinkler systems, water collection networks, sewage collection networks, storm water management, sediment transport , and various other topics related to transportation engineering and geotechnical engineering . Equations developed from
14097-467: The study of fluids at rest. In a fluid at rest, there exists a force, known as pressure, that acts upon the fluid's surroundings. This pressure, measured in N/m , is not constant throughout the body of fluid. Pressure, p, in a given body of fluid, increases with an increase in depth. Where the upward force on a body acts on the base and can be found by the equation: where, Rearranging this equation gives you
14224-482: The terraces. It is said that if the steps were put end to end, it would encircle half the globe. Eupalinos of Megara was an ancient Greek engineer who built the Tunnel of Eupalinos on Samos in the 6th century BC, an important feat of both civil and hydraulic engineering. The civil engineering aspect of this tunnel was that it was dug from both ends which required the diggers to maintain an accurate path so that
14351-652: The tidal range decreased. Towards Rotterdam, the influence of the Volkerakdam closure on tides became smaller. Although the tide could still penetrate the Biesbosch through the Haringvliet and the Rotterdam Waterway immediately after the construction of the dam, the works nonetheless had a considerable immediate effect. The tide on the Oosterschelde side of the dam increased, the high water at Tiengemeten and Willemstad dropped by 30 centimetres, with
14478-448: The transition from a unitary to a federal arrangement between 1970 and 1993. Despite the reforms, tensions have persisted: there is particularly significant separatist sentiment among the Flemish ; language laws such as the municipalities with language facilities have been the source of much controversy; and the government formation period following the 2010 federal election set a world record at 589 days. Unemployment in Wallonia
14605-540: The two tunnels met and that the entire effort maintained a sufficient slope to allow the water to flow. Hydraulic engineering was highly developed in Europe under the aegis of the Roman Empire where it was especially applied to the construction and maintenance of aqueducts to supply water to and remove sewage from their cities. In addition to supplying the needs of their citizens they used hydraulic mining methods to prospect and extract alluvial gold deposits in
14732-728: The war were known as the Rape of Belgium due to German excesses. Belgium assumed control of the German colonies of Ruanda-Urundi (modern-day Rwanda and Burundi ) during the war, and in 1924 the League of Nations mandated them to Belgium. In the aftermath of the First World War, Belgium annexed the Prussian districts of Eupen and Malmedy in 1925, thereby causing the presence of a German-speaking minority. German forces again invaded
14859-702: The war. The Belgian Congo gained independence in 1960 during the Congo Crisis ; Ruanda-Urundi followed with its independence two years later. Belgium joined NATO as a founding member and formed the Benelux group of nations with the Netherlands and Luxembourg. Belgium became one of the six founding members of the European Coal and Steel Community in 1951 and of the European Atomic Energy Community and European Economic Community , established in 1957. The latter has now become
14986-542: Was approximately 80 minutes available for the entire caisson sinking procedure, and tests were carried out at the Waterloopkundig Laboratorium in Delft to properly coordinate the caisson sinking maneuvers, which were undertaken using seven tugboats . The closure took place on 25 April 1969. To increase stability during the towing and sinking processes, temporary stabilising boards were installed in
15113-449: Was based on both hydrological and technical execution considerations. Two potential methods were considered: The second method was preferred from a technical standpoint, offering construction schedule benefits such as working around a caisson from both banks and dividing the working face into two fronts. This approach resulted in a more balanced distribution of work and reduced time risk for the construction schedule. Laboratory studies on
15240-568: Was broken in 1999 after the first dioxin crisis , a major food contamination scandal. A "rainbow coalition" emerged from six parties: the Flemish and the French-speaking Liberals, Social Democrats and Greens. Later, a " purple coalition " of Liberals and Social Democrats formed after the Greens lost most of their seats in the 2003 election . The government led by Prime Minister Guy Verhofstadt from 1999 to 2007 achieved
15367-547: Was designated the first permanent President of the European Council on 19 November 2009, he offered the resignation of his government to King Albert II on 25 November 2009. A few hours later, the new government under Prime Minister Yves Leterme was sworn in. On 22 April 2010, Leterme again offered the resignation of his cabinet to the king after one of the coalition partners, the OpenVLD , withdrew from
15494-589: Was established following the 1830 Belgian Revolution , when it seceded from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands , which had incorporated the Southern Netherlands (which comprised most of modern-day Belgium) after the Congress of Vienna in 1815. Belgium has been called "the Battlefield of Europe", a reputation reinforced in the 20th century by both world wars . Belgium was an early participant in
15621-533: Was highly developed, and engineers constructed massive canals with levees and dams to channel the flow of water for irrigation, as well as locks to allow ships to pass through. Sunshu Ao is considered the first Chinese hydraulic engineer. Another important Hydraulic Engineer in China, Ximen Bao was credited of starting the practice of large scale canal irrigation during the Warring States period (481 BC–221 BC), even today hydraulic engineers remain
15748-541: Was in office. This was a coalition of the Flemish and Francophone Christian Democrats , the Flemish and Francophone Liberals together with the Francophone Social Democrats . On that day a new government , led by Flemish Christian Democrat Yves Leterme , the actual winner of the federal elections of June 2007 , was sworn in by the king. On 15 July 2008 Leterme offered the resignation of
15875-543: Was in the Middle Kingdom , later known as Lotharingia , but the coastal county of Flanders , west of the Scheldt , became the northernmost part of West Francia , the predecessor of France . In 870 in the Treaty of Meerssen , modern Belgium lands all became part of the western kingdom for a period, but in 880 in the Treaty of Ribemont , Lotharingia came under the lasting control of the eastern kingdom, which became
16002-469: Was the construction of a temporary work island known as Hellegatsplaat, from where the bridge over the Haringvliet was constructed and the dam construction continued. Unlike the previous section, a number of deeper gullies were present, resulting in the use of caisson closures, using a technique which had previously been implemented for the construction of the Veerse Gatdam . The excavation work for
16129-410: Was the use of specially adapted caisson units for the abutment ends, with a sloping bottom to fill the triangular void between the first caisson and the slope underneath, ensuring a good fit. The installation of these special units could be undertaken in a matter of days, therefore reducing the amount of time in which large currents were permitted to flow underneath the gradually closing hole, and limiting
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