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116-623: Hili is the largest Bronze Age site in the UAE and dates from the 3rd millennium BCE. Other remains include settlements, tombs, and a falaj dating from the Iron Age . Some of the site is located outside the park in a protected area. Finds from the site can be seen in the Al Ain National Museum in central Al Ain. The Hili Grand Tomb is a tower measuring 12 m (39 ft) in diameter that has been reconstructed. The tombs belong to

232-422: A proposed referendum on the future of the territory but the deadlock was not broken. Political reforms in the 1990s resulted in the establishment of a bicameral legislature with Morocco's first opposition-led government coming to power. King Hassan II died in 1999 and was succeeded by his son, Mohammed VI . He is a cautious moderniser who has introduced some economic and social liberalisation. Mohammed VI paid

348-582: A regional power in the 11th and 12th centuries, under the Almoravid and Almohad dynasties, when it controlled most of the Iberian Peninsula and the Maghreb. Centuries of Arab migration to the Maghreb since the 7th century shifted the demographic scope of the region. In the 15th and 16th centuries, Morocco faced external threats to its sovereignty, with Portugal seizing some territory and

464-522: A church. The Muslim conquest of the Maghreb that had begun during the mid-7th century was completed under the Umayyad Caliphate by 709. The caliphate introduced both Islam and the Arabic language to the area; this period also saw the beginning of a trend of Arab migration to the Maghreb which would last for centuries and effect a demographic shift in the region. While constituting part of

580-685: A controversial visit to the Western Sahara in 2002. Morocco unveiled an autonomy blueprint for Western Sahara to the United Nations in 2007. The Polisario rejected the plan and put forward its own proposal. Morocco and the Polisario Front held UN-sponsored talks in New York City but failed to come to any agreement. In 2010, security forces stormed a protest camp in the Western Sahara, triggering violent demonstrations in

696-499: A crew of four workers can excavate a horizontal length of 40 m (130 ft) per day. When the vertical shaft reaches 40 m (130 ft), they can excavate only 20 meters horizontally per day and at 60 m (200 ft) in depth this drops below 5 horizontal meters per day. In Algeria, a common speed is just 2 m (6.6 ft) per day at a depth of 15 m (49 ft). Deep, long qanats (which many are) require years and even decades to construct. The excavated material

812-644: A critical situation in the water supply system. Still, kahrezes are the main source of potable and irrigation water for the community. Morocco Morocco , officially the Kingdom of Morocco , is a country in the Maghreb region of North Africa . It overlooks the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and has land borders with Algeria to the east , and

928-612: A distinctive Maghrebi ancestry formed from a mixture of Near Eastern and African ancestry, which is still found as a part of the genome of modern Northwest Africans. Later during the Neolithic , from around 7,500 years ago onwards, there was a migration into Northwest Africa of European Neolithic Farmers from the Iberian Peninsula (who had originated in Anatolia several thousand years prior), as well as pastoralists from

1044-615: A joint Moroccan-French administration, while creating a modern school system. Several divisions of Moroccan soldiers ( Goumiers or regular troops and officers) served in the French army in both World War I and World War II , and in the Spanish Nationalist Army in the Spanish Civil War and after ( Regulares ). The institution of slavery was abolished in 1925. Between 1921 and 1926, an uprising in

1160-537: A new constitution curbing the powers of the king. In July 2011, the King won a landslide victory in a referendum on a reformed constitution he had proposed to placate the Arab Spring protests. In the first general elections that followed, the moderate Islamist Justice and Development Party won a plurality of seats, with Abdelilah Benkirane being designated as head of government per the new constitution. Despite

1276-452: A qanat is stored in a reservoir, typically with night flow stored for daytime use. An ab anbar is an example of a traditional Persian qanat-fed reservoir for drinking water. The qanat system has the advantage of being resistant to natural disasters such as floods, and to deliberate destruction in war. Furthermore, it is almost insensitive to the levels of precipitation, delivering a flow with only gradual variations from wet to dry years. From

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1392-416: A qanat system had to be carefully situated, to make best use of the slow flow of water. In Iran, there were subterranean mills at Yazd and Boshruyeh ; at Taft and Ardestan mills were placed at the outflow from the qanat, before irrigation of the fields. Qanats used in conjunction with a wind tower can provide cooling as well as a water supply. A wind tower is a chimney-like structure positioned above

1508-433: A side shaft through the easily penetrated sandstone (presumably in the direction of greatest water seepage) into the hill of Ayn-Manâwîr (also written Ayn-Manawir  [ fr ] to allow collection of additional water. After this side shaft had been extended, another vertical shaft was driven to intersect the side shaft. Side chambers were built, and holes bored into the rock—presumably at points where water seeped from

1624-523: A small dam at the end. The width is approximately 60 cm (24 in), but the height ranges from 5 to 9 meters; it is likely that the qanat was deepened to enhance seepage when the water table dropped (as is also seen in Iran). From there the water was used to irrigate fields. There is another instructive structure located at the Kharga Oasis. A well that apparently dried up was improved by driving

1740-418: A state of emergency and suspended parliament in 1965. In 1971 and 1972, there were two failed attempts to depose the king and establish a republic. A truth commission set up in 2005 to investigate human rights abuses during his reign confirmed nearly 10,000 cases, ranging from death in detention to forced exile. Some 592 people were recorded killed during Hassan's rule according to the truth commission. In 1963,

1856-566: A strong reaction from the German Empire ; and a crisis loomed in 1905. The matter was resolved at the Algeciras Conference in 1906. The Agadir Crisis of 1911 increased tensions between European powers. The 1912 Treaty of Fez made Morocco a protectorate of France, and triggered the 1912 Fez riots . Spain continued to operate its coastal protectorate. By the same treaty, Spain assumed the role of protecting power over

1972-400: A sufficient flow is available to justify construction. If these prerequisites are met, the route is laid out aboveground. Equipment must be assembled. The equipment is straightforward: containers (usually leather bags), ropes, reels to raise the container to the surface at the shaft head, hatchets and shovels for excavation, lights, and spirit levels or plumb bobs and string. Depending upon

2088-518: A sustainability perspective, qanats are powered only by gravity and thus have low operation and maintenance costs. Qanats transfer fresh water from the mountain plateau to the lower-lying plains with saltier soil. This helps to control soil salinity and prevent desertification . The qanat should not be confused with the spring-flow tunnel typical to the mountainous area around Jerusalem . Although both are excavated tunnels designed to extract water by gravity flow, there are crucial differences. Firstly,

2204-515: A ten-meter width, with length reckoned by the size of plot that the available water will irrigate. The qanats are called kariz in Dari (Persian) and Pashto and have been in use since the pre-Islamic period. It is estimated that more than 9,370 karizes were in use in the 20th century. The oldest functional kariz which is more than 300 years old and 8 kilometers long is located in Wardak province and

2320-694: A variety of terms denoting the Sharifi heritage of the 'Alawi dynasty , such as al-Mamlakah ash-Sharīfah ( المملكة الشريفة ), al-Iyālah ash-Sharīfah ( الإيالة الشريفة ) and al-Imbarāṭūriyyah ash-Sharīfah ( الإمبراطورية الشريفة ), rendered in French as l'Empire chérifien and in English as the 'Sharifian Empire'. The area of present-day Morocco has been inhabited since at least Paleolithic times , beginning sometime between 190,000 and 90,000 BC. A recent publication has suggested that there

2436-485: Is al-Maghrib ( المغرب , transl.  the land of the sunset; the west ), with the Kingdom's official Arabic name being al-Mamlakah al-Maghribīyah ( المملكة المغربية ; transl.  the kingdom of sunset/the west ). In Turkish , Morocco is known as Fas , a name derived from its medieval capital of Fes which is derived from the Arabic word Faʾs ( فأس ; transl.   pickaxe ), as

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2552-676: Is evidence for even earlier human habitation of the area: Homo sapiens fossils that had been discovered in the late 2000s near the Atlantic coast in Jebel Irhoud were recently dated to roughly 315,000 years ago. During the Upper Paleolithic , the Maghreb was more fertile than it is today, resembling a savanna , in contrast to its modern arid landscape. DNA studies of Iberomaurusian peoples at Taforalt , Morocco dating to around 15,000 years ago have found them to have

2668-568: Is still providing water to nearly 3,000 people. Many of these ancient structures were destroyed during the Soviet–Aghan War and the War in Afghanistan . Maintenance has not always been possible. The cost of labour has become very high, and maintaining the kariz structures is no longer possible. Lack of skilled artisans who have the traditional knowledge also poses difficulties. A number of

2784-466: Is supported by the historian Albert T. Olmstead . There are four main oases in the Egyptian desert. The Kharga Oasis is one that has been extensively studied. There is evidence that as early as the second half of the 5th century BCE water brought in qanats was being used. The qanats were excavated through water-bearing sandstone rock, which seeps into the channel, with water collected in a basin behind

2900-403: Is used, has more than one qanat. Fields and gardens are located both over the qanats a short distance before they emerge from the ground and below the surface outlet. Water from the qanats define both the social regions in the city and the layout of the city. The water is freshest, cleanest, and coolest in the upper reaches, and more prosperous people live at the outlet or immediately upstream of

3016-453: Is usually transported by means of leather bags up the vertical shafts. It is mounded around the vertical shaft exit, providing a barrier that prevents windblown or rain driven debris from entering the shafts. These mounds may be covered to provide further protection to the qanat. From the air, these shafts look like a string of bomb craters. The qanat's water-carrying channel must have a sufficient downward slope that water flows easily. However

3132-644: Is very common for a qanat to start below the foothills of mountains, where the water table is closest to the surface. From this source, the qanat tunnel slopes gently downward, slowly converging with the steeper slope of the land surface above, and the water finally flows out above ground where the two levels meet. To connect a populated or agricultural area with an aquifer, qanats must often extend for long distances. Qanats are sometimes split into an underground distribution network of smaller canals called kariz. Like qanats, these smaller canals are below ground to avoid contamination and evaporation. In some cases water from

3248-708: The Abbasids in the Hejaz . He convinced the Awraba Berber tribes to break their allegiance to the distant Abbasid caliphs and he founded the Idrisid dynasty in 788. The Idrisids established Fes as their capital and Morocco became a centre of Muslim learning and a major regional power . The Idrisids were ousted in 927 by the Fatimid Caliphate and their Miknasa allies. After Miknasa broke off relations with

3364-804: The Arab world ; it is considered a middle power in global affairs and holds membership in the Arab League , the Arab Maghreb Union , the Union for the Mediterranean , and the African Union . Morocco is a unitary semi- constitutional monarchy with an elected parliament. The executive branch is led by the King of Morocco and the prime minister , while legislative power is vested in

3480-874: The Banu Hilal Arab tribes. In the 13th and 14th centuries the Zenata Berber Marinids held power in Morocco and strove to replicate the successes of the Almohads through military campaigns in Algeria and Spain. They were followed by the Wattasids . In the 15th century, the Reconquista ended Muslim rule in Iberia and many Muslims and Jews fled to Morocco. Portuguese efforts to control

3596-519: The Berber people . Its total area is about 446,300 km (172,317 sq mi). Algeria borders Morocco to the east and southeast, though the border between the two countries has been closed since 1994. Spanish territory in Northwest Africa neighbouring Morocco comprises five enclaves on the Mediterranean coast: Ceuta , Melilla , Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera , Peñón de Alhucemas ,

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3712-638: The Chafarinas islands, and the disputed islet Perejil . Off the Atlantic coast the Canary Islands belong to Spain, whereas Madeira to the north is Portuguese . To the north, Morocco is bordered by the Strait of Gibraltar, where international shipping has unimpeded transit passage between the Atlantic and Mediterranean. The Rif mountains stretch over the region bordering the Mediterranean from

3828-516: The ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 geographical encoding standard by the symbol MA . This code was used as the basis for Morocco's internet domain, .ma . In area, Morocco's climate is mainly " hot summer Mediterranean " ( Csa ) and " hot desert " ( BWh ) zones. Central mountain ranges and the effects of the cold Canary Current , off the Atlantic coast, are significant factors in Morocco's relatively large variety of vegetation zones, ranging from lush forests in

3944-876: The Indian subcontinent for a long time. Cotton appears in the Inquiry into Plants by Theophrastus and is mentioned in the Laws of Manu . As transregional trade networks expanded and intensified, cotton spread from its homeland to India and into the Middle East. One theory is that the qanat was developed to irrigate cotton fields, first in what is now Iran, where it doubled the amount of available water for irrigation and urban use. Because of this, Persia enjoyed larger surpluses of agricultural products, thus increasing urbanization and social stratification. The qanat technology subsequently spread from Persia westward and eastward. In

4060-551: The Levant , both of whom also significantly contributed to the ancestry of modern Northwest Africans. The proto-Berber tribes evolved from these prehistoric communities during the late Bronze - and early Iron ages. In the early part of Classical Antiquity , Northwest Africa and Morocco were slowly drawn into the wider emerging Mediterranean world by the Phoenicians , who established trading colonies and settlements there,

4176-533: The Ottoman Empire encroaching from the east. The Marinid and Saadi dynasties otherwise resisted foreign domination, and Morocco was the only North African nation to escape Ottoman dominion. The 'Alawi dynasty , which rules the country to this day, seized power in 1631, and over the next two centuries expanded diplomatic and commercial relations with the Western world . Morocco's strategic location near

4292-778: The Rif Mountains, led by Abd el-Krim , led to the establishment of the Republic of the Rif . The Spanish used anti-civilian bombing raids and mustard gas to prevent the Rif republic from gaining independence. They lost more than 13,000 soldiers at Annual in July–August 1921 alone. The Riffi were eventually suppressed by 1927 by the Franco-Spanish military. The casualties on the Spanish-French side were 52,000 and from

4408-837: The Rif Mountains . It was founded by Salih I ibn Mansur in 710, as a client state to the Umayyad Caliphate. After the outbreak of the Berber Revolt in 739, the Berbers formed other independent states such as the Miknasa of Sijilmasa and the Barghawata . The founder of the Idrisid dynasty and the great-grandson of Hasan ibn Ali , Idris ibn Abdallah , had fled to Morocco after the massacre of his family by

4524-517: The SADR 's admission to the body. Polisario claimed to have killed more than 5,000 Moroccan soldiers between 1982 and 1985. Algerian authorities have estimated the number of Sahrawi refugees in Algeria to be 165,000. Diplomatic relations with Algeria were restored in 1988. In 1991, a UN-monitored ceasefire began in Western Sahara, but the territory's status remains undecided and ceasefire violations are reported. The following decade saw much wrangling over

4640-547: The Sand War was fought between Algerian and Moroccan troops over Moroccan claims to parts of Algerian territory. A formal peace agreement was signed in February 1964; however, relations remained strained between the two countries following the conflict. The Spanish enclave of Ifni in the south was returned to Morocco in 1969. The Polisario movement was formed in 1973, with the aim of establishing an independent state in

4756-667: The Spanish name for the country, Marruecos , derived from the name of the city of Marrakesh , which was the capital of the Almoravid dynasty , the Almohad Caliphate , and the Saadian dynasty . During the Almoravid dynasty, the city of Marrakesh was established under the name of Tāmurākušt , derived from the city's ancient Berber name of amūr n Yakuš ( lit.   ' land/country of God ' ). In English,

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4872-568: The Umm al-Nar culture . In May 2019 the Abu Dhabi Department of Culture & Tourism reported that fingerprints about 3000 years old were found at Hili II. They apparently belonged to craftsmen who constructed a wall at the site. This United Arab Emirates location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Qanat A qanat or kārīz is a system for transporting water from an aquifer or well to

4988-667: The United Arab Emirates , and uyūn in Saudi Arabia , etc. The largest extant and functional qanat systems are located in Afghanistan, Algeria, Iran, Oman , Pakistan, and the oases of the Turfan region in Xinjiang , Northwestern China . This is a system of water supply that allows water to be transported over long distances in hot dry climates without losing much of the water to evaporation . The system has

5104-426: The groundwater . Much of the population of Iran and other arid countries in North Africa and West Asia historically depended upon the water from qanats; many populated areas are close to the areas where qanats are possible. Common variants of qanat in English include kanat , khanat , kunut , kona , konait , ghanat , ghundat . Qanāh ( قناة ) is an Arabic word that means "channel". In Persian ,

5220-402: The local inhabitants . In 1979, Mauritania relinquished its claim to the area, but the war continued to rage. In 1991, a ceasefire agreement was reached, but the issue of sovereignty remained unresolved. Today, Morocco occupies two-thirds of the territory, and efforts to resolve the dispute have thus far failed to break the political deadlock. The English Morocco is an anglicisation of

5336-445: The province of Khorasan have been recorded with vertical shafts of up to 275 m (902 ft). The vertical shafts support construction and maintenance of the underground channel as well as air interchange. Deep shafts require intermediate platforms to facilitate the process of removing soil. The construction speed depends on the depth and nature of the ground. If the earth is soft and easy to work, at 20 m (66 ft) depth

5452-416: The siege of Melilla against the Spanish ended in defeat in 1775. Morocco was the first nation to recognise the fledgling United States as an independent nation in 1777. In the beginning of the American Revolution , American merchant ships in the Atlantic Ocean were subject to attacks by other fleets. On 20 December 1777, Morocco's Sultan Mohammed III declared that American merchant ships would be under

5568-433: The 17th century. Morocco faced aggression from Spain in the north, and the Ottoman Empire's allies pressing westward. Under the Saadis, the sultanate ended the Portuguese Aviz dynasty in 1578 at the Battle of Alcácer Quibir . The reign of Ahmad al-Mansur brought new wealth and prestige to the Sultanate, and a large expedition to West Africa inflicted a crushing defeat on the Songhay Empire in 1591. However, managing

5684-434: The Atlantic sea trade in the 15th century did not greatly affect the interior of Morocco even though they managed to control some possessions on the Moroccan coast but not venturing further afield inland. In 1549, the region fell to successive Arab dynasties claiming descent from the Islamic prophet Muhammad : first the Saadi dynasty who ruled from 1549 to 1659, and then the 'Alawi dynasty , who have remained in power since

5800-402: The Fatimids in 932, they were removed from power by the Maghrawa of Sijilmasa in 980. From the 11th century onward, a series of Berber dynasties arose. Under the Sanhaja Almoravid dynasty and the Masmuda Almohad dynasty , Morocco dominated the Maghreb, al-Andalus in Iberia , and the western Mediterranean region. From the 13th century onward the country saw a massive migration of

5916-406: The Iranian qanat. The foggara is dug into the foothills of a fairly steep mountain range such as the eastern ranges of the Atlas Mountains . Rainfall in the mountains enters the aquifer and moves toward the Saharan region to the south. The foggara, 1 to 3 km (0.62 to 1.9 mi) in length, penetrates the aquifer and collects water. Families maintain the foggara and own the land it irrigates over

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6032-457: The Kingdom of Morocco, the United States of America and the State of Israel was signed on 22 December 2020. On 24 August 2021, neighbouring Algeria cut diplomatic relations with Morocco, accusing Morocco of supporting a separatist group and hostile actions against Algeria. Morocco called the decision unjustified. On 8 September 2023, a 6.8 magnitude earthquake hit Morocco killing more than 2,800 people and injuring thousands. The epicentre of

6148-487: The Kingdom of Morocco. A month later Spain forsook its protectorate in Northern Morocco to the new state but kept its two coastal enclaves ( Ceuta and Melilla ) on the Mediterranean coast which dated from earlier conquests, but over which Morocco still claims sovereignty to this day. Sultan Mohammed became King in 1957. Upon the death of Mohammed V, Hassan II became King of Morocco on 3 March 1961. Morocco held its first general elections in 1963 . However, Hassan declared

6264-413: The Mediterranean Sea, between Algeria and the annexed Western Sahara. It is one of only three nations (along with Spain and France ) to have both Atlantic and Mediterranean coastlines. A large part of Morocco is mountainous. The Atlas Mountains are located mainly in the centre and the south of the country. The Rif Mountains are located in the north of the country. Both ranges are mainly inhabited by

6380-461: The Moroccan dialect of Arabic are widely spoken. The culture of Morocco is a mix of Arab , Berber , African and European cultures. Its capital is Rabat , while its largest city is Casablanca . The region constituting Morocco has been inhabited since the Paleolithic era over 300,000 years ago. The Idrisid dynasty was established by Idris I in 788 and was subsequently ruled by a series of other independent dynasties, reaching its zenith as

6496-463: The Riffi 10,000 died. In 1943, the Istiqlal Party (Independence Party) was founded to press for independence, with discreet US support. Moroccan nationalists drew heavily on transnational activist networks for lobbying to end colonial rule, primarily at the United Nations. The Istiqlal Party subsequently provided most of the leadership for the nationalist movement. France's exile of Sultan Mohammed V in 1953 to Madagascar and his replacement by

6612-429: The Spanish Sahara. On 6 November 1975, King Hassan asked for volunteers to cross into the Spanish Sahara. Some 350,000 civilians were reported as being involved in the " Green March ". A month later, Spain agreed to leave the Spanish Sahara, soon to become Western Sahara, and to transfer it to joint Moroccan-Mauritanian control, despite the objections and threats of military intervention by Algeria. Moroccan forces occupied

6728-404: The advantage of being resistant to natural disasters such as floods and to deliberate destruction in war. Furthermore, it is almost insensitive to the levels of precipitation, delivering a flow with only gradual variations from wet to dry years. Karez are constructed as a series of well-like vertical shafts, connected by a gently sloping tunnel. This taps into underground water and delivers it to

6844-467: The arid coastal desert of Peru, a technology of water supply similar to that of the qanats, called puquios , was developed. Most archaeologists believe that the puquios are indigenous and date to about 500 CE, but a few believe they are of Spanish origin, brought to the Americas in the 16th century. Puquios were still in use in the Nazca region in the 21st century. In arid and semi-arid regions, owing to high evaporation, transportation routes were in

6960-493: The city's founder Idris I ibn Abd Allah reputedly used a silver and gold pickaxe to trace the outlines of the city. In other parts of the Islamic world, for example in Egyptian and Middle Eastern Arabic literature before the mid-20th century, Morocco was commonly referred to as Murrakush ( مراكش ). The term is still used to refer to Morocco today in several Indo-Iranian languages, including Persian , Urdu , and Punjabi . Morocco has also been referred to politically by

7076-474: The cool tunnel walls/water and by the transfer of latent heat of evaporation as water evaporates into the air stream. In dry desert climates this can result in a greater than 15 °C reduction in the air temperature coming from the qanat; the mixed air still feels dry, so the basement is cool and only comfortably moist (not damp). Wind tower and qanat cooling have been used in desert climates for over 1,000 years. By 400 BCE, Persian engineers had mastered

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7192-437: The destination to which the water will be delivered into the soil and works toward the source (the test well). Vertical shafts are excavated along the route, separated at a distance of 20–35 m (66–115 ft). The separation of the shafts is a balance between the amount of work required to excavate them and the amount of effort required to excavate the space between them, as well as the ultimate maintenance effort. In general,

7308-402: The disputed territory of Western Sahara to the south . Morocco also claims the Spanish exclaves of Ceuta , Melilla and Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera , and several small Spanish-controlled islands off its coast. It has a population of approximately 37 million. Islam is both the official and predominant religion, while Arabic and Berber are the official languages. Additionally, French and

7424-414: The downward gradient must not be so great as to create conditions under which the water transitions between supercritical and subcritical flow . If this occurs, the waves that result can result in severe erosion that can damage or destroy the qanat. The choice of the slope is a trade off between erosion and sedimentation. Highly sloped tunnels are subject to more erosion as water flows at a higher speed. On

7540-415: The effort. There were still functional qanat systems in 2009. American forces were reported to have unintentionally destroyed some of the channels during expansion of a military base, creating tensions between them and the local community. Some of these tunnels were used to store supplies, and to move men and equipment underground. Qanats have been preserved in Armenia in the community of Shvanidzor , in

7656-646: The first vowel has been changed, likely influenced by the word "Moor". Historically, the territory has been part of what Muslim geographers referred to as al-Maghrib al-Aqṣā    [ ar ] ( المغرب الأقصى , 'the Farthest West [of the Islamic world]' designating roughly the area from Tiaret to the Atlantic ) in contrast with neighbouring regions of al-Maghrib al-Awsaṭ    [ ar ] ( المغرب الأوسط , 'the Middle West': Tripoli to Béjaïa ) and al-Maghrib al-Adnā    [ ar ] ( المغرب الأدنى , 'the Nearest West': Alexandria to Tripoli ). Morocco's modern Arabic name

7772-400: The foggara. The moist air of the agricultural area is drawn into the foggara in the opposite direction to the water run-off. In the foggara it condenses on the tunnel walls and the air passes out of the vertical shafts. This condensed moisture is available for reuse. Qanat irrigation technology was introduced to Egypt by the Achaemenid king Darius I during his reign of 522 BCE-486 BCE, which

7888-447: The form of qanats, which led groundwater to consumption areas along underground tunnels. In the long run, the qanat system is not only economical but also sustainable for irrigation and agricultural purposes.… The ground water flow was known to depend on grain size of sediments, and, therefore, the tunnels in qanats are filled in with coarser material than the surrounding host geological formations. The qanats are constructed mainly along

8004-849: The gradient is steeper, underground waterfalls may be constructed with appropriate design features (usually linings) to absorb the energy with minimal erosion. In some cases the water power has been harnessed to drive underground mills . If it is not possible to bring the outlet of the qanat out near the settlement, it is necessary to run a jub or canal overground. This is avoided when possible to limit pollution, warming and water loss due to evaporation. The vertical shafts may be covered to minimize blown-in sand. The channels of qanats must be periodically inspected for erosion or cave-ins, cleaned of sand and mud and otherwise repaired. For safety, air flow must be assured before entry. Some damaged qanats have been restored. To be sustainable, restoration needs to take into account many nontechnical factors beginning with

8120-427: The house; of its four openings, the one opposite the wind direction is opened to move air out of the house. Incoming air is pulled from a qanat below the house. The air flow across the vertical shaft opening creates a lower pressure (see Bernoulli effect ) and draws cool air up from the qanat tunnel, mixing with it. The air from the qanat is drawn into the tunnel at some distance away and is cooled both by contact with

8236-468: The ice was stored in yakhchals—specially designed, naturally cooled refrigerators. A large underground space with thick insulated walls was connected to a qanat, and a system of windcatchers or wind towers was used to draw cool subterranean air up from the qanat to maintain temperatures inside the space at low levels, even during hot summer days. As a result, the ice melted slowly and was available year-round. Qanats (designated foggaras in Algeria ) are

8352-605: The illegal migrants to Morocco from Melilla. In 2006, the Spanish Premier Zapatero visited Spanish enclaves. He was the first Spanish leader in 25 years to make an official visit to the territories. The following year, Spanish King Juan Carlos I visited Ceuta and Melilla, further angering Morocco which demanded control of the enclaves. During the 2011–2012 Moroccan protests , thousands of people rallied in Rabat and other cities calling for political reform and

8468-473: The kingdom was smaller than previous ones in the region, it remained quite wealthy. Against the opposition of local tribes Ismail Ibn Sharif (1672–1727) began to create a unified state. With his Riffian army, he re-occupied Tangier from the English who had abandoned it in 1684 and drove the Spanish from Larache in 1689. The Portuguese abandoned Mazagão , their last territory in Morocco, in 1769. However,

8584-450: The large farmers are abandoning their kariz which has been in their families sometimes for centuries, and moving to tube and dug wells backed by diesel pumps. However, the government of Afghanistan was aware of the importance of these structures and all efforts were made to repair, reconstruct and maintain (through the community) the kariz. The Ministry of Rural Rehabilitation and Development along with national and international NGOs made

8700-530: The larger empire, Morocco was initially organised as a subsidiary province of Ifriqiya , with the local governors appointed by the Muslim governor in Kairouan . The indigenous Berber tribes adopted Islam, but retained their customary laws . They also paid taxes and tribute to the new Muslim administration. The first independent Muslim state in the area of modern Morocco was the Kingdom of Nekor , an emirate in

8816-903: The late 3rd century, direct Roman rule had become confined to a few coastal cities, such as Septum ( Ceuta ) in Mauretania Tingitana and Cherchell in Mauretania Caesariensis . When, in 429 AD, the area was devastated by the Vandals , the Roman Empire lost its remaining possessions in Mauretania, and local Mauro-Roman kings assumed control of them. In the 530s, the Eastern Roman Empire , under Byzantine control, re-established direct imperial rule of Septum and Tingi , fortified Tingis and erected

8932-423: The lower reaches are the most likely to see substantial reductions in flow. Traditionally qanats are built by a group of skilled laborers, muqannīs , with hand labor. The profession historically paid well and was typically handed down from father to son. The critical, initial step in qanat construction is identification of an appropriate water source. The search begins at the point where the alluvial fan meets

9048-531: The main course of the Ziz River and its subsequent impact on local water tables is said to be one of the many reasons for the loss of half of the khettara. The black berbers ( haratin ) of the south were the hereditary class of qanat diggers in Morocco who build and repair these systems. Their work was hazardous. The foggara water management system in Tunisia, used to create oases, is similar to that of

9164-605: The modern state of Mauritania ) flourished around 225 BC or earlier. Mauretania became a client kingdom of the Roman Empire in 33 BC. Emperor Claudius annexed Mauretania directly in 44 AD, making it a Roman province ruled by an imperial governor (either a procurator Augusti , or a legatus Augusti pro praetore ). During the Crisis of the Third Century , parts of Mauretania were reconquered by Berbers. By

9280-561: The most substantial of which were Chellah , Lixus , and Mogador . Mogador was established as a Phoenician colony as early as the 6th century BC. Morocco later became a realm of the Northwest African civilisation of ancient Carthage , and part of the Carthaginian empire. The earliest known independent Moroccan state was the Berber kingdom of Mauretania , under King Baga . This ancient kingdom (not to be confused with

9396-432: The mountains or foothills; water is more abundant in the mountains because of orographic lifting , and excavation in the alluvial fan is relatively easy. The muqannīs follow the track of the main water courses coming from the mountains or foothills to identify evidence of subsurface water such as deep-rooted vegetation or seasonal seeps. A trial well is then dug to determine the depth of the water table and determine whether

9512-576: The mouth of the Mediterranean drew renewed European interest; in 1912, France and Spain divided the country into respective protectorates , reserving an international zone in Tangier . Following intermittent riots and revolts against colonial rule, in 1956, Morocco regained its independence and reunified. Since independence, Morocco has remained relatively stable. It has the fifth-largest economy in Africa and wields significant influence in both Africa and

9628-449: The neighborhood, gardens and fields. The streets normally parallel the jubs and their lateral branches. As a result, the cities and towns are oriented consistent with the gradient of the land; this is a practical response to efficient water distribution over varying terrain. The lower reaches of the canals are less desirable for both residences and agriculture. The water grows progressively more polluted as it passes downstream. In dry years

9744-472: The north-west to the north-east. The Atlas Mountains run down the backbone of the country, from the northeast to the southwest. Most of the southeast portion of the country is in the Sahara Desert and as such is generally sparsely populated and unproductive economically. Most of the population lives to the north of these mountains, while to the south lies the Western Sahara, a former Spanish colony that

9860-436: The northern and central mountains, giving way to steppe, semi-arid and desert areas in the eastern and southern regions. The Moroccan coastal plains experience moderate temperatures even in summer. In the Rif, Middle and High Atlas Mountains, there exist several different types of climates: Mediterranean along the coastal lowlands, giving way to a humid temperate climate at higher elevations with sufficient moisture to allow for

9976-606: The northern coastal and southern Saharan zones. Tens of thousands of colonists entered Morocco. Some bought up large amounts of rich agricultural land, while others organised the exploitation and modernisation of mines and harbours. Interest groups that formed among these elements continually pressured France to increase its control over Morocco – with some Moroccan tribes allying with the French against other competing tribes from early on in its conquest. The French colonial administrator, Governor general Marshal Hubert Lyautey , sincerely admired Moroccan culture and succeeded in imposing

10092-413: The oases in the 10th century and the residents embraced Islam. The water is metered to the various users through the use of distribution weirs that meter flow to the various canals, each for a separate user. The humidity of the oases is also used to supplement the water supply to the foggara. The temperature gradient in the vertical shafts causes air to rise by natural convection, causing a draft to enter

10208-454: The origin of the qanat was a well that was turned into an artificial spring. In contrast, the origin of the spring-flow tunnel was the development of a natural spring to renew or increase flow following a recession of the water table. Secondly, the shafts essential for the construction of qanats are not essential to spring-flow tunnels. A typical town or city in Iran, and elsewhere where the qanat

10324-418: The other hand, less sloped tunnels need frequent maintenance due to the problem of sedimentation. A lower downward gradient also contributes to reducing the solid contents and contamination in water. In shorter qanats the downward gradient varies between 1:1000 and 1:1500, while in longer qanats it may be almost horizontal. Such precision is routinely obtained with a spirit level and string. In cases where

10440-512: The outlet. When the qanat is still below ground, the water is drawn to the surface via wells or animal driven Persian wells . Private subterranean reservoirs could supply houses and buildings for domestic use and garden irrigation as well. Air flow from the qanat is used to cool an underground summer room ( shabestan ) found in many older houses and buildings. Downstream of the outlet, the water runs through surface canals called jubs ( jūbs ) which run downhill, with lateral branches to carry water to

10556-404: The parliament after consulting the prime minister and the president of the constitutional court. Morocco claims ownership of the non-self-governing territory of Western Sahara , which it has designated its Southern Provinces . In 1975, after Spain agreed to decolonise the territory and cede its control to Morocco and Mauritania , a guerrilla war broke out between those powers and some of

10672-664: The process of selecting the qanat to be restored. In Syria, three sites were chosen based on a national inventory conducted in 2001. One of them, the Drasiah qanat of Dmeir , was completed in 2002. Selection criteria included the availability of a steady groundwater flow, social cohesion and willingness to contribute of the community using the qanat, and the existence of a functioning water-rights system. The primary applications of qanats are for irrigation, providing cattle with water, and drinking water supply. Other applications include watermills, cooling and ice storage. Watermills within

10788-489: The protection of the sultanate and could thus enjoy safe passage. The 1786 Moroccan–American Treaty of Friendship stands as the United States' oldest unbroken friendship treaty. As Europe industrialised, Northwest Africa was increasingly prized for its potential for colonisation. France showed a strong interest in Morocco as early as 1830, not only to protect the border of its Algerian territory, but also because of

10904-596: The qanat (locally khettara ) is also used. On the margins of the Sahara Desert , the isolated oases of the Draa River valley and Tafilalt have relied on qanat water for irrigation since the late 14th century. In Marrakech and the Haouz plain, the qanats have been abandoned since the early 1970s, having dried up. In the Tafilaft area, half of the 400 khettaras are still in use. The 1971 Hassan Adahkil Dam 's build in

11020-419: The qanat. And misreading the soil conditions leads to collapses, which at best require extensive rework and at worst are fatal for the crew. Construction of a qanat is usually performed by a crew of 3–4 muqannīs . For a shallow qanat, one worker typically digs the horizontal shaft, one raises the excavated earth from the shaft and one distributes the excavated earth at the top. The crew typically begins from

11136-480: The quake was around 70 km southwest of city of Marrakech. Morocco has a coast by the Atlantic Ocean that reaches past the Strait of Gibraltar into the Mediterranean Sea . It is bordered by Spain to the north (a water border through the Strait and land borders with three small Spanish-controlled exclaves , Ceuta , Melilla , and Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera ), Algeria to the east, and Western Sahara to

11252-512: The reforms made by Mohammed VI, demonstrators continued to call for deeper reforms. Hundreds took part in a trade union rally in Casablanca in May 2012. Participants accused the government of failing to deliver on reforms. On 10 December 2020, Israel–Morocco normalisation agreement was announced and Morocco announced its intention to resume diplomatic relations with Israel. Joint Declaration of

11368-431: The regional capital El Aaiún . In 2002, Morocco and Spain agreed to a US-brokered resolution over the disputed island of Perejil . Spanish troops had taken the normally uninhabited island after Moroccan soldiers landed on it and set up tents and a flag. There were renewed tensions in 2005, as dozens of African migrants stormed the borders of the Spanish enclaves of Melilla and Ceuta. In response, Spain deported dozens of

11484-653: The rocks—are evident. David Mattingly reports foggara extending for hundreds of miles in the Garamantes area near Germa in Libya : "The channels were generally very narrow – less than 2 feet wide and 5 high – but some were several miles long, and in total some 600 foggara extended for hundreds of miles underground. The channels were dug out and maintained using a series of regularly spaced vertical shafts, one every 30 feet or so, 100,000 in total, averaging 30 feet in depth, but sometimes reaching 130." In southern Morocco,

11600-450: The shallower the qanat, the closer the vertical shafts. If the qanat is long, excavation may begin from both ends at once. Tributary channels are sometimes also constructed to supplement the water flow. Most qanats in Iran run less than 5 km (3.1 miles), while some have been measured at ≈70 km (43 miles) in length near Kerman . The vertical shafts usually range from 20 to 200 m (66 to 656 ft) in depth, although qanats in

11716-420: The soil type, qanat liners (usually fired clay hoops) may also be required. Although the construction methods are simple, the construction of a qanat requires a detailed understanding of subterranean geology and a degree of engineering sophistication. The gradient of the qanat must be carefully controlled: too shallow a gradient yields no flow and too steep a gradient will result in excessive erosion, collapsing

11832-458: The source of water for irrigation in large oases like Gourara . The foggaras are also found at Touat (an area of Adrar 200 km from Gourara). The length of the foggaras in this region is estimated to be thousands of kilometers. Although sources suggest that the foggaras may have been in use as early as 200 CE, they were clearly in use by the 11th century after the Arabs took possession of

11948-609: The south. Since Morocco controls most of Western Sahara, its de facto southern boundary is with Mauritania . The internationally recognised borders of the country lie between latitudes 27° and 36°N, and longitudes 1° and 14°W . The geography of Morocco spans from the Atlantic Ocean, to mountainous areas, to the Sahara desert. Morocco is a Northern African country, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean and

12064-571: The southern province of Syunik , bordering with Iran. Qanats are named kahrezes in Armenian. There are 5 kahrezes in Shvanidzor. Four of them were constructed before the village was founded. The fifth kahrez was constructed in 2005. Potable water runs through three of them, and two are in poor condition. In the summer, especially in July and August, the amount of water reaches its minimum, creating

12180-525: The strategic position of Morocco with coasts on the Mediterranean and the open Atlantic. In 1860, a dispute over Spain's Ceuta enclave led Spain to declare war. Victorious Spain won a further enclave and an enlarged Ceuta in the settlement. In 1884, Spain created a protectorate in the coastal areas of Morocco. In 1904, France and Spain carved out zones of influence in Morocco. Recognition by the United Kingdom of France's sphere of influence provoked

12296-426: The surface by gravity, without need for pumping. The vertical shafts along the underground channel are for maintenance purposes, and water is typically used only once it emerges from the daylight point. The qanats still create a reliable supply of water for human settlements and irrigation in hot, arid , and semi-arid climates, but the value of this system is directly related to the quality, volume, and regularity of

12412-796: The surface through an underground aqueduct ; the system originated approximately 3,000 years ago in Iran . The function is essentially the same across the Middle East and North Africa , but the system operates under a variety of regional names: qanat or kārīz in Iran, karez in Afghanistan and Pakistan , foggara in Algeria , qanat in Malta , khettara in Morocco , falaj in Oman and

12528-431: The technique of storing ice in the middle of summer in the desert. The ice could be brought in during the winters from nearby mountains, but in a more usual and sophisticated method they built a wall in the east–west direction near a yakhchal (ice pit). In winter, the qanat water would be channeled to the north side of the wall, whose shade made the water freeze more quickly, increasing the ice formed per winter day. Then

12644-572: The territories across the Sahara proved too difficult. Upon the death of al-Mansur, the country was divided among his sons. After a period of political fragmentation and conflict during the decline of the Saadi dynasty, Morocco was finally reunited by the Alawi sultan al-Rashid in the late 1660s, who took Fez in 1666 and Marrakesh in 1668. The 'Alawis succeeded in stabilising their position, and while

12760-555: The territory. Moroccan and Algerian troops soon clashed in Western Sahara . Morocco and Mauritania divided up Western Sahara. Fighting between the Moroccan military and Polisario forces continued for many years. The prolonged war was a considerable financial drain on Morocco. In 1983, Hassan cancelled planned elections amid political unrest and economic crisis. In 1984, Morocco left the Organisation of African Unity in protest at

12876-552: The two chambers of parliament: the House of Representatives and the House of Councillors . Judicial power rests with the Constitutional Court, which may review the validity of laws, elections, and referendums. The king holds vast executive and legislative powers, especially over the military , foreign policy and religious affairs; he can issue decrees called dahirs , which have the force of law, and can also dissolve

12992-468: The unpopular Mohammed Ben Aarafa sparked active opposition to the French and Spanish protectorates. The most notable violence occurred in Oujda where Moroccans attacked French and other European residents in the streets. France allowed Mohammed V to return in 1955, and the negotiations that led to Moroccan independence began the following year. In March 1956 Morocco regained its independence from France as

13108-533: The valleys where Quaternary sediments are deposited. Qanats are constructed as a series of well -like vertical shafts , connected by a gently sloping tunnel which carries a water canal . Qanats efficiently deliver large amounts of subterranean water to the surface without need for pumping. The water drains by gravity, typically from an upland aquifer , with the destination lower than the source. Qanats allow water to be transported over long distances in hot dry climates without much water loss to evaporation . It

13224-738: The words for "qanat" are kārīz (or kārēz ; كاريز ) and is derived from earlier word kāhrēz ( كاهریز ). The word qanāt ( قنات ) is also used in Persian. Other names for qanat include kahan ( Persian : کهن ); Kahn ( Balochi ); kahriz/kəhriz ( Azerbaijan ); khettara ( Morocco ); Galerías , minas or viajes de agua (Spain); falaj ( Arabic : فلج ) ( United Arab Emirates and Oman ); foggara/fughara ( North Africa ). Alternative terms for qanats in Asia and North Africa are kakuriz , chin-avulz , and mayun . According to most sources, qanat technology

13340-415: Was annexed by Morocco in 1975 (see Green March ). Morocco claims that the Western Sahara is part of its territory and refers to that as its Southern Provinces . Morocco's capital city is Rabat ; its largest city is its main port, Casablanca . Other cities recording a population over 500,000 in the 2014 Moroccan census are Fes , Marrakesh , Meknes , Salé and Tangier . Morocco is represented in

13456-597: Was developed in ancient Iran by the Persians sometime in the early 1st millennium BCE and slowly spread westward and eastward from there. Other sources suggest a Southeast Arabian origin. Analogous systems appear to have been developed independently in China and in South America (specifically, southern Peru ). A cotton species, Gossypium arboreum , is indigenous to South Asia and has been cultivated on

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