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110-540: King Jayabaya is credited with the reunification of the Kediri Kingdom following a division caused by the death of his predecessor, Airlangga . Known for his just and prosperous rule, King Jayabaya was reputed to be an incarnation of the Hindu deity Vishnu . He epitomized the archetypal Ratu Adil , the just king who is reborn during a "Jaman Edan" (Era of Madness)—a dark age of suffering—to restore Jaman Raharja :

220-531: A special autonomous status ( otonomi khusus ) from the central government. Aceh, a conservative Islamic territory , has the right to create some aspects of an independent legal system implementing sharia . Yogyakarta is the only pre-colonial monarchy legally recognised within Indonesia, with the positions of governor and vice governor being prioritised for the reigning Sultan of Yogyakarta and Duke of Pakualaman , respectively. The six Papuan provinces are

330-590: A Buddhist monastery named Srivijayasrama dedicated to his queen consort Dharmaprasadottungadewi. The monastery bearing the name of Srivijaya suggests that his queen consort was probably a Srivijayan princess, a close relative, probably the daughter, of the Srivijayan king Sangramavijayattungavarman. She had taken refuge in East Java after her father was taken prisoner and her kingdom was raided through series of Indian Chola raids. The king seems to be sympathetic to

440-462: A dividing line ( Wallace Line ) between the distribution of Indonesia's Asian and Australasian species. It runs roughly north–south along the edge of the Sunda Shelf, between Kalimantan and Sulawesi, and along the deep Lombok Strait , between Lombok and Bali. Flora and fauna on the west of the line are generally Asian, while east from Lombok is increasingly Australian until the tipping point at

550-720: A legislature ( DPRD Kabupaten/Kota ). The third level are the districts ( kecamatan , distrik in Papua , or kapanewon and kemantren in Yogyakarta ), and the fourth are the villages (either desa , kelurahan , kampung , nagari in West Sumatra , or gampong in Aceh ). The village is the lowest level of government administration. It is divided into several community groups ( rukun warga , RW), which are further divided into neighbourhood groups ( rukun tetangga , RT). In Java,

660-650: A life of meditation as a Hindu recluse, seeking moksha (spiritual liberation) and embracing his role as an incarnation of Vishnu. He retreated to the village of Menang, in the Pagu sub-district of Kediri Regency, which remains a revered pilgrimage site according to the Kejawen belief system. In later history, both Sukarno and Suharto meditated extensively in Menang to seek an aura of kingly legitimacy, supernatural abilities, and Jayabaya's blessings or powers. Ratu Jayabaya

770-487: A longer term target to further increase the coverage of its marine protected areas to 10% of its territorial waters, or 31 million hectares. Indonesia is a republic with a presidential system. Following the fall of the New Order in 1998, political and governmental structures have undergone sweeping reforms, with four constitutional amendments revamping the executive, legislative and judicial branches. Chief among them

880-617: A new kingdom, and made peace with Srivijaya. The new kingdom was called the Kingdom of Kahuripan, the location of his capital, and stretched from Pasuruan in the east to Madiun in the west. In 1025, Airlangga increased the power and influence of Kahuripan as the Srivijaya Empire began to decline. Airlangga was known for his religious tolerance and was a patron of both the Hindu and Buddhist religions. In 1035 Airlangga constructed

990-545: A press bureau in the Netherlands, Indonesisch Pers-bureau . Fossilised remains of Homo erectus , popularly known as the " Java Man ", suggest the Indonesian archipelago was inhabited two million to 500,000 years ago. Homo sapiens reached the region around 43,000 BCE. Austronesian peoples , who form the majority of the modern population, migrated to Southeast Asia from what is now Taiwan. They arrived in

1100-516: A prophetic book that played an influential role during the Japanese occupation. According to a selectively abridged set of stanzas within a Jayabaya prophecy (as all are extremely long epic poems): The Javanese would be ruled by whites for 3 centuries and by yellow dwarfs for the life span of a maize plant prior to the return of the Ratu Adil: whose name must contain at least one syllable of

1210-478: A range of sea and coastal ecosystems, including beaches , dunes, estuaries, mangroves, coral reefs, seagrass beds, coastal mudflats, tidal flats, algal beds, and small island ecosystems. Indonesia is one of the Coral Triangle countries with the world's most enormous diversity of coral reef fish , with more than 1,650 species in eastern Indonesia only. British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace described

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1320-552: A scandal or not even taken place. This suspicion was because although Airlangga was the eldest son of Mahendradatta, curiously he was not chosen as the crown prince of Bali, his younger brother Marakata and later Anak Wungçu rose to the Balinese throne instead. Moreover, Mahendradatta sent Airlangga back to Java during his teenage years. Mahendradatta was known to be promoting the cult of Durga in Bali, and curiously later associated with

1430-472: A terrible calamity that befell the East Javanese kingdom of Ishana dynasty in the early years of the 11th century. In 1006, a rebellion incited by a vassal king Wurawari from Lwaram destroyed the capital of Watugaluh. The reigning king, Dharmawangsa, successor to Sri Makutawangsawardhana, was murdered along with his entire family and many of his subjects. Only the young Airlangga, who was aged about 16 at

1540-471: A time of social justice, order, and harmony. The Javanese believed in a cyclical history, where epochs of prosperity ( Jaman Raharja ) are followed by eras of suffering ( Jaman Edan ), eventually returning to prosperity again. Jayabaya named his kingdom Widarba, meaning "a thousand cities," centered in Pamenang, modern-day Kediri Regency. Records, blending fact and myth, indicate that his father, Gendrayana

1650-520: A wealth of Asian fauna. Large species such as the Sumatran tiger , rhinoceros, orangutan, Asian elephant , and leopard were once abundant as far east as Bali, but numbers and distribution have dwindled drastically. Having been long separated from the continental landmasses, Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara, and Maluku have developed their unique flora and fauna. Papua was part of the Australian landmass and

1760-569: Is US$ 15,835, while nominal per capita GDP is US$ 5,108. Services are the economy's largest sector and account for 43.4% of GDP (2018), followed by industry (39.7%) and agriculture (12.8%). Since 2009, it has employed more people than other sectors, accounting for 47.7% of the total labour force, followed by agriculture (30.2%) and industry (21.9%). Over time, the structure of the economy has changed considerably. Historically, it has been weighted heavily towards agriculture, reflecting both its stage of economic development and government policies in

1870-649: Is a founding member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations ( ASEAN ) and the East Asia Summit . In common with most of the Muslim world , Indonesia does not have diplomatic relations with Israel and has actively supported Palestine . However, observers have pointed out that Indonesia has ties with Israel, albeit discreetly. Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950 and

1980-404: Is believed to have caused a global volcanic winter and cooling of the climate and subsequently led to a genetic bottleneck in human evolution, though this is still in debate. The 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora and the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa were among the largest in recorded history. The former caused 92,000 deaths and created an umbrella of volcanic ash that spread and blanketed parts of

2090-536: Is elected for a five-year term, as are the party-aligned members of the DPR and the non-partisan DPD. Beginning with the 2015 local elections , elections for governors and mayors have occurred on the same date. In 2014, the Constitutional Court ruled that legislative and presidential elections would be held simultaneously, starting in 2019. Indonesia has several levels of subdivisions. The first level are

2200-403: Is generally below average in both regional and global context. Indonesia has one of the world's fastest deforestation rates. In 2020, forests covered approximately 49.1% of the country's land area, down from 87% in 1950. Since the 1970s, log production, various plantations and agriculture have been responsible for much of the deforestation in Indonesia . Most recently, it has been driven by

2310-754: Is highly unstable, making it a site of numerous volcanoes and frequent earthquakes. It lies on the Pacific Ring of Fire , where the Indo-Australian Plate and the Pacific Plate are pushed under the Eurasian Plate , where they melt at about 100 kilometres (62 miles) deep. A string of volcanoes runs through Sumatra, Java , Bali and Nusa Tenggara , and then to the Banda Islands of Maluku to northeastern Sulawesi . Of

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2420-495: Is home to a unique fauna and flora closely related to that of Australia, including over 600 bird species. Indonesia is second only to Australia in terms of total endemic species, with 36% of its 1,531 species of bird and 39% of its 515 species of mammal being endemic. Indonesia harbours 83% of Southeast Asia's old-growth forest , and the highest amount of forest carbon in the region. Tropical seas surround Indonesia's 80,000 kilometres (50,000 miles) of coastline. The country has

2530-605: Is most famous for the oracles or prophecies attributed to him, including the Serat Jayabaya Musarar , Serat Pranitiwakya , and some others that remain debated. The mangala ( prologue ) of the renowned Kakawin Bhāratayuddha names King Jayabaya as the patron of the two poets, Mpu Sedah and Mpu Panuluh, who authored the work. Jayabaya is also credited as the author of the Prelambang Jayabaya ,

2640-563: Is some policy recognition of OECMs but no national mechanism for reporting them. There are 55 national parks in Indonesia, of which 9 are predominantly marine . Of these 6 are World Heritage Sites , such as the Tropical Rainforest Heritage of Sumatra that includes three parks. Seven national parks are part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves and 5 are wetlands of international importance under

2750-555: Is the delegation of power and authority to various regional entities while remaining a unitary state . The President of Indonesia is the head of state and head of government , commander-in-chief of the Indonesian National Armed Forces ( Tentara Nasional Indonesia , TNI), and the director of domestic governance, policy-making, and foreign affairs. The president may serve a maximum of two consecutive five-year terms. The highest representative body at

2860-498: Is the world's fourth-most-populous country and the most populous Muslim-majority country . Java, the world's most populous island , is home to more than half of the country's population. Indonesia is a presidential republic with an elected legislature . It has 38 provinces , of which nine have special autonomous status . The country's largest city, Jakarta , is the world's second-most-populous urban area . Indonesia shares land borders with Papua New Guinea , East Timor , and

2970-426: The 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake . Indonesia's size, tropical climate, and archipelagic geography support one of the world's highest levels of biodiversity , and it is among the 17 megadiverse countries identified by Conservation International . Its flora and fauna are a mixture of Asian and Australasian species. The Sunda Shelf islands (Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and Bali) were once linked to mainland Asia and have

3080-639: The Army (TNI–AD), Navy (TNI–AL, which includes Marine Corps ), and Air Force (TNI–AU). The army has about 400,000 active-duty personnel. Defence spending in the national budget was 0.7% of gross domestic product (GDP) in 2018, with controversial involvement of military-owned commercial interests and foundations. The Armed Forces were formed during the Indonesian National Revolution when it undertook guerrilla warfare along with informal militia. Since then, territorial lines have formed

3190-564: The Bali Strait to stay in Java and later ruled the kingdom in East Java. He belongs to both Ishana and Warmadewa lineages. Airlangga was born from a dynastic marriage between Ishana of Java and Warmadewa of Bali . His mother, queen Mahendradatta , was a princess of the Ishana dynasty , the sister of King Dharmawangsa of Mataram , while his father, King Udayana Warmadewa of Bali,

3300-495: The Bali myna , Sumatran orangutan , and Javan rhinoceros . Some academics describe the deforestation and other environmental destruction in the country as an ecocide . As of 2023, the government of Indonesia has gazetted 21.3% of the country's land as protected areas , with the intention of developing a new protected area strategy in line with global post-2020 framework . The country also has 411 marine reserves , or 9% of

3410-611: The Constitutional Court ( Mahkamah Konstitusi ) which listens to constitutional and political matters, and the Religious Court ( Pengadilan Agama ), which deals with codified Islamic Personal Law ( sharia ) cases. Additionally, the Judicial Commission ( Komisi Yudisial ) monitors the performance of judges. Since 1999, Indonesia has had a multi-party system. In all legislative elections since

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3520-471: The Consumer Price Index have contributed to strong economic growth in recent years. From 2007 to 2019, annual growth accelerated to between 4% and 6% due to improvements in the banking sector and domestic consumption, helping Indonesia weather the 2008–2009 Great Recession , and regain in 2011 the investment grade rating it had lost in 1997. As of 2019 , 9.41% of the population lived below

3630-617: The Japanese invasion and occupation ended Dutch rule and encouraged the independence movement. Two days after the surrender of Japan in August 1945, influential nationalist leaders Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta issued the Proclamation of Indonesian Independence . Sukarno, Hatta, and Sutan Sjahrir were appointed president, vice-president, and prime minister, respectively. The Netherlands attempted to re-establish their rule. In

3740-733: The Maluku Islands . Dutch and British traders followed. In 1602, the Dutch established the Dutch East India Company ( Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie ; VOC) and became the dominant European power for almost 200 years. The VOC was dissolved in 1799 following bankruptcy, and the Netherlands established the Dutch East Indies as a nationalised colony. For most of the colonial period , Dutch control over

3850-512: The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation . The name Indonesia derives from the Greek words Indos ( Ἰνδός ) and nesos ( νῆσος ), meaning "Indian islands". The name dates back to the 19th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl , an English ethnologist , proposed the terms Indunesians —and, his preference, Malayunesians —for

3960-556: The Prosperous Justice Party (PKS). The first general election was held in 1955 to elect members of the DPR and the Constitutional Assembly ( Konstituante ). The most recent elections in 2019 resulted in nine political parties in the DPR, with a parliamentary threshold of 4% of the national vote. At the national level, Indonesians did not elect a president until 2004. Since then, the president

4070-529: The Ramsar convention . Around 9% of the Indonesia surface are national parks. As of 2012 Indonesia had over 100 marine protected areas covering an area of 15.7 million ha, of which 32 where managed by the Ministry of Forestry while the rest where managed by local governments. In 2009 the president Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono declared a target of reaching 20 million hectares by 2020. In 2010 Indonesia also set out

4180-598: The Republic of Indonesia , is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania , between the Indian and Pacific oceans. It consists of over 17,000 islands , including Sumatra , Java , Sulawesi , and parts of Borneo and New Guinea . Indonesia is the world's largest archipelagic state and the 14th-largest country by area , at 1,904,569 square kilometres (735,358 square miles). With over 280 million people, Indonesia

4290-715: The UNHRC have raised the issue of human rights abuses committed by Indonesian troops in Papua such as extrajudicial killings and forced disappearances. Past engagements of the army include the conflict against the Netherlands over the Dutch New Guinea , the opposition to the British -sponsored creation of Malaysia (" Konfrontasi "), the mass killings of the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI), and

4400-489: The Weber Line . In his 1869 book, The Malay Archipelago , Wallace described numerous species unique to the area. The region of islands between his line and New Guinea is now termed Wallacea . Indonesia's large and growing population and rapid industrialisation present serious environmental issues . They are often given a lower priority due to high poverty levels and weak, under-resourced governance. Problems include

4510-489: The eastern part of Malaysia , as well as maritime borders with Singapore , Peninsular Malaysia , Vietnam , Thailand , the Philippines , Australia , Palau , and India . Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support one of the world's highest levels of biodiversity . The Indonesian archipelago has been a valuable region for trade since at least

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4620-682: The invasion of East Timor , the latter having been Indonesia's most massive military operation. Indonesia has a mixed economy in which the private sector and government play vital roles. As the only G20 member state in Southeast Asia, the country has the largest economy in the region and is classified as a newly industrialised country . Per a 2023 estimate, it is the world's 16th largest economy by nominal GDP and 7th in terms of GDP at PPP , estimated to be US$ 1.417 trillion and US$ 4.393 trillion, respectively. Per capita GDP in PPP

4730-460: The mass-killing of 1965–66 . Ramstedt provides several reasons for this conclusion. The prophecy of the return of a Ratu Adil was widely popular among followers of kebatinan groups, many of whom were also supporters of the PKI. Although Suharto himself showed some affinity for kebatinan practices, he deeply distrusted their loyalty to him. Additionally, Suharto was aware that his predecessor Sukarno

4840-436: The palm oil industry, which has been criticised for its environmental impact and displacement of local communities. The situation has made Indonesia the world's largest forest-based emitter of greenhouse gases. It also threatens the survival of indigenous and endemic species. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) identified 140 species of mammals as threatened and 15 as critically endangered, including

4950-436: The provinces , which have a legislature ( Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah , DPRD) and an elected governor . A total of 38 provinces have been established from the original eight in 1945, the most recent change being the split of Southwest Papua from the province of West Papua in 2022. The second level are the regencies ( kabupaten ) and cities ( kota ), led by regents ( bupati ) and mayors ( walikota ), respectively, and

5060-410: The tropical rainforest climate found on every large island of Indonesia. Cooler climate types exist in mountainous regions that are 1,300 to 1,500 metres (4,300 to 4,900 feet) above sea level. The oceanic climate (Köppen Cfb ) prevails in highland areas adjacent to rainforest climates, with uniform precipitation year-round. In highland areas near the tropical monsoon and tropical savanna climates ,

5170-413: The 1950s and 1960s to promote agricultural self-sufficiency. A gradual process of industrialisation and urbanisation began in the late 1960s and accelerated in the 1980s as falling oil prices saw the government focus on diversifying away from oil exports and towards manufactured exports. This development continued throughout the 1980s and into the next decade despite the 1990 oil price shock , during which

5280-411: The 400 volcanoes, around 130 are active. Between 1972 and 1991, there were 29 volcanic eruptions, mostly on Java. Volcanic ash has made agricultural conditions unpredictable in some areas. However, it has also resulted in fertile soils, a factor in historically sustaining the high population densities of Java and Bali. A massive supervolcano erupted at present-day Lake Toba around 70,000 BCE. It

5390-537: The Balinese legend of the evil witch Rangda , which translates to "widow". Airlangga was born and grew up in Bali, groomed by his mother, queen Mahendradatta, to be a proper future ruler. In his teenage years, his mother sent him back to her parents' home in Java to be educated further in Watugaluh court, Mataram, East Java, under the patronage of his uncle, King Dharmawangsa . Airlangga was betrothed to his cousin, one of Dharmawangsa's daughters, thus arranged marriage

5500-643: The Cold War. Numerous attempts by the United States and the Soviet Union , and China to some degree, culminated in the 1965 coup attempt and subsequent upheaval that led to a reorientation of foreign policy. Quiet alignment with the Western world while maintaining a non-aligned stance has characterised Indonesia's foreign policy since then. Today, it maintains close relations with its neighbours and

5610-561: The East ( de Oost ); and Insulinde . After 1900, Indonesia became more common in academic circles outside the Netherlands, and native nationalist groups adopted it for political expression. Adolf Bastian of the University of Berlin popularized the name through his book Indonesien oder die Inseln des Malayischen Archipels, 1884–1894 . The first native scholar to use the name was Ki Hajar Dewantara when in 1913, he established

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5720-544: The GDP rose at an average rate of 7.1%. As a result, the official poverty rate fell from 60% to 15%. Trade barriers reduction from the mid-1980s made the economy more globally integrated. The growth ended with the 1997 Asian financial crisis that severely impacted the economy, including a 13.1% real GDP contraction in 1998 and a 78% inflation. The economy reached its low point in mid-1999 with only 0.8% real GDP growth. Relatively steady inflation and an increase in GDP deflator and

5830-661: The Javanese Nata Nagara. When Japan occupied the Netherlands East Indies in the early weeks of 1942, many Indonesians celebrated, seeing the Japanese army as the fulfillment of a prophecy attributed to Jayabaya. He had foretold a time when white men would establish their rule over Java and oppress the people for many years, only to be driven out by "yellow men from the north." According to Jayabaya, these "yellow dwarves" would remain for one crop cycle (interpreted as 3 1/2 years, corresponding to

5940-584: The Kelagen inscription (dated 1037 CE), Airlangga also took a keen interest in agriculture development. He embarked on a grand irrigation project by constructing the Wringin Sapta dam (located in today's Jombang Regency). By building a dam on the Brantas River, he provided irrigation to surrounding paddy fields and maintained a hydraulic system in the area. Towards the end of his life, Airlangga

6050-566: The Maharaja of Srivijaya saw Javanese Mataram as a dangerous threat, thus arranged a stratagem to destroy Mataram by inciting a revolt. King Wurawari of Lwaram was probably an ally of Srivijaya in Java and also the vassal of Mataram. With Srivijaya's assistance, Wurawari managed to sack and burn Watugaluh Palace during Mataram's most unexpected time; the Airlangga's royal wedding. Airlangga, accompanied by his guard Narottama, escaped westward into

6160-521: The Philippines, Palau, and Australia. At 4,884 metres (16,024 ft), Puncak Jaya is Indonesia's highest peak, and Lake Toba in Sumatra is the largest lake, with an area of 1,145 km (442 sq mi). Indonesia's largest rivers are in Kalimantan and New Guinea and include Kapuas , Barito , Mamberamo , Sepik and Mahakam . They serve as communication and transport links between

6270-688: The Revolutionary, claimed descent from the Pandavas . He was said to be the son of Yudayana, son of Parikshit , son of Abhimanyu, son of Arjuna, from the Pandava lineage. From Jayabaya's queen consort , Dewi Sara, he had four daughters: Jaya Amijaya, Dewi Pramesti, Dewi Pramuni, and Dewi Sasanti. Jaya Amijaya married King Astradarma Pramesti Yawastina, with whom she bore Malawapati, the King of Anglingdarma. In his old age, Jayabaya abdicated and chose

6380-447: The Selomangleng Cave beneath Mount Klothok, 5 kilometers to the west of the city of Kediri . Because the crown princess Sangramawijaya had renounced the throne, two of her younger half-brothers were next in line of succession. Both are equally rightful as the heirs and both contesting the throne. In 1045, Airlangga divided Kahuripan into two kingdoms which were inherited by his two sons; Janggala and Kediri . Airlangga himself abdicated

6490-489: The Spice Islands of Maluku during the Age of Discovery . Following three and a half centuries of Dutch colonialism , Indonesia secured its independence after World War II . Indonesia's history has since been turbulent, with challenges posed by natural disasters, corruption, separatism, a democratisation process, and periods of rapid economic growth. Indonesia consists of thousands of distinct native ethnic groups and hundreds of linguistic groups, with Javanese being

6600-443: The UN) scattered over both sides of the equator, around 6,000 of which are inhabited. The largest are Sumatra , Java , Borneo (shared with Brunei and Malaysia), Sulawesi , and New Guinea (shared with Papua New Guinea). Indonesia shares land borders with Malaysia on Borneo and Sebatik , Papua New Guinea on the island of New Guinea, East Timor on the island of Timor , and maritime borders with Singapore, Malaysia, Vietnam,

6710-399: The archipelago and made much of the Northern Hemisphere without summer in 1816 . The latter produced the loudest sound in recorded history and caused 36,000 deaths due to the eruption itself and the resulting tsunamis, with significant additional effects around the world years after the event. Recent catastrophic disasters due to seismic activity include the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and

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6820-560: The archipelago around 2,000 BCE and confined the native Melanesians to the far eastern regions as they spread east. Ideal agricultural conditions and the mastering of wet-field rice cultivation as early as the eighth century BCE allowed villages, towns, and small kingdoms to flourish by the first century CE. The archipelago's strategic sea-lane position fostered inter-island and international trade, including with Indian kingdoms and Chinese dynasties, from several centuries BCE. Trade has since fundamentally shaped Indonesian history. From

6930-464: The archipelago was tenuous. Dutch forces were engaged continuously in quelling rebellions on and off Java. The influence of local leaders such as Prince Diponegoro in central Java, Imam Bonjol in central Sumatra, Pattimura in Maluku , and the Aceh War weakened the Dutch and tied up the colonial military forces. Only in the early 20th century did Dutch dominance extend to what was to become Indonesia's current boundaries. During World War II,

7040-427: The basis of all TNI branches' structure, aimed at maintaining domestic stability and deterring foreign threats. The military has possessed a strong political influence since its founding, which peaked during the New Order . Political reforms in 1998 included the removal of the TNI's formal representation from the legislature. Nevertheless, its political influence remains, albeit at a reduced level. Since independence,

7150-441: The beginning of the Indonesian National Revolution , the Dutch recognised Indonesian independence in the face of international pressure in December 1949, following the Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference . Despite political, social, and sectarian divisions, Indonesians found unity in their fight for independence. As president, Sukarno moved Indonesia from democracy towards authoritarianism and maintained power by balancing

7260-468: The commander of Japan's Southeast Asian forces appointed future President Sukarno as chairman of the preparatory committee for Indonesian independence . As one account of Indonesian history notes, “With the minor exception that three crops had been harvested, Jayabaya’s prophecy had been realized.” Many believe that the time for the arrival of a new Ratu Adil is near, as the prophecies foretell: “when iron wagons drive without horses and ships sail through

7370-499: The country hardest hit by the 1997 Asian financial crisis . It brought out popular discontent with the New Order's corruption and suppression of political opposition and ultimately ended Suharto's presidency. In 1999, East Timor seceded from Indonesia, following its 1975 invasion by Indonesia and a 25-year occupation marked by international condemnation of human rights abuses . Since 1998, democratic processes have been strengthened by enhancing regional autonomy and instituting

7480-456: The country has struggled to maintain unity against local insurgencies and separatist movements. Some, notably in Aceh and Papua , have led to an armed conflict and subsequent allegations of human rights abuses and brutality from all sides. The former was resolved peacefully in 2005, while the latter has continued amid a significant, albeit imperfect, implementation of regional autonomy laws. Reports from Amnesty , Human Rights Watch , and

7590-446: The country's first direct presidential election in 2004 . Political, economic and social instability, corruption, and instances of terrorism remained problems in the 2000s; however, the economy has performed strongly since 2007. Although relations among the diverse population are mostly harmonious, acute sectarian discontent and violence remain problematic in some areas. A political settlement to an armed separatist conflict in Aceh

7700-415: The country's total maritime area, and has set a target to increase this to 30% by 2045. However, a 2023 study suggested this target is not on track and that existing marine reserves are poorly managed. Around 390 marine areas are managed in some way by government bodies, communities, and other sectors, with potential for these to be considered other effective area-based conservation measures (OECMs). There

7810-498: The descendant of Mpu Sindok of the Ishana dynasty. However, there is speculation suggesting that Airlangga was not the biological son of King Udayana, Mahendradatta probably conceived Airlangga from her previous union to an unknown man, and after her separation (either because of death or divorce) Mahendradatta was betrothed to the Balinese king, thus she took the baby Airlangga to Bali. Historical sources seem to be silenced on Mahendradatta's suspected earlier marriage, that it might be

7920-432: The destruction of peatlands, large-scale illegal deforestation (causing extensive haze across parts of Southeast Asia ), over-exploitation of marine resources, air pollution, garbage management, and reliable water and wastewater services . These issues contribute to Indonesia's low ranking (number 116 out of 180 countries) in the 2020 Environmental Performance Index . The report also indicates that Indonesia's performance

8030-488: The dominant religion in Java and Sumatra by the end of the 16th century. For the most part, Islam overlaid and mixed with existing cultural and religious influences, which shaped the predominant form of Islam in Indonesia, particularly in Java. The first Europeans arrived in the archipelago in 1512, when Portuguese traders, led by Francisco Serrão , sought to monopolise the sources of nutmeg , cloves , and cubeb pepper in

8140-496: The duration of Japanese occupation ), after which Java would be free from foreign domination. To most Javanese , Japan was seen as a liberator, as the prophecy appeared to be fulfilled. The Japanese freed Indonesian nationalists from Dutch prisons and employed them as civil servants and administrators. By late 1944, however, it became clear that Japan could not win the war . On 9 August 1945, Japan officially transferred its authority to Indonesia to prepare for independence, and

8250-651: The executive branch. Reforms since 1998 have markedly increased its role in national governance, while the DPD is a new chamber for matters of regional management. Most civil disputes appear before the State Court ( Pengadilan Negeri ); appeals are heard before the High Court ( Pengadilan Tinggi ). The Supreme Court of Indonesia ( Mahkamah Agung ) is the highest level of the judicial branch and hears final cessation appeals and conducts case reviews. Other courts include

8360-728: The fall of the New Order , no political party has won an overall majority of seats. The Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle (PDI-P) secured the most votes in the 2024 general election , becoming their third consecutive wins since 2014. Other notable parties include the Party of the Functional Groups ( Golkar ), the Great Indonesia Movement Party ( Gerindra ), the Democratic Party , and

8470-528: The first time became important centres of trade. Although there are few surviving archaeological remains dating from his time, Airlangga is known to have been a keen patron of the arts, notably literature. In 1035, the court poet Mpu Kanwa composed the Kakawin Arjunawiwaha , which was adapted from the Mahabharata epic. This text told the story of Arjuna , an incarnation of Indra , but

8580-438: The frequency of drought and food shortages (with an impact on precipitation and the patterns of wet and dry seasons, and thus Indonesia's agriculture system ) as well as numerous diseases and wildfires. Rising sea levels would also threaten most of Indonesia's population, who live in low-lying coastal areas. Impoverished communities would likely be affected the most by climate change. Tectonically , most of Indonesia's area

8690-576: The inhabitants of the "Indian Archipelago or Malay Archipelago ". In the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan , used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago . Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia . They preferred Malay Archipelago ( Dutch : Maleische Archipel ); the Netherlands East Indies ( Nederlandsch Oost Indië ), popularly Indië ;

8800-498: The interiors of Kalimantan and Papua, and less in areas closer to Australia, such as Nusa Tenggara, which tends to be relatively dry. The almost uniformly warm waters that constitute 81% of Indonesia's area ensure that land temperatures remain relatively constant. Humidity is quite high, at between 70 and 90%. Winds are moderate and generally predictable, with monsoons usually blowing in from the south and east in May through October and from

8910-419: The island's river settlements. Indonesia lies along the equator, and its climate tends to be relatively even year-round. Indonesia has two seasons—a dry season and a wet season —with no extremes of summer or winter. For most parts of Indonesia, the dry season falls between May and October, while the wet season falls between November and April. Indonesia's climate is almost entirely tropical , dominated by

9020-553: The jungle and retreated as a hermit in Vanagiri (today Wonogiri , Central Java). In 1019, after several years in self-imposed exile in a Mount Vanagiri hermitage, Airlangga rallied support from officials and regents that are loyal to the former Ishana dynasty and began to unite the areas that had formerly been ruled by the Mataram kingdom, which had disintegrated after Dharmawangsa's death. He consolidated his authority, established

9130-503: The kamal tree to be forever short, thus becoming the name of the village where this event took place; kamal pandak ("the short tamarind tree"). Airlangga died in 1049, and his ashes were probably scattered in Belahan tirtha (sacred bathing pool), on the eastern slopes of Mount Penanggungan , wherein one of the waterspout statues he was portrayed as Vishnu riding Garuda, flanked by statues of two goddesses; Shri and Lakshmi portrayed

9240-464: The largest. A shared identity has developed with the motto " Bhinneka Tunggal Ika " ("Unity in Diversity" literally , "many, yet one"), defined by a national language , cultural diversity, religious pluralism within a Muslim-majority population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. A developing country , Indonesia is classified a newly industrialized country , with its economy

9350-642: The national level is the People's Consultative Assembly ( Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat , MPR). Its main functions are supporting and amending the constitution, inaugurating and impeaching the president, and formalising broad outlines of state policy. The MPR comprises two houses; the People's Representative Council ( Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat , DPR), with 575 members, and the Regional Representative Council ( Dewan Perwakilan Daerah , DPD), with 136. The DPR passes legislation and monitors

9460-559: The north and west in November through April. Typhoons and large-scale storms pose little hazard to mariners; significant dangers come from swift currents in channels, such as the Lombok and Sape straits. Several studies consider Indonesia to be at severe risk from the projected effects of climate change . These include unreduced emissions resulting in an average temperature rise of around 1 °C (2 °F) by mid-century, raising

9570-425: The only ones where the indigenous people have privileges in their local government. Indonesia maintains 132 diplomatic missions abroad, including 95 embassies. The country adheres to what it calls a "free and active" foreign policy, seeking a role in regional affairs in proportion to its size and location but avoiding involvement in conflicts among other countries. Indonesia was a significant battleground during

9680-438: The opposing forces of the military , political Islam, and the increasingly powerful Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI). Tensions between the military and the PKI culminated in an attempted coup in 1965. The army, led by Major General Suharto , countered by instigating a violent anti-communist purge that killed between 500,000 and one million people and incarcerated roughly a million more in concentration camps . The PKI

9790-641: The poor fate of the Srivijayan princess, having lost her family and her kingdom, and probably genuinely fell in love and devoted to her, thus promoting her as prameswari (the queen consort ). Airlangga went further, naming his daughter from queen Dharmaprasadottungadewi as heiress, the future queen regnant of Kahuripan. The decline of Srivijaya due to the Chola invasion gave Airlangga opportunity to consolidate his kingdom without foreign interference. Later, he extended his kingdom to Central Java and Bali . The north coast of Java, particularly Surabaya and Tuban , for

9900-544: The poverty line, and the official open unemployment rate was 5.28%. During the first year of the global COVID-19 pandemic , the economy suffered its first recession since the 1997 crisis but recovered in the following year. Indonesia has abundant natural resources. Its primary industries are fishing, petroleum, timber, paper products, cotton cloth, tourism, petroleum mining, natural gas, bauxite, coal, and tin. Its main agricultural products are rice, coconuts, soybeans, bananas, coffee, tea, palm, rubber, and sugar cane. Indonesia

10010-455: The seventh century CE, the Srivijaya naval kingdom flourished due to trade and the influences of Hinduism and Buddhism . Between the eighth and tenth centuries CE, the agricultural Buddhist Sailendra and Hindu Mataram dynasties thrived and declined in inland Java, leaving grand religious monuments such as Sailendra's Borobudur and Mataram's Prambanan . The Hindu Majapahit kingdom

10120-423: The seventh century, when Sumatra's Srivijaya and later Java's Majapahit kingdoms engaged in commerce with entities from mainland China and the Indian subcontinent . Over the centuries, local rulers assimilated foreign influences, leading to the flourishing of Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms. Sunni traders and Sufi scholars later brought Islam , and European powers fought one another to monopolise trade in

10230-474: The sky.” This figure is expected to rescue and reunite Indonesia after a period of acute crisis, ushering in a new golden age. Anthropologist Martin Ramstedt speculates that the popularity of the millenarian prophecy concerning the return of Jayabaya as a Ratu Adil contributed to General Suharto 's decision to suppress kebatinan movements as part of his persecution of alleged PKI members, leading to

10340-438: The subtropical highland climate (Köppen Cwb ) is more pronounced during dry season. Some regions, such as Kalimantan and Sumatra , experience only slight differences in rainfall and temperature between the seasons, whereas others, such as Nusa Tenggara, experience far more pronounced differences with droughts in the dry season and floods in the wet season. Rainfall varies across regions, with more in western Sumatra, Java, and

10450-430: The throne in 1045 and returned to the hermit life by assuming a new name as Resi Aji Paduka Mpungku Sang Pinaka Catraning Bhuwana , bestowed by Mpu Bharada, a famous hermit. The reasons behind the partition of a kingdom that Airlangga himself painstakingly united during his younger years remain a puzzle for historians. Some suggested that it was meant to avoid civil war since both of Airlangga's sons were equally rightful to

10560-412: The throne. A local legend, mixed with fantastic fiction, mentioned the partition of the kingdom. It was said that Mpu Bharada was the one who conducted the partition; with his extraordinary skill, he flew and poured water from a jar that the water traces magically transformed into a river marking the boundary of the two new kingdoms. Accidentally he stuck on a kamal ( tamarind ) tree, feeling upset he cursed

10670-487: The time, managed to escape unharmed. According to tradition the calamity, dubbed as Pralaya (destruction) of Mataram, took place during Airlangga's wedding ceremony in Dharmawangsa palace. Today historians strongly suggest that the invasion was a Srivijayan retaliation against Mataram for the attacks upon the empire. After the failed Dharmawangsa's naval campaign against Palembang back in 990, Sri Culamanivarmadeva

10780-409: The two queen consorts of Airlangga. After the death of Airlangga, a civil war broke out between Janggala and Kediri (aka Panjalu) that continued until 1052. In that year King Mapanji Alanjung Ahyes of Panjalu succeed in conquering Janggala. However, in 1059 another king named Samarotsaha ascended the throne of Janggala, he was the son-in-law of Airlangga. Indonesia Indonesia , officially

10890-633: The village ( desa ) is divided into smaller units called dusun or dukuh (hamlets), which are the same as RW. Following the implementation of regional autonomy measures in 2001, regencies and cities have become chief administrative units responsible for providing most government services. The village administration level is the most influential on a citizen's daily life and handles village or neighbourhood matters through an elected village head ( lurah or kepala desa ). Nine provinces—Aceh, Jakarta, Yogyakarta, Papua , Central Papua , Highland Papua , South Papua , Southwest Papua , and West Papua —are granted

11000-521: The world's 16th-largest by nominal GDP and the 7th-largest by PPP . It is the world's third-largest democracy, a regional power , and is considered a middle power in global affairs. The country is a member of several multilateral organisations, including the United Nations, World Trade Organization , G20 , and a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement , Association of Southeast Asian Nations , East Asia Summit , D-8 , APEC , and

11110-681: Was a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC). Indonesia is a signatory to the ASEAN Free Trade Area agreement, the Cairns Group , the World Trade Organization (WTO), and a former member of OPEC . Indonesia has been a humanitarian and development aid recipient since 1967, and recently, the country established its first overseas aid programme in late 2019. Indonesia's Armed Forces (TNI) include

11220-571: Was a king of the Balinese Warmadewa Dynasty . Bali in the 11th century probably was an ally or vassal of Java, the marriage of Airlangga's parents was probably meant as a political means to seal Bali as part of Mataram's realm. Airlangga has two younger brothers, Marakata (who later became king of Bali after the death of their father) and Anak Wungçu (who ascended to Balinese throne after the death of Marakata). Later, in various inscriptions created by Airlangga, he claimed to be

11330-579: Was achieved in 2005. Indonesia is the southernmost country in Asia. The country lies between latitudes 11°S and 6°N and longitudes 95°E and 141°E . A transcontinental country spanning Southeast Asia and Oceania, it is the world's largest archipelagic state , extending 5,120 kilometres (3,181 mi) from east to west and 1,760 kilometres (1,094 mi) from north to south. The country's Coordinating Ministry for Maritime and Investments Affairs says Indonesia has 17,504 islands (with 16,056 registered at

11440-506: Was also an allegory for Airlangga's own life. The tale of Airlangga's life was illustrated in the Belahan Temple on the flanks of Mount Penanggungan, where he was portrayed in stone as Vishnu on Garuda. In 1037 the capital was moved from Watan Mas to Kahuripan, the king also reported to bestow titles for his loyal followers, such as Narottama promoted as Rakryan Kanuruhan (prime minister) and Niti as Rakryan Kuningan. According to

11550-454: Was blamed for the coup and effectively destroyed. Suharto capitalised on Sukarno's weakened position, and following a drawn-out power play with Sukarno , Suharto was appointed president in March 1968. His US-backed "New Order" administration encouraged foreign direct investment , which was a crucial factor in the subsequent three decades of substantial economic growth. Indonesia was

11660-462: Was built from the territory of the Kingdom of Mataram after Mataram was sacked by King Wurawari of Lwaram. He gradually gained support, won back the kingdom once ruled by his uncle, and went on to become one of Java's most notable kings. Airlangga means "jumping water", thus his name means "he who crossed the water", described his life story; born in the court of Bali and during his youth crossed

11770-406: Was faced with the problem of succession. His heiress, the crown princess Sangramawijaya, decided to become a Bhikkuni Buddhist hermit rather than succeed Airlangga as queen regnant . Sangramawijaya is the daughter of the queen consort Dharmaprasadottunggadewi. The story of a crown princess who renounced the throne to become a hermit is linked with the popular legend of Dewi Kilisuci who resides in

11880-401: Was founded in eastern Java in the late 13th century, and under Gajah Mada , its influence stretched over much of present-day Indonesia. This period is often referred to as the "Golden Age" in Indonesian history. The earliest evidence of Islamized populations in the archipelago dates to the 13th century in northern Sumatra . Other parts of the archipelago gradually adopted Islam, and it was

11990-401: Was identified as a Ratu Adil , while Suharto himself was not, making this prophecy a potential threat to his legitimacy. Airlangga Airlangga (also spelled Erlangga ), regnal name Rakai Halu Sri Lokeswara Dharmawangsa Airlangga Anantawikramottunggadewa (born 1002 in Bali , Indonesia  – died 1049 in Java ), was the only king of the Kingdom of Kahuripan . The Kingdom

12100-634: Was in place. At that time, Mataram had become a powerful kingdom, allied or probably subjugated Bali, and had established a colony in West Kalimantan . Dharmawangsa aspired to ascend Mataram as a regional power by challenging the Srivijaya Empire's domination. In 990 he launched a naval invasion against Srivijaya and unsuccessfully tried to capture Palembang. Srivijaya resiliently succeeds in repelling Javanese Mataram invaders. The Calcutta Stone inscription (dated from 1041 CE), describes

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