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103-538: Their name derives, according to ancient writers, from hirpus (the Oscan for ' wolf ') and meant 'those who belong to the wolf'. In accordance with this derivation, their first ancestors were supposedly guided to their new settlements by a wolf. This tradition implies that the Hirpini were regarded as having migrated, like the other Sabellian peoples in the south of Italy, from the north, but when this migration occurred

206-464: A remains in most positions Long ā remains in an initial or medial position. Final ā starts to sound similar to [ɔː] so that it is written ú or, rarely, u . Short e "generally remains unchanged;" before a labial in a medial syllable, it becomes u or i , and before another vowel, e raises to higher-mid [ẹ], written í . Long ē similarly raises to higher-mid [ẹ], the sound of written í or íí . Short i becomes written í . Long ī

309-490: A Caprara, Sant'Angelo a Piesco, San Vitale, Scafa, Serretelle, Sponsilli, Torre Alfieri, and Vallereccia. The economy of Benevento area is traditionally agricultural. Main products include vine , olives and tobacco . The main industry is that of food processing (sweets and pasta), although textile, mechanics, and construction companies are present. The Stadio Ciro Vigorito is a multi-use stadium in Benevento, which

412-670: A Samnite city, and must have already been a place of strength as the Romans did not venture to attack it during their first two wars with the Samnites; it appears, however, to have fallen into their hands during the Third Samnite War , though the exact occasion is unknown. Benevento was certainly in the power of the Romans in 274 BC, when Pyrrhus of Epirus was defeated in a great battle , fought in its immediate neighborhood, by

515-403: A candelabrum of 1311. A marble statue of the apostle San Bartolomeo, by Nicola da Monteforte, is also from the 14th century. The cathedral also contains a statue of St. Giuseppe Moscati , a native of the area. The cathedral was completely destroyed in 1943 because of bombardments: what remained of the cathedral were just the bell tower, the façade and the crypt. Another testimony of the cathedral

618-550: A number of Jews to convert to Christianity . He was reproved for doing that by Pope Alexander II . When Jewish traveller Benjamin of Tudela visited Benevento in 1159 or 1165, he described 200 Jewish families living in it. Being under Papal rule (unlike the rest of southern Italy), the Jewish community of Benevento was not expelled, as most other southern Italy Jewish communities in 1541. Nevertheless, they were expelled from town later on 1569, under Pope Paul IV . In 1617

721-441: A palace, and the principality continued to be a papal possession until 1806, when Napoleon granted it to his minister Talleyrand with the title of sovereign prince. Talleyrand was never to settle down and actually rule his new principality ; in 1815 Benevento was returned to the papacy . It was united with Italy in 1860. Several popes personally visited Benevento. In 1128 Honorius II tried inviting Roger II of Sicily into

824-547: A party in the nation favorable to Rome, as Minatius Magius (the ancestor of the historian Velleius ), a native of Aeclanum, was not only himself faithful to the Roman cause, but raised an auxiliary legion among his countrymen to support the Roman generals in Campania. The Hirpini were undoubtedly admitted to the Roman franchise after the war, and their national existence ended. They appear to have suffered less than their neighbours,

927-528: A post of importance, on account of its proximity to Campania , and its strength as a fortress. In its immediate neighborhood were fought two of the most decisive actions of the war: the Battle of Beneventum (214 BC), in which the Carthaginian general Hanno was defeated by Tiberius Gracchus ; the other in 212 BC, when the camp of Hanno, in which he had accumulated a vast quantity of corn and other stores,

1030-569: A sound shift in Oscan to become ~[uː]. Í was used to denote a higher-mid [ẹ] . [REDACTED] The Z of the native alphabet is pronounced [ts] . Doubling of vowels was used to denote length but a long I is written IÍ . Oscan written with the Greek alphabet was identical to the standard alphabet with the addition of two letters: one for the native alphabet's H and one for its V . The letters η and ω do not indicate quantity. Sometimes,

1133-462: A surviving local toponym. In phonology too, Oscan exhibited a number of clear differences from Latin: thus, Oscan 'p' in place of Latin 'qu' (Osc. pis , Lat. quis ) (compare the similar P-Celtic/Q-Celtic cleavage in the Celtic languages ); 'b' in place of Latin 'v'; medial 'f' in contrast to Latin 'b' or 'd' (Osc. mefiai , Lat. mediae ). Oscan is considered to be the most conservative of all

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1236-569: Is Saint Bartholomew , the Apostle , whose relics are kept there at the Cattedrale di Santa Maria Assunta . Benevento, as Maleventum , was one of the chief cities of Samnium , situated on the Appian Way at a distance of 51 kilometres (32 mi) east of Capua on the banks of the river Calor (now Calore). There is some discrepancy as to the tribe to which it belonged at contact: Pliny

1339-429: Is a circular Lombard edifice dating to c. 760, now modernized, of small proportions, and is one of the main examples of religious Lombard architecture . The plan consists of a central hexagon with, at each vertex, columns taken from the temple of Isis ; these are connected by arches which support the cupola. The inner hexagon is in turn enclosed in a decagonal ring with eight white limestone pillars and two columns next to

1442-521: Is a city and comune (municipality) of Campania , Italy, capital of the province of Benevento , 50 kilometres (31 mi) northeast of Naples . It is situated on a hill 130 metres (427 feet) above sea level at the confluence of the Calore Irpino (or Beneventano) and the Sabato . In 2020, Benevento has 58,418 inhabitants. It is also the seat of a Catholic archbishop . Benevento occupies

1545-403: Is eo die (8) comitia non habuerit. In English: (3) … he shall take oath with the assent of the majority of the senate, provided that not less than (4) 40 are present, when the matter is under advisement. If anyone by right of intercession shall prevent the assembly, before preventing it, (5) he shall swear wittingly in the assembly without guile, that he prevents this assembly rather for

1648-452: Is evidence that ancient currency was inscribed in Oscan (dating to before 300 BCE) at Teanum Apulum . Oscan graffiti on the walls of Pompeii indicate its persistence in at least one urban environment well into the 1st century of the common era . In total, as of 2017, there were 800 found Oscan texts, with a rapid expansion in recent decades. Oscan was written in various scripts depending on time period and location, including

1751-551: Is found only in Ptolemy, is equally uncertain, although the author set it in the South, at the same latitude of Compsa and the same longitude of Aquilonia. The most remarkable natural curiosity in the land of the Hirpini was the valley and lake, or rather pool, of Amsanctus , celebrated by Virgil in a manner that shows its fame to have been widely spread through Italy. It is remarkable as the only trace of volcanic action remaining in

1854-539: Is mostly used as the home venue of Serie B side Benevento Calcio . Benevento is connected to Naples through the modern SS7 Appia state road, and then local roads starting from Arienzo . It is 17 kilometres (11 miles) from the Naples-Bari A16 motorway. The SS372 Telesina state road allows reaching the A1 Naples-Rome, leading to the latter in less than three hours. Benevento railway station , on

1957-573: Is not present in Latin). Oscan nouns, like in Latin, are divided into multiple declension patterns. The second declension in Oscan has a few features that distinguish it from its Latin counterpart. These nouns in Oscan are declined as follows: Like in Latin, the third declension in Oscan is a merger of the i -stem nouns with the consonant-stem nouns. These nouns in Oscan are declined as follows. Neuters are not attested. Verbs in Oscan are inflected for

2060-518: Is possible that both languages existed simultaneously under different conditions, in which Latin was given political, religious, and administrative importance while Oscan was considered a "low" language. This phenomenon is referred to as diglossia with bilingualism. Some Oscan graffiti exists from the 1st century CE, but it is rare to find evidence from Italy of Latin-speaking Roman citizens representing themselves as having non–Latin-speaking ancestors. Oscan speakers came into close contact with

2163-471: Is spelt with i but when written with doubling as a mark of length with ií . Short o remains mostly unchanged, written ú ; before a final -m , o becomes more like u . Long ō becomes denoted by u or uu . Short u generally remains unchanged; after t , d , n , the sound becomes that of iu . Long ū generally remains unchanged; it changed to an ī sound in monosyllables, and may have changed to an ī sound for final syllables. Oscan had

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2266-575: Is the XII century bronze door, the Janua Major, composed of 72 tiles with bas relief, whose fragments were rebuilt after the Second World War. The current monument, with its modern aspect, was completed in 1965 and restored between 2005 and 2012. The castle of Benevento, best known as Rocca dei Rettori or Rocca di Manfredi , stands at the highest point of the town, commanding the valley of

2369-522: Is unknown. From their position in the vastnesses of the central Apennines, they were probably there long before they first appear in history. The early history of the Hirpini cannot be separated from that of the Samnites in general. Their name does not once occur in history during the long protracted struggle between the Romans and the Samnite confederacy (the Samnite Wars ), though their territory

2472-551: Is vouched for by the many remains of antiquity which it possesses, of which the most famous is the triumphal arch erected in honour of Trajan by the senate and people of Rome in 114, with important reliefs relating to its history. Enclosed in the walls, this construction marked the entrance in Benevento of the Via Traiana , the road built by the Spanish emperor to shorten the path from Rome to Brindisi . The reliefs show

2575-593: The Caserta - Foggia railway, has fast connections from Rome to Avellino, Bari and Lecce. Trains to Campobasso have been mostly replaced by bus services. The connection to Naples is ensured by three stations on the MetroCampania NordEst inter-urban metro line. Recently, in May 2021, the company Italo also inaugurated its new route that passes by Benevento and connects the city with Milan (in 5 hours and

2678-797: The Etruscan alphabet, the Central Oscan alphabet was used to write Oscan in Campania and surrounding territories from the 5th century BCE until at least the 1st century CE. Oscan is known from inscriptions dating as far back as the 5th century BCE. The most important Oscan inscriptions are the Tabula Bantina , the Oscan Tablet or Tabula Osca, and the Cippus Abellanus . In Apulia , there

2781-514: The Jewish community was given permission to settle back in town, though 13 years later they were expelled once again after being accused of Well poisoning . Since then, there was no organized Jewish community in Benevento. Nevertheless, Jews had lived in Benevento in an unorganized manner during the past centuries, in addition to a few Israeli Jews living in town in recent years, occasionally suffering of Anti-Semitic incidents. The Arch of Trajan The importance of Benevento in classical times

2884-611: The Latium population. Early Latin texts have been discovered nearby major Oscan settlements. For example, the Garigliano Bowl was found close to Minturnae , less than 40 kilometers from Capua , which was once a large Oscan settlement. Oscan had much in common with Latin , though there are also many striking differences, and many common word-groups in Latin were absent or represented by entirely different forms. For example, Latin volo , velle , volui , and other such forms from

2987-534: The Oscan or Samnite name was Maloeis , or Malieis (Μαλιείς in Ancient Greek ), whence the form Maleventum would derive, like Agrigentum from Acragas (now Agrigento ), Selinuntium from Selinus (the ruins of which are at now Selinunte ), etc. As a Roman colony Beneventum seems to have quickly become a flourishing place; and in the Second Punic War was repeatedly occupied by Roman generals as

3090-716: The Po Valley : the duchy would have been founded in 576 by some soldiers led by Zotto , autonomously from the Lombard king. Zotto's successor was Arechis I (died in 640), from the Duchy of Friuli , who captured Capua and Crotone , sacked the Byzantine Amalfi but was unable to capture Naples . After his reign the Eastern Roman Empire had only Naples, Amalfi, Gaeta, Sorrento, the tip of Calabria and

3193-583: The Porta Aurea, on account of its fair proportions and the wealth and excellence of its sculptural adornments. Other considerable remains There are other considerable remains from ancient era: Many inscriptions and ancient fragments may be seen built into the old houses. In 1903 the foundations of the Temple of Isis were discovered close to the Arch of Trajan, and many fragments of fine sculptures in both

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3296-480: The Proto-Indo-European root *welh₁- ('to will') were represented by words derived from *ǵʰer- ('to desire'): Oscan herest ('(s)he shall want, (s)he shall desire', German cognate 'begehren', Dutch 'begeren', English cognate 'yearn') as opposed to Latin volent (id.). Latin locus (place) was absent and represented by the hapax slaagid (place), which Italian linguist Alberto Manco has linked to

3399-559: The University of Sannio and several research institutes . Epigraphical evidence show that a Jewish community had existed in Benevento since the fifth century at least. At the 10th century, Jewish traveller Ahimaaz ben Paltiel describes in his chronicle the Jewish community of Benevento, among other southern Italy towns. One of his relatives established a Yeshiva in town and a large part of his family ended residing in Benevento. In 1065, prince Landulf IV of Benevento forced

3502-610: The earthquake of 1688 , and rebuilt in Baroque forms by commission of the then cardinal Orsini of Benevento (later Pope Benedict XIII ). The original forms were hidden, and were recovered only after the discussed restoration of 1951. In 2011, it became a UNESCO World Heritage Site as part of a group of seven inscribed as Longobards in Italy, Places of Power (568-774 A.D.) . The Cathedral of Santa Maria Assunta, with its arcaded façade and incomplete square campanile (begun in 1279 by

3605-398: The n is lost) and possibly before nf and nx as well. Anaptyxis , the development of a vowel between a liquid or nasal and another consonant, preceding or following, occurs frequently in Oscan; if the other (non-liquid/nasal) consonant precedes, the new vowel is the same as the preceding vowel. If the other consonant follows, the new vowel is the same as the following vowel. Short

3708-482: The "native" Oscan script, the South Oscan script which was based on Greek, and the ultimately prevailing Roman Oscan script. In coastal zones of Southern Italy, Oscan is thought to have survived three centuries of bilingualism with Greek between 400 and 100 BCE, making it "an unusual case of stable societal bilingualism" wherein neither language became dominant or caused the death of the other; however, over

3811-455: The 11th century saw two more German-descended rulers in southern Italy: Henry II , conquered in 1022 both Capua and Benevento, but returned after the failed siege of Troia . Conrad II obtained similar results in 1038. In these years the three states (Benevento, Capua, and Salerno) were often engaged in local wars and disputes that favoured the rise of the Normans from mercenaries to ruler of

3914-479: The 1990s) by the Christian Democracy . Public sector grew considerably during this period, becoming a prime source of employment for many inhabitants of the province; the town also saw increasing demographic expansion, resulting in a somewhat incontrolled building boom . In recent years, several urban renewal projects have been carried out in the old city centre, and Benevento has become the seat of

4017-547: The Carthaginian garrisons in their towns. The Hirpini next figure in history in the Social War (90 BC), when they were among the first to take up arms against Rome. In the campaign of the following year, (89 BC), Sulla took Aeclanum , one of their strongest cities. The blow struck such terror into the rest that they offered submission, and were admitted to favourable terms. Even before this there appears to have been

4120-687: The Egyptian and the Greco-Roman style belonging to it were found. They had apparently been used as the foundation of a portion of the city wall , reconstructed in 663 under the fear of an attack by the Byzantine emperor Constans II , the temple having been destroyed by order of the bishop, St Barbatus , to provide the necessary material (A. Meomartini, 0. Marucchi and L. Savignoni in Notizie degli Scavi , 1904, 107 sqq.). The church of Santa Sofia

4223-587: The Elder expressly assigns it to the Hirpini , while Livy 's wording is somewhat obscure and Ptolemy considers the town as belonging to the Samnites proper, as distinguished from the Hirpini. All ancient writers concur in representing it as a very ancient city, with Gaius Julius Solinus and Stephanus of Byzantium ascribing its foundation to Diomedes  —  this legend appears to have been adopted by

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4326-466: The Hirpini, among the "Civitates Campaniae", but this is probably a mistake. The national characteristics of the Hirpini cannot be separated from those of other Samnites. It is not always easy to separate the confines of the Hirpini from those of neighbouring Samnite tribes, especially in the Imperial period, when the original distinctions of the tribes were mostly obliterated. Pliny's list of towns in

4429-404: The Latin word originally meant ‘piece (of meat).’ Oscan tangin- "judgement, assent" is ultimately related to English 'think'. Benevento Benevento ( UK : / ˌ b ɛ n ə ˈ v ɛ n t oʊ / BEN -ə- VEN -toh ; US : / ˌ b eɪ n eɪ ˈ -/ BAY -nay- , Italian: [beneˈvɛnto] ; Beneventano : Beneviento [bənəˈvjendə] )

4532-399: The Roman praetor M. Valerius . In 214 BC, their territory was the scene of the operations of Hanno against Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus , and again in 212 BC of those of the same Carthaginian general with a view to the relief of Capua . It was not until 209 BC, when Hannibal lost all footing in the center of Italy, that the Hirpini submitted to Rome, and gained favourable terms by betraying

4635-457: The Samnites, from the ravages of the war, but considerable portions of their territory were confiscated, and it would seem, from a passage in Cicero , that a large part of it passed into the hands of wealthy Roman nobles. By the division of Italy under Augustus , the Hirpini were separated from the other Samnites, and placed in the second Region along with Apulia and Calabria, while Samnium itself

4738-602: The Stellatine tribe. Beneventum retained its importance down to the close of the Empire, and though during the Gothic wars it was taken by Totila , and its walls razed to the ground, they were restored, as well as its public buildings, shortly after; and P. Diaconus speaks of it as a very wealthy city, and the capital of all the surrounding provinces. Beneventum indeed seems to have been a place of much literary cultivation; it

4841-550: The Two Sicilies ( Principato Ultra  [ it ] , Molise , Terra di Lavoro , Capitanata ). In the following decades, the town saw considerable expansion and modernization; the local economy became increasingly diversified, with the traditional agricultural sector (especially the cultivation of tobacco and cereals ) being joined by growing confectionery , mechanical, liquor , lumber and brickmaking industries. During World War II , Benevento's key position in

4944-455: The archaic Etruscan alphabet during the 7th century BCE, but a recognizably Oscan variant of the alphabet is attested only from the 5th century BCE. At the beginning of the 3rd century BCE its sign inventory was extended over the classical Etruscan alphabet by the introduction of lowered variants of I and U, transcribed as Í and Ú. Ú came to be used to represent Oscan /o/, while U was used for /u/ as well as historical long */oː/, which had undergone

5047-543: The archbishop Romano Capodiferro) dates from the 9th century. It was rebuilt in 1114, the façade inspired by the Pisan Gothic style. Its bronze doors, adorned with bas-reliefs , are notable example of Romanesque art which may belong to the beginning of the 13th century. The interior is in the form of a basilica , the double aisles carried on ancient columns. There are ambones resting on columns supported by lions, and decorated with reliefs and coloured marble mosaic, and

5150-594: The border with Apulia, in the eastern portion of the Hirpinian territory. In the valley of the River Tamarus, which was mentioned as being 5 miles above Beneventum in the Itinerary of Antoninus , there was Ligures Baebiani et Corneliani , a colony of Ligurians relocated in the heart of this mountain region by the Romans in 180 BC. It continued to exist as a separate community in the days of Pliny. Three of

5253-615: The calamities which at that time befell so many cities of Samnium; towards the close of the Roman Republic Benevento is described as one of the most opulent and flourishing cities of Italy. Under the Second Triumvirate its territory was portioned out by the Triumvirs to their veterans, and subsequently a fresh colony was established there by Augustus , who greatly enlarged its domain by the addition of

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5356-454: The central area of the Biferno river in the neighboring region of Molise , seeking to expand their political dominance. Benevento was acclaimed by a chronicler as a "second Pavia"— Ticinum geminum —after the Lombard capital was lost. This principality was short-lived: in 851, Salerno broke off under Siconulf and, by the end of that century, Capua was independent as well. Benevento

5459-848: The central chain of the Apennines along with nearby Monte Vulture , an extinct volcano located on the eastern shore of the Ofanto River. Bolle della Malvizza  [ it ] , in the Miscano Valley  [ it ] , is a mud volcano instead. The country of the Hirpini, despite its rugged, mountainous character, was traversed by several Roman roads, all of which connected to the Via Appia . The main line of that road went from Capua to Beneventum. There, it branched into two, one to Aeclanum , and Aquilonia, Venusia (modern Venosa ), and then to Tarentum (modern Taranto ). This

5562-470: The city in order to discuss peace terms, however, Roger refused to enter the city, for he felt unsafe within the city. Thus the two instead met on a bridge near Benevento. Only a year later, the city revolted against the Papal rule and Honorius had to beg Roger for assistance. In 1130, Anacletus II fled from Rome to the safety of Benevento after hearing that his rival, Innocent II was gaining recognition in

5665-477: The city's inhabitants, who in the time of Procopius pretended to exhibit the tusks of the Calydonian Boar as proof of their descent. Sextus Pompeius Festus , on the contrary ( s. v. Ausoniam), related that the city was founded by Auson, a son of Ulysses and Circe , a tradition which indicates that it was an ancient Ausonian city prior to its conquest by the Samnites. It first appears in history as

5768-478: The civil and military deeds of Trajan. A great part of the arch is decorated with scenes in bas relief: particularly the pillars directed to the town represent scenes of peace and military scenes. The two faces of the Arch are identical in the arrangement of the reliefs. That the reliefs are for the most part not merely fanciful, nor chiefly conventional and decorative in theme and treatment, is also clear at first sight. They plainly refer to actual events and actions in

5871-419: The civil war, Benevento sided with Robert and ousted Anacletus's supporters from the city. Manfred of Sicily lost his life in 1266 in battle with Charles of Anjou not far from the town, in the course of the Battle of Benevento . After the unification of Italy , Benevento was made provincial capital of the new Province of Benevento , comprising territories formerly belonging to the dissolved Kingdom of

5974-427: The clusters ηι and ωϝ denote the diphthongs /ei/ and /ou/ respectively while ει and oυ are saved to denote monophthongs /iː/ and /uː/ of the native alphabet. At other times, ει and oυ are used to denote diphthongs, in which case o denotes the /uː/ sound. When written in the Latin alphabet, the Oscan Z does not represent [ts] but instead [z] , which is not written differently from [s] in

6077-403: The consul Manius Curius Dentatus . Six years later (268 BC) they further sought to secure its possession by establishing there a Roman colony with Latin rights. It was at this time that it first assumed the name of Beneventum, having previously been called Maleventum, a name which the Romans regarded as of evil augury, and changed into one of a more fortunate signification. It is probable that

6180-465: The course of the Roman period , both Oscan and Greek were progressively effaced from Southern Italy, excepting the controversial possibility of Griko representing a continuation of ancient dialects of Greek. Oscan's usage declined following the Social War . Graffiti in towns across the Oscan speech area indicate it remained in colloquial usage. One piece of evidence that supports the colloquial usage of

6283-425: The east and south bordered on the territories of Aeclanum (now Mirabella Eclano ) and Abellinum (now Avellino ). An inscription has preserved to us the names of several of the pagi or villages dependent upon Beneventum, but their sites cannot be identified. The city's most ancient coins bear the legend "Malies" or "Maliesa", which have been supposed to belong to the Samnite, or pre-Samnite, Maleventum. Coins with

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6386-509: The entrance. The church has a fine cloister of the 12th century, constructed in part of fragments of earlier buildings. This cloister today is the location of the Museo del Sannio. The church interior was once totally frescoed by Byzantine artists: fragments of these paintings, portraying the Histories of Christ , can be still seen in the two side apses. Santa Sofia was almost destroyed by

6489-861: The following categories: Present, future and future perfect forms in the active voice use the following set of personal endings: Imperfect, perfect indicative and all tenses of the subjunctive in the active voice use a different set of endings: Passive endings are attested only for the 3rd person: singular -ter , plural -nter . Perfect stems are derived from the present stem in different ways. Latin -vī- and -s- perfects are not attested in Oscan. Instead, Oscan uses its own set of forms, including reduplicated perfects such as deded 'gave', -tt- suffix as in prúfa-tt-ed 'approved', -k- suffix as in kella-k-ed 'collected, and -f- suffix as in aíkda-f-ed 'rebuilt'. Some verbs also use suppletive forms. Other tenses are formed by suffixation: The following non-finite forms are attested (all of them are based on

6592-473: The following diphthongs: The sounds of diphthongs remain unchanged from the Proto-Indo-European origins. The consonant inventory of Oscan is as follows: In Oscan, s between vowels did not undergo rhotacism as it did in Latin and Umbrian; but it was voiced, becoming the sound /z/ . However, between vowels, the original cluster rs developed either to a simple r with lengthening on

6695-443: The general name of Samnites, without distinguishing between the several tribes of that people. For the same reason we can't fix the exact period when the Romans subjugated them, but it must have been before 268 BC, when the Romans established their colony at Beneventum, a position that likely was the military key to the possession of their country. In the Second Punic War , the Hirpini appear as an independent people, acting apart from

6798-541: The known Italic languages , and among attested Indo-European languages it is rivaled only by Greek in the retention of the inherited vowel system with the diphthongs intact. Oscan was originally written in a specific "Oscan alphabet", one of the Old Italic scripts derived from (or cognate with) the Etruscan alphabet . Later inscriptions are written in the Greek and Latin alphabets . The Osci probably adopted

6901-410: The land within the boundaries where the temple of Hercules stands in the middle, may the senate allow him to build outside of the walls that encircle the sanctuary of Hercules, across the road leads there. And a building that a man from Nola builds, shall be of use by the people of Nola. And a building that a man from Abella builds, shall be of use by the people of Abella. But beyond the wall that encircle

7004-402: The language is the presence of Oscan graffiti on walls of Pompeii that were reconstructed after the earthquake of 62 CE , which must therefore have been written between 62 and 79 CE. Other scholars argue that this is not strong evidence for the survival of Oscan as an official language in the area, given the disappearance of public inscriptions in Oscan after Roman colonization. It

7107-417: The legend "BENVENTOD" (an old Latin – or Samnite – form for Beneventor-um), must have been struck after it became a Latin colony. Not long after it had been sacked by Totila and its walls razed (545), Benevento became the seat of a powerful Lombard duchy . The circumstances of the creation of duchy of Benevento are disputed. Lombards were present in southern Italy well before the complete conquest of

7210-480: The life of Trajan, whose effigy, sometimes decapitated, appears in all but two of them, one of which is the only one on all the Arch that is substantially defective. The height of the monument is of 15.6 metres (51 ft), with an arch of 8 m (26 ft), a structure composed of limestone rocks and a marble covering. The arch was put during the Middle Age in the fenced area of the town, in order to represent

7313-492: The maritime cities of Apulia left in southern Italy. In the following decades, Benevento added some territories to the Roman-Byzantine duchy by conquest, but the main enemy was now the northern Lombard Kingdom itself. King Liutprand intervened several times, imposing a candidate of his own to the realm's succession; his successor Ratchis declared the duchies of Spoleto and Benevento to be foreign countries where it

7416-451: The minor towns of the Hirpini were mentioned by Livy as having been retaken by the praetor M. Valerius in 215 BC; but the names given in the manuscripts, Vescellium, Vercellium, and Sicilinum, are probably corrupted. They are otherwise unknown, except for Vescellium, which is also found in Pliny's list of towns and should be placed in the far north, on the way to Luceria . Fratulum, whose name

7519-410: The native alphabet. When Oscan inscriptions are quoted, it is conventional to transliterate those in the "Oscan" alphabet into Latin boldface , those in the "Latin" alphabet into Latin italics , and those in the "Greek" alphabet into the modern Greek alphabet. Letters of all three alphabets are represented in lower case. Vowels are regularly lengthened before ns and nct (in the latter of which

7622-408: The north. When Anacletus created Roger the king of Sicily , he granted Roger the right to conscript the citizens of the city into military service, despite city itself remaining under Papal rule. The declaration was not well received, as the citizens became afraid that the city was about to be annexed into the newly found kingdom. Therefore, when Roger made his move against Robert of Capua and began

7725-446: The other by Aeclanum to Venusia (now Venosa ) and Tarentum (now Taranto ). Its wealth is also evidenced by the quantity of coins minted by Beneventum. Horace famously notes Beneventum on his journey from Rome to Brundusium (now Brindisi ). It was indebted to the same circumstance for the honor of repeated visits from the emperors of Rome, among which those of Nero, Trajan , and Septimus Severus, are particularly recorded. It

7828-526: The papacy peacefully when the emperor Henry III ceded it to Leo IX , in exchange for the pope's consent to the establishment of the Diocese of Bamberg (1053). Landulf II, Archbishop of Benevento , promoted reform, but also allied with the Normans. He was deposed for two years. Benevento was the cornerstone of the papacy's temporal powers in southern Italy. The papacy ruled it by appointed rectors, seated in

7931-441: The preceding vowel, or to a long rr (as in Latin), and at the end of a word, original rs becomes r just as in Latin. Unlike in Latin, the s is not dropped, either Oscan or Umbrian, from the consonant clusters sm , sn , sl : Umbrian `sesna "dinner," Oscan kersnu vs Latin cēna . Oscan nouns can have one of the seven cases: nominative , vocative , accusative , genitive , dative , ablative and locative (the latter

8034-1475: The present stem): Ekkum svaí píd herieset trííbarak avúm tereí púd liímítúm pernúm púís herekleís fíísnú mefiú íst, ehtrad feíhúss pús herekleís fíísnam amfret, pert víam pússt íst paí íp íst, pústin slagím senateís suveís tanginúd tríbarakavúm líkítud. íním íúk tríbarakkiuf pam núvlanús tríbarakattuset íúk tríbarakkiuf íním úíttiuf abellanúm estud. avt púst feíhúís pús físnam amfret, eíseí tereí nep abellanús nep núvlanús pídum tríbarakattíns. avt thesavrúm púd eseí tereí íst, pún patensíns, múíníkad tanginúd patensíns, íním píd eíseí thesavreí púkkapíd eestit aíttíúm alttram alttrús herríns. avt anter slagím abellanam íním núvlanam súllad víú uruvú íst. pedú íst eísaí víaí mefiaí teremenniú staíet. In Latin : Item si quid volent aedificare in territorio quod limitibus tenus quibus Herculis fanum medium est, extra muros, qui Herculis fanum ambiunt, [per] viam positum est, quae ibi est, pro finibus senatus sui sententia, aedificare liceto. Et id aedificium quam Nolani aedificaverint, id aedificium et usus Abellanorum esto. At post muros qui fanum ambiunt, in eo territorio nec Avellani nec Nolani quidquam aedificaverint. At thesaurum qui in eo territorio est, cum paterent, communi sententia paterent, et quidquid in eo thesauro quandoque extat, portionum alteram alteri caperent. At inter fines Abellanos et Nolanos ubique via curva est, [pedes] est in ea via media termina stant. In English: And if anyone shall want to build on

8137-520: The railway communications between Rome and Apulia resulted in the town being heavily bombed by the Allied air forces in the summer of 1943. These raids caused 2,000 deaths and left 18,000 homeless out of a population of 40,000, and resulted in the destruction of half of the town. The railway and industrial districts were hit the hardest, but the old city centre also suffered heavily; the Cathedral

8240-421: The rest of the Samnites. Livy expressly uses the name of Samnium in contradistinction to the land of the Hirpini. The latter people was one of those that declared in favour of Hannibal immediately after the battle of Cannae , 216 BC; but the Roman colony of Beneventum never fell into the hands of the Carthaginian general. As early as the following year, three of the smaller towns of the Hirpini were recovered by

8343-467: The rivers Sabato and Calore, and the two main ancient roads Via Appia and Via Traiana. The site had been already used by the Samnites, who had constructed here a set of defensive terraces, and the Romans, with a thermal plant ( Castellum aquae ), whose remains can be still seen in the castle garden. The Benedictines had a monastery there. It received the current name in the Middle Ages, when it became

8446-486: The sake of the public welfare, (6) rather than out of favor or malice toward anyone; and that too in accordance with the judgment of the majority of the senate. The presiding magistrate whose assembly is prevented in this way shall not hold the assembly on this day. Notes: Oscan carn- “part, piece” is related to Latin carn- “meat” (seen in English ‘carnivore’), from an Indo-European root *ker- meaning ‘cut’―apparently

8549-1437: The sanctuary, in that territory neither the Abellans nor the Nolans may build anything. But the treasury that is in that territory, when it is opened it shall be opened following a shared decision, and whatever is in that treasury, they shall share equally amongst them. But the road that as between the borders of Abella and Nola is a communal road. The boundaries stand in the middle of this road. out of six paragraphs in total, lines 3-8 (the first couple lines are too damaged to be clearly legible): (3) … deiuast maimas carneis senateis tanginud am … (4) XL osiins, pon ioc egmo comparascuster. Suae pis pertemust, pruter pan … (5) deiuatud sipus comenei, perum dolum malum, siom ioc comono mais egmas touti- (6)cas amnud pan pieisum brateis auti cadeis amnud; inim idic siom dat senates (7) tanginud maimas carneis pertumum. Piei ex comono pertemest, izic eizeic zicelei (8) comono ni hipid. In Latin: (3) … iurabit maximae partis senatus sententia [dummodo non minus] (4) XL adsint, cum ea res consulta erit. Si quis peremerit, prius quam peremerit, (5) iurato sciens in committio sine dolo malo, se ea comitia magis rei publicae causa, (6) quam cuiuspiam gratiae aut inimicitiae causa; idque se de senatus (7) sententia maximae partis perimere. Cui sic comitia perimet (quisquam),

8652-510: The sculptures are in the British Museum . Successive emperors seem to have bestowed on the city accessions of territory, and erected, or at least given name to, various public buildings. For administrative purposes it was first included, together with the rest of the Hirpini, in the second region of Augustus, but was afterwards annexed to Campania and placed under the control of the consular of that province. Its inhabitants were included in

8755-1038: The seat of the Papal governors, the Rettori . The castle is in fact made by two distinct edifices: the Torrione ("Big Tower"), which was built by the Lombards starting from 871, and the Palazzo dei Governatori, built by the Popes from 1320. Frazioni , or wards, include: Acquafredda, Cancelleria, Capodimonte, Caprarella, Cardoncielli, Cardoni, Cellarulo, Chiumiento, Ciancelle, Ciofani, Cretazzo, Epitaffio, Francavilla, Gran Potenza, Imperatore, Lammia, Madonna della Salute, Masseria del Ponte, Masseria La Vipera, Mascambruni, Montecalvo, Olivola, Pacevecchia, Pamparuottolo, Pantano, Perrottiello, Piano Cappelle, Pino, Ponte Corvo, Rosetiello, Ripa Zecca, Roseto, Santa Clementina, San Chirico, San Cumano (anc. Nuceriola ), San Domenico, San Giovanni

8858-506: The second region of Italy is more than usually obscure, and those of the Hirpini and Apulia confused in a most perplexing manner. Towns assigned with certainty to the Hirpini include: Beneventum (although both Livy and Ptolemy consider it as belonging to the Samnites proper, as distinguished from the Hirpini), Aeclanum , Abellinum , Compsa , Aquilonia , Trivicum , Aequum Tuticum , and Vescellium  [ it ] . Beneventum

8961-654: The site of the ancient Beneventum , originally Maleventum or even earlier Maloenton . Its former Latin name translates to "good" or "fair wind". In the imperial period it was supposedly founded by Diomedes after the Trojan War . Due to its artistic and cultural significance, the Santa Sofia Church in Benevento was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2011, as part of a group of seven historic buildings inscribed as Longobards in Italy, Places of Power (568–774 A.D.) . The patron saint of Benevento

9064-478: The territory of Caudium (now Montesarchio ). A third colony was settled there by Nero , at which time it assumed the title of Concordia ; hence we find it bearing, in inscriptions of the reign of Septimius Severus , the titles Colonia Julia Augusta Concordia Felix Beneventum . Its importance and flourishing condition under the Roman Empire is sufficiently attested by existing remains and inscriptions; it

9167-585: The territory were Via Herculia  [ it ] , Via Aurelia Aeclanensis  [ it ] and Via Aemilia in Hirpinis  [ it ] . Oscan language Oscan is an extinct Indo-European language of southern Italy . The language is in the Osco-Umbrian or Sabellic branch of the Italic languages . Oscan is therefore a close relative of Umbrian and South Picene . Oscan

9270-511: The whole of Southern Italy. The greatest of them was Robert Guiscard , who captured Benevento in 1053 after the Emperor Henry III had first authorised its conquest in 1047 when Pandulf III and Landulf VI shut the gates to him. These princes were later expelled from the city and then recalled after the pope failed to defend it from Guiscard. The city fell to Normans in 1077. It was a papal city until after 1081. Benevento passed to

9373-619: Was almost completely destroyed, and its reconstruction was only completed in the 1960s. After being briefly occupied by the Germans in the wake of the Armistice of Cassibile , Benevento was liberated by the Allies on 2 October 1943. Four years after the war, on 2 October 1949, Benevento was hit hard by a flood of the Calore Irpino . During the 1950s Benevento was mainly ruled by Monarchist or MSI mayors, and then for three decades (until

9476-493: Was at that period unquestionably the chief city of the Hirpini, and probably, next to Capua, the most populous and considerable city of southern Italy. For this prosperity it was doubtless indebted in part to its position on the Via Appia, just at the junction of the two principal arms or branches of that great road, the one called afterwards the Via Traiana , leading thence by Aequum Tuticum (now Ariano Irpino ) into Apulia ;

9579-694: Was forbidden to travel without royal permission. With the collapse of the Lombard Kingdom in 773, Duke Arechis II was elevated to Prince under the new Frankish Empire , in compensation for having some of his territory transferred back to the Papal States . In November 774, the Duke of Benevento Duke Arechis II , immediately after being crowned prince, decided to send members of the Benevento Cortisani and Baccari families to occupy

9682-421: Was included in the fourth Region. The same separation was retained also in the later divisions of Italy under the Roman Empire , according to which Samnium, in the more confined sense, formed a small separate province, while Beneventum and the greater part, if not all other towns of the Hirpini, were included in the province of Campania. The Liber Coloniarum includes all the towns of Samnium, as well as those of

9785-516: Was of very considerable extent. Towards the west it included that of Caudium , with the exception of the town itself; to the north it extended as far as the river Tamarus (now Tammaro ), including the village of Pago Veiano , which, as we learn from an inscription, was anciently called Pagus Veianus ; on the northeast it comprised the town of Aequum Tuticum (now Saint Eleutherio hamlet , between Ariano Irpino and Castelfranco in Miscano ), and on

9888-432: Was often the theatre of the war, and several of their cities, especially Maloenton (Roman Maleventum , modern Benevento ), are repeatedly mentioned as bearing an important part in the military operations of both powers. Hence, the Hirpini at this time must have formed an integral part of the Samnite league, and were included by the Roman annalists (whose language on such points Livy follows with scrupulous fidelity) under

9991-525: Was probably for the same reason that the triumphal arch , the Arch of Trajan , was erected there by the senate and people of Rome and constructed by the architect Apollodorus of Damascus in 114. The Arch of Trajan is one of the best-preserved Roman structures in the Campania. It repeats the formula of the Arch of Titus in the Roman Forum , with reliefs of Trajan 's life and exploits of his reign. Some of

10094-576: Was ruled again by the Byzantines between 891 and 895. The so-called Langobardia minor was unified for the last time by Duke Pandolfo Testa di Ferro , who expanded his extensive control in the Mezzogiorno from his base in Benevento and Capua . Before his death (March 981), he had also gained the title of Duke of Spoleto from Emperor Otto I . However, both Benevento and Salerno rebelled to his son and heir, Pandulf II . The first decades of

10197-689: Was spoken by a number of tribes, including the Samnites , the Aurunci ( Ausones ), and the Sidicini . The latter two tribes were often grouped under the name " Osci ". The Oscan group is part of the Osco-Umbrian or Sabellic family, and includes the Oscan language and three variants ( Hernican , Marrucinian and Paelignian ) known only from inscriptions left by the Hernici , Marrucini and Paeligni , minor tribes of eastern central Italy. Adapted from

10300-464: Was stormed and taken by the Roman consul Quintus Fulvius Flaccus . And though its territory was more than once laid waste by the Carthaginians, it was still one of the eighteen Latin colonies which in 209 BCE were at once able and willing to furnish the required quota of men and money for continuing the war. No mention of it occurs during the Social War , although it seems to have escaped from

10403-460: Was the birthplace of Lucius Orbilius Pupillus , who long continued to teach in his native city before he removed to Rome, and was honored with a statue by his fellow-townsmen; while existing inscriptions record similar honors paid to another grammarian, Rutilius Aelianus , as well as to orators and poets, apparently only of local celebrity. The territory of Beneventum under the Roman Empire

10506-679: Was the most important city in this part of Italy, and was often referred to as a Samnite town. Pliny called it the only Roman colony in Hirpini territory. Aeclanum was a flourishing and important town close to the heart of the Hirpini territory. Abellinum was on the border with Campania, and near the sources of the River Sabatus. Compsa (modern Conza ) was near the head waters of the River Aufidus (Ofanto), and bordered with Lucania. Aquilonia (modern Lacedonia ), Trivicum , Aequum Tuticum and Vescellium  [ it ] were near

10609-612: Was the proper Via Appia. The other branch, known from the time of Trajan (who first made it safe for carriages) as the Via Trajana went from Beneventum through Forum Novum (modern Buonalbergo ), Aequum Tuticum ( Saint Eleuterio near Ariano Irpino ), Aecae in Apulia, and then through Herdonea and Canusium (modern Canosa di Puglia ) to Brundusium (modern Brindisi ). The course of these roads through Hirpini land has been traced with care by Mommsen. Other notable Roman roads in

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