J Force (sometimes referred to as "Jayforce") was the name given to the New Zealand forces that were allocated to the British Commonwealth Occupation Force (BCOF) which occupied Japan following the end of the Second World War . The force was deployed between 1946 and 1948, after which it was disbanded and its personnel repatriated to New Zealand.
124-541: Upon the surrender of Japan which ended the combat phase of the Second World War, Allied Forces, including New Zealanders, Australians, Canadians, and Indians, entered Japan as an occupying force in February 1946 to restore the peace, clean up debris from the atomic blast, help rebuild and direct Japan into becoming a democratic society. Within a week of the surrender Britain invited New Zealand to participate in
248-618: A condom is effective in limiting exposure, some disease transmission may occur even with a condom. Both partners can get tested for STIs before initiating sexual contact, or before resuming contact if a partner engaged in contact with someone else. Many infections are not detectable immediately after exposure, so enough time must be allowed between possible exposures and testing for the tests to be accurate. Certain STIs, particularly certain persistent viruses like HPV, may be impossible to detect. Some treatment facilities use in-home test kits and have
372-942: A disease may result from even light contact from fluid carriers like venereal fluids onto a mucous membrane. Some STIs such as HIV can be transmitted from mother to child either during pregnancy or breastfeeding. Healthcare professionals suggest safer sex , such as the use of condoms , as a reliable way of decreasing the risk of contracting sexually transmitted infections during sexual activity, but safer sex cannot be considered to provide complete protection from an STI. The transfer of and exposure to bodily fluids, such as blood transfusions and other blood products, sharing injection needles , needle-stick injuries (when medical staff are inadvertently jabbed or pricked with needles during medical procedures), sharing tattoo needles, and childbirth are other avenues of transmission. These different means put certain groups, such as medical workers, and haemophiliacs and drug users, particularly at risk. It
496-464: A district in Paris formerly known as "Le Clapiers". This is where the prostitutes were to be found at that time. Prior to the invention of modern medicines, sexually transmitted infections were generally incurable, and treatment was limited to treating the symptoms of the infection. The first voluntary hospital for STIs was founded in 1746 at London Lock Hospital . Treatment was not always voluntary: in
620-521: A document titled " U.S. Initial Post-Surrender Policy for Japan ". The document set two main objectives for the occupation: eliminating Japan's war potential and turning Japan into a democratic nation with pro- United Nations orientation. By the end of 1945, around 430,000 American soldiers were stationed throughout Japan. Of the main Japanese islands, Kyushu was occupied by the 24th Infantry Division , with some responsibility for Shikoku . Honshu
744-534: A food distribution network. Following the collapse of the ruling government and the wholesale destruction of most major cities, virtually the entire Japanese populace was starving. The air raids on Japan's urban centers left millions displaced, and food shortages (created by bad harvests and the demands of the war) worsened when the seizure of foodstuffs from Korea, Taiwan, and China ceased. Repatriation of Japanese people living in other parts of Asia and hundreds of thousands of demobilized prisoners of war only aggravated
868-402: A higher risk of HIV infection. There is evidence that vaginal dapivirine probably reduces HIV in women who have sex with men, other types of vaginal microbicides have not demonstrated effectiveness for HIV or STIs. There is little evidence that school-based interventions such as sexual and reproductive health education programmes on contraceptive choices and condoms are effective on improving
992-613: A key Cold War ally." An early sign of the shift in SCAP's thinking came in January 1947 when MacArthur announced that he would not permit a massive, nationwide general strike that labor unions had scheduled for February 1. Thereafter, the broader shift in Occupation policies became more and more apparent. Thousands of conservative and nationalist wartime leaders were de-purged and allowed to reenter politics and government ministries. In
1116-441: A number of reasons: Early identification and treatment results in less chance to spread disease, and for some conditions may improve the outcomes of treatment. There is often a window period after initial infection during which an STI test will be negative. During this period, the infection may be transmissible. The duration of this period varies depending on the infection and the test. Diagnosis may also be delayed by reluctance of
1240-480: A post-war occupation of Japan began as early as February 1942, when President Franklin D. Roosevelt established an Advisory Committee on Postwar Foreign Policy to advise him on the postwar reconstruction of Germany , Italy , and Japan ( Axis powers ). On matters related to Japan, this committee was later succeeded by the smaller Inter-Departmental Area Committee on the Far East (IDAFE), which met 234 times between
1364-417: A pregnant woman may be passed on to the infant before or after birth. Sexually transmitted infections include: Twenty-seven different viruses have been identified in semen. Information on whether or not transmission occurs or whether the viruses cause disease is uncertain. Some of these microbes are known to be sexually transmitted. Many STIs are (more easily) transmitted through the mucous membranes of
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#17327902532131488-416: A public perception during the 1960s and 1970s that they have ceased to be a serious medical threat. During this period, the importance of contact tracing in treating STIs was recognized. By tracing the sexual partners of infected individuals, testing them for infection, treating the infected and tracing their contacts, in turn, STI clinics could effectively suppress infections in the general population. In
1612-532: A result of changes in priorities in connection with the " Reverse Course ," in the end only the 11 largest companies were dissolved. The Labor Standards Act was enacted on April 7, 1947, to govern working conditions in Japan. According to Article 1 of the Act, its goal was to ensure that "Working conditions shall be those which should meet the needs of workers who live lives worthy of human beings." Support stemming from
1736-437: A result, all single non-Maori men from the 13th, 14th and 15th Reinforcements were conscripted for the force. Volunteer officers, and specialists from earlier reinforcements as well as any Maori who wished to volunteer were allowed to make up the required numbers. As a result, a large number of this draft were very unhappy that after having survived the war they were going to Japan instead of home. The force of just over 4,000 men
1860-479: A threat to world peace. Reforms targeted all major sectors of Japanese society, government, and economy. Historians have emphasized similarities to the American New Deal programs of the 1930s. Moore and Robinson note that, "New Deal liberalism seemed natural, even to conservative Republicans such as MacArthur and Whitney ." Before reforms could be undertaken, MacArthur's first priority was to set up
1984-649: A week before the official surrender ceremony, 150 US personnel flew to Atsugi , Kanagawa Prefecture . They were followed by the USS Missouri , whose accompanying vessels landed the 4th Marine Regiment on the southern coast of Kanagawa. The 11th Airborne Division was airlifted from Okinawa to Atsugi Airdrome , 50 kilometres (30 mi) from Tokyo . Other Allied personnel followed. MacArthur arrived in Tokyo on August 30 and immediately decreed several laws. No Allied personnel were to assault Japanese people or eat
2108-454: Is advised to assure maximal protection. The development of vaccines to protect against gonorrhea is ongoing. Condoms and female condoms only provide protection when used properly as a barrier, and only to and from the area that they cover. Uncovered areas are still susceptible to many STIs. In the case of HIV, sexual transmission routes almost always involve the penis, as HIV cannot spread through unbroken skin; therefore, properly shielding
2232-528: Is an infection that is spread by sexual activity , especially vaginal intercourse , anal sex , oral sex , or sometimes manual sex . STIs often do not initially cause symptoms, which results in a risk of transmitting them on to others. The term sexually transmitted infection is generally preferred over sexually transmitted disease or venereal disease , as it includes cases with no symptomatic disease . Symptoms and signs of STIs may include vaginal discharge , penile discharge , ulcers on or around
2356-475: Is directed at a person's risk, the situations in which risk occurs, and the use of personalized goal-setting strategies. The most effective way to prevent sexual transmission of STIs is to avoid contact of body parts or fluids which can lead to transfer with an infected partner. Not all sexual activities involve contact: cybersex , phone sex or masturbation from a distance are methods of avoiding contact. Proper use of condoms reduces contact and risk. Although
2480-552: Is most effective if provided in a nonjudgmental and empathetic manner appropriate to the person's culture, language, gender, sexual orientation, age, and developmental level. Prevention counseling for STIs is usually offered to all sexually active adolescents and to all adults who have received a diagnosis, have had an STI in the past year, or have multiple sex partners . Vaccines are available that protect against some viral STIs, such as hepatitis A , hepatitis B , and some types of HPV . Vaccination before initiation of sexual contact
2604-477: Is possible to be an asymptomatic carrier of sexually transmitted infections. In particular, sexually transmitted infections in women often cause the serious condition of pelvic inflammatory disease. Testing may be for a single infection, or consist of a number of tests for a range of STIs, including tests for syphilis , trichomonas , gonorrhea, chlamydia , herpes , hepatitis , and HIV . No procedure tests for all infectious agents. STI tests may be used for
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#17327902532132728-411: Is the clinical practice of treating the sex partners of index cases by providing prescriptions or medications to the patient to take to their partner without the health care provider first examining the partner. In term of preventing reinfection in sexually transmitted infection, treatment with both patient and the sexual partner of patient resulted in more successful than treatment of the patient without
2852-423: Is used for each act of intercourse, as multiple usages increase the chance of breakage, defeating the effectiveness as a barrier. In the case of female condoms, the device consists of two rings, one in each terminal portion. The larger ring should fit snugly over the cervix and the smaller ring remains outside the vagina, covering the vulva. This system provides some protection of the external genitalia. The cap
2976-510: The Diet passed Japan's first ever trade union law protecting the rights of workers to form or join a union, to organize, and take industrial action. There had been pre-war attempts to do so, but none that were successfully passed until the Allied occupation. A new Trade Union Law was passed on June 1, 1949, which remains in place to the present day. According to Article 1 of the Act, the purpose of
3100-669: The Ebers Papyrus ( c. 1550 BCE ) and the Hebrew Bible / Old Testament (8th/7th C. BCE). Not all STIs are symptomatic , and symptoms may not appear immediately after infection. In some instances a disease can be carried with no symptoms, which leaves a greater risk of passing the disease on to others. Depending on the disease, some untreated STIs can lead to infertility , chronic pain or death. The presence of an STI in prepubescent children may indicate sexual abuse . A sexually transmitted infection present in
3224-992: The International Military Tribunal for the Far East in Ichigaya , were trying Japan's war criminals and sentencing many to death and imprisonment. However, many suspects such as Masanobu Tsuji , Nobusuke Kishi , Yoshio Kodama and Ryōichi Sasakawa were never judged, while the Emperor Hirohito , all members of the imperial family implicated in the war such as Yasuhito, Prince Chichibu (younger brother of Hirohito), Prince Yasuhiko Asaka , Prince Fushimi Hiroyasu , former prime minister Prince Naruhiko Higashikuni ( Princess Shigeko , Hirohito's eldest daughter's father-in-law) and Prince Tsuneyoshi Takeda , and all members of Unit 731 —including its director Dr. Shirō Ishii —were granted immunity from criminal prosecution by General MacArthur. Before
3348-724: The Korean War (1950–1953). Once back in New Zealand J Force personnel found they were treated differently from World War II veterans. Their service went unrecognised and until 1964 they were not eligible to join the RSA or receive war pensions. It was not until 1995 that the New Zealand Service Medal 1946–1949 was instituted to recognise the service of J Force veterans in Japan. J Force 9th Brigade Support Units RNZAF Occupation of Japan Japan
3472-509: The U.S.-Japan Security Treaty , which has allowed US troops to remain based on Japanese soil on an indefinite basis. Even after the Occupation officially ended in 1952, a total of 260,000 American soldiers remained based on mainland Japan (exclusive of U.S.-controlled Okinawa, which based tens of thousands more). Even today, some 31,000 US military personnel remain based in Japan, including at major bases near Tokyo , Hiroshima , Nagasaki , Aomori , Sapporo , and Ishikari . Popular anger at
3596-504: The US-Japan Security Treaty (replaced by the revised treaty in 1960 ) allowed tens of thousands of American soldiers to remain based in Japan indefinitely, albeit at the invitation of the Japanese government and not as an occupation force. Since then, it is the first and only sustained presence of a foreign military on Japanese soil in its history . The occupation of Japan can be usefully divided into three phases:
3720-561: The Yoshida Doctrine , Japan continued to prioritize economic growth over defense spending, relying on American military protection to ensure it could focus mainly on economic recovery. Through "guided capitalism," Japan was able to use its resources to economically recover from the war and revive industry, eventually sparking a lengthy period of unprecedented economic growth remembered as the Japanese economic miracle occurred from
3844-614: The de facto remilitarization of Japan. The occupation officially ended with the coming into force of the Treaty of San Francisco , signed on September 8, 1951, and effective from April 28, 1952, after which the US military ceased any direct involvement in the country's civil administration thus effectively restoring full sovereignty to Japan with the exception of the Ryukyu Islands ( Okinawa Prefecture ). The simultaneous implementation of
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3968-494: The developing world . There is often shame and stigma associated with STIs. In 2015, STIs other than HIV resulted in 108,000 deaths worldwide. Globally, in 2015, about 1.1 billion people had STIs other than HIV/AIDS. About 500 million have either syphilis, gonorrhea, chlamydia or trichomoniasis. At least an additional 530 million have genital herpes, and 290 million women have human papillomavirus . Historical documentation of STIs in antiquity dates back to at least
4092-448: The landlords under the government's reform program and resold at extremely low prices (after inflation) to the farmers who worked them. MacArthur's land reform redistribution resulted in only 10% of the land being worked by non-owners. By 1950, three million peasants had acquired land, dismantling a power structure that the landlords had long dominated. While these other reforms were taking place, various military tribunals, most notably
4216-495: The penis , vulva , rectum , urinary tract and (less often—depending on type of infection) the mouth , throat , respiratory tract and eyes . The visible membrane covering the head of the penis is a mucous membrane, though it produces no mucus (similar to the lips of the mouth). Mucous membranes differ from skin in that they allow certain pathogens into the body. The amount of contact with infective sources which causes infection varies with each pathogen but in all cases,
4340-572: The 1930s under President Franklin D. Roosevelt . In 1947, a sweeping amendment to the Meiji Constitution was passed that effectively repealed it in its entirety and replaced it with a new, American-written constitution , and the Emperor's theoretically vast powers, which for many centuries had been constrained only by conventions that had evolved over time, became strictly limited by law as a constitutional monarchy . While Article 9 of
4464-498: The 1960s to the Lost Decades of the 1990s. With the acceptance of the Allied occupation authorities, the Japanese organized a brothel system (the euphemistically named " Recreation and Amusement Association ," or RAA) for the benefit of the more than 300,000 occupation troops. Many Japanese civilians and government officials feared that the Allied occupation troops were likely to rape Japanese women. "The strategy was, through
4588-449: The 1980s, first genital herpes and then AIDS emerged into the public consciousness as sexually transmitted infections that could not be cured by modern medicine. AIDS, in particular, has a long asymptomatic period—during which time HIV (the human immunodeficiency virus, which causes AIDS) can replicate and the disease can be transmitted to others—followed by a symptomatic period, which leads rapidly to death unless treated. HIV/AIDS entered
4712-663: The Allied Powers (SCAP) to oversee the surrender and occupation of Japan. Truman agreed, and MacArthur asked his staff in Manila to begin making concrete preparations for the occupation of Japan. As the Soviets moved in to occupy their allotted territories, some Japanese forces continued to resist even after the Japanese surrender. Such operations included final battles on the Kuril Islands and South Sakhalin well past
4836-412: The Allied occupation has introduced better working conditions and pay for numerous employees in Japanese business. This allowed for more sanitary and hygienic working environments along with welfare and government assistance for health insurance, pensions plans and work involving other trained specialists. While it was created while Japan was under occupation, the origins of the Act have nothing to do with
4960-758: The Allies in the Potsdam Declaration to Prime Minister Kantarō Suzuki and his administration . On August 15, 1945, Emperor Hirohito announced Japan's surrender to the Japanese people in a nationwide radio broadcast . Two days after Japanese Emperor's first radio broadcast informing the surrender of Japan, Prince Naruhiko Higashikuni (a member of Japanese imperial family and father-in-law of Hirohito's eldest daughter, Shigeko Higashikuni ) became first post-war Prime Minister on August 17, 1945. Japanese officials left for Manila on August 19 to meet MacArthur and to discuss surrender terms. On August 28, 1945,
5084-602: The American decision to exonerate the emperor of war responsibility and then, in the chill of Cold War , release and soon afterwards openly embrace accused right-wing war criminals like the later prime minister Kishi Nobusuke . The Reverse Course ( 逆コース , gyaku kōsu ) is the name commonly given to a major shift in the Occupation policies that began in 1947 in response to the emerging global Cold War . In particular, U.S. priorities shifted from punishing and reforming Japan to ensuring internal political stability, rebuilding
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5208-605: The Americans in promoting democracy in Japan by supervising local and national elections in the prefecture. For a period of a month J Force also provided a guard battalion to Tokyo. This was based at Ebisu Barracks and took part in ceremonial guard duty at the Imperial Palace and the British Embassy. The Royal New Zealand Air Force (RNZAF) reformed No. 14 Squadron RNZAF to provide its contribution. To outfit
5332-687: The Americas and Europe. Approximately two billion people worldwide have been infected with the hepatitis B virus. The first well-recorded European outbreak of what is now known as syphilis occurred in 1494 when it broke out among French troops besieging Naples in the Italian War of 1494–98 . The disease may have originated from the Columbian Exchange . From Naples, the disease swept across Europe , killing more than five million people. As Jared Diamond describes it, "[W]hen syphilis
5456-670: The BCOF in 1947 enthusiasm for New Zealand’s ongoing involvement waned. In April 1948 the New Zealand government made the decision to withdraw from Japan. The last New Zealand J Force troops returned home in September 1948. In total approximately 12,000 New Zealanders served in Japan during the occupation, while 15 members were killed in accidents or died of illness. They are buried in the Commonwealth cemetery at Yokohama. Some New Zealand personnel would later return to Japan on R&R during
5580-521: The Emperor theoretically unlimited powers. The new constitution drew inspiration from the U.S. Bill of Rights , New Deal social legislation, the liberal constitutions of several European states and even the Soviet Union, and transferred sovereignty from the Emperor to the people in an attempt to depoliticize the Throne and reduce it to the status of a state symbol. Included in the revised charter
5704-468: The Emperor would be spared from indictment." According to historian John W. Dower , "With the full support of MacArthur's headquarters, the prosecution functioned, in effect, as a defense team for the emperor." In Dower's view, Even Japanese peace activists who endorse the ideals of the Nuremberg and Tokyo charters, and who have labored to document and publicize Japanese atrocities, cannot defend
5828-540: The Japanese Imperial Headquarters was dissolved. By December, all Japanese military forces in the Japanese home islands were fully disbanded. Occupation forces also exploded or dumped into the sea over 2 million tons of unused munitions and other war materiel. The issuing of the Removal of Restrictions on Political, Civil, and Religious Liberties directive by SCAP on October 4, 1945, led to
5952-455: The Japanese economy as soon as possible, American banker Joseph Dodge was brought in as an economic consultant. Dodge implemented the " Dodge Line " in 1949, a set of draconian contractionary fiscal and monetary policies that caused much hardship for the Japanese populace but succeeded in getting rampant inflation under control. Dodge also fixed the exchange rate at 360 yen to the dollar, a favorable rate that would help boost Japanese exports in
6076-507: The Occupation, in addition to thousands of civilian contractors and tens of thousands of dependents. The American forces were supplemented by around 40,000 troops from the British Commonwealth . The official British Commonwealth Occupation Force (BCOF), composed of Australian , British , Indian and New Zealand personnel, did not begin deployment to Japan until February 21, 1946. While U.S. forces were responsible for
6200-488: The RNZAF's No. 41 (Transport) Squadron provided the link between New Zealand and Japan for J Force. Operating over one of the longest air transport routes in the world, the squadron operated between February 1946 and April 1948. Once a week a Dakota departed on the 20,000 km return flight between Whenuapai and Iwakuni carrying supplies and personnel between the two destinations. When Great Britain and India withdrew from
6324-428: The SCAP power structure that greatly increased the power of Japan's native rulers, and the Occupation began to draw to a close. The Treaty of San Francisco , which was to end the occupation, was signed on September 8, 1951. It came into effect on April 28, 1952, formally ending all occupation powers of the Allied forces and restoring full sovereignty to Japan, except for the island chains of Iwo Jima and Okinawa , which
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#17327902532136448-507: The Soviet Union's future existence. He therefore placed a far greater priority on establishing Soviet communist influence in Europe rather than in Asia. Following the dropping of atomic bombs and the entry of the Soviet Union into the war against Japan , on the night of 9–10 August 1945, Emperor Hirohito announced his decision that the Japanese government should accept the terms demanded by
6572-538: The United States continued to hold. American occupation forces remained in Japan in a diminished capacity, until the dissolution of the Far East Command on July 1, 1957. Iwo Jima was returned to Japan in 1968, and most of Okinawa was returned in 1972 . As a condition of securing the end of the Occupation and the restoration of Japanese sovereignty, Japan was compelled by the United States to agree to
6696-587: The United States there were 19 million new cases of sexually transmitted infections in 2010. In 2010, 19 million new cases of sexually transmitted infections occurred in women in the United States. A 2008 CDC study found that 25–40% of U.S. teenage girls has a sexually transmitted infection. Out of a population of almost 295,270,000 people there were 110 million new and existing cases of eight sexually transmitted infections. Over 400,000 sexually transmitted infections were reported in England in 2017, about
6820-656: The United States, the Far Eastern Commission decided that Japan was to be partly de-industrialized. In the end, SCAP adopted a program of de-industrialization and de-concentration in Japan that was implemented to a lesser degree than the similar U.S. "industrial disarmament" program in Germany . To this end, the prewar zaibatsu industrial conglomerates were pressured into undergoing "voluntary" dissolution into smaller independent companies. Although SCAP originally planned to break up 325 Japanese companies, as
6944-661: The abolition of the Peace Preservation Law and the release of all political prisoners. Japanese communists were released from jail, and the Japan Communist Party was granted legal status. On December 15, 1945, the Shinto Directive was issued, abolishing Shinto as a state religion and prohibiting some of its teachings and rites that were deemed to be militaristic or ultra-nationalistic. On December 22, 1945, at SCAP's direction,
7068-624: The act is to "elevate the status of workers by promoting their being on equal standing with the employer". In January 1946, SCAP issued directives calling for the purge of wartime officials from public offices. Individuals targeted in the purge included accused war criminals, military officers, leaders of ultranationalist societies, leaders in the Imperial Rule Assistance Association , business leaders involved in Japanese overseas economic expansion, governors of former Japanese colonies, and national leaders involved in
7192-481: The autumn of 1942 and the summer of 1945 and had frequent discussions with two US presidents, Roosevelt and Harry S. Truman . During the war, the Allied Powers had planned to divide Japan amongst themselves for the purposes of occupation, as was done for the Allied-occupied Germany . Under the final plan, however, Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers (SCAP) was to be given direct control over
7316-569: The cabinet voted unanimously to grant women the right to vote. Two days later, before any action was taken to enact the cabinet's decision, General MacArthur issued his five-point reform directive, one of the points being an order to liberate Japanese women through enfranchisement. After MacArthur issued his directive, the Japanese government officially lowered the voting age and extended the voting franchise to women in future elections. On April 10, 1946, first post-war Japanese general election with 78.52% voter turnout among men and 66.97% among women
7440-603: The communists in 1949 and the outbreak of the Korean War in 1950 had heightened conservative fears that communism was on the march in East Asia . Against this backdrop, the Japanese government and business leaders, with the connivance and encouragement of SCAP, purged tens of thousands of communists, alleged communists, and other leftists from government posts, private sector jobs, and teaching positions at schools and universities. The Reverse Course significantly weakened left-wing forces and strengthened conservatives, laying
7564-687: The constitution explicitly forbade Japan from maintaining a military or pursuing war as a means to settle international disputes, this policy soon became problematic especially as neighboring China fell under the control of the Chinese Communist Party and the Korean War broke out. As a result, the National Police Reserve (NPR) was founded in 1950. The NPR was reorganized into the Japan Self-Defense Forces (JSDF) in 1954, effectively completing
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#17327902532137688-532: The continuing presence of these U.S. military bases in Japan even after the official end of the Occupation continued to grow over the course of the 1950s, leading to a nationwide anti-base movement and a number of spectacular protests, including Bloody May Day in 1952, the Sunagawa Struggle from 1955 to 1957, and the Girard Incident protests in 1957. Partially in response to these protests,
7812-576: The decision was made to withdraw J Force, twenty Corsairs were stacked together at one end of the airfield in October 1949 and set alight as the air force considered the aircraft to be at the end of their useful life and could not justify the expense of returning them to New Zealand. The only casualty during the deployment was Flight Lieutenant C. W. N Wright who was killed when his aircraft crashed on takeoff. Personnel departed Japan on 25 November 1948 on MV Westralia . Flying Dakota transport aircraft,
7936-460: The decisions leading Japan into war. Ultimately, SCAP screened a total of 717,415 possible purgees, and wound up excluding 201,815 of them from holding public office. However, as part of the " Reverse Course " in Occupation policy, most of the purgees would be de-purged and allowed to return to public life by 1951. After Japan's surrender, women's leaders in Japan began calling for women's enfranchisement. In August 1945, Ichikawa Fusae (a leader of
8060-429: The end of August in 1945. In the end, despite its initial hopes, the Soviet Union did not manage to occupy any part of the Japanese home islands, largely due to significant U.S. opposition that was backed by the leverage gained by its then newly realized status as the world's only nuclear-armed state. In any case, Soviet leader Joseph Stalin was not inclined to press the Americans very far following Japan's surrender. He
8184-414: The end of the Occupation, the United States has continuously pressured Japan to revise its American-imposed constitution to remove Article 9 and fully remilitarize. As a result, in 1954 the National Police Reserve was reorganized into the Japan Self-Defense Forces , a de facto military force, with U.S. assistance. However, thus far Japan has resisted U.S. pressures to fully rearm and remilitarize. Under
8308-469: The false conception that the Emperor is divine, and that the Japanese people are superior to other races and fated to rule the world. In 1947, the Diet ratified a new Constitution of Japan through amendment of Meiji Constitution that followed closely a "model copy" drafted by American civilian officials within SCAP, and was promulgated to replace the old Prussian -style Meiji Constitution that had granted
8432-579: The first draft were 36 Women's Army Auxiliary Corps personnel (WAACs) and 30 women from the New Zealand Army Nursing Service (NZANS). All were volunteers. The Royal New Zealand Air Force had no problems filling the initial 24 flying positions and 250 support staff positions from over 1,500 applications. On 8 March 1946 the squadron complete with its aircraft departed New Zealand on the British aircraft carrier HMS Glory . Both
8556-457: The form of nurses, shorthand typists, hostesses and welfare staff. By the time the first New Zealand forces arrived in March 1946 United States military forces had already occupied most of Japan. The British Commonwealth Occupation Force (BCOF) was to be responsible for Hiroshima Prefecture as it contained a large port, Kure , and an adjacent airfield, Iwakuni . However, the zone of deployment
8680-414: The foundations for decades of conservative rule. At the same time, it did not completely destroy leftist forces that had been deliberately unleashed in the Occupation's early stages, setting the stage for extremely contentious political struggles and labor strife in the 1950s, culminating in the massive Anpo protests and Miike Coal Mine Strike , both in 1960. In 1949, MacArthur made a sweeping change in
8804-468: The genitals , and pelvic pain . Some STIs can cause infertility . Bacterial STIs include chlamydia , gonorrhea , and syphilis . Viral STIs include genital warts , genital herpes , and HIV/AIDS . Parasitic STIs include trichomoniasis . Most STIs are treatable and curable, of the most common infections; syphilis, gonorrhea, chlamydia, and trichomoniasis are curable, while HIV/AIDS and genital herpes are not curable. Some vaccinations may decrease
8928-405: The guise of Licensed Agencies for Relief in Asia, private relief organizations were also permitted to provide relief. Even with these measures, millions of people were still on the brink of starvation for several years after the surrender. Once the food network was in place, MacArthur set out to win the support of Hirohito. The two men met for the first time on September 27, 1945; the photograph of
9052-594: The hunger problem in Japan, as these people put more strain on already scarce resources. Around 5.1 million Japanese returned to Japan in the fifteen months following October 1, 1945, and another million returned in 1947. As expressed by Kazuo Kawai, "Democracy cannot be taught to a starving people". Initially, the U.S. government provided emergency food relief through Government Aid and Relief in Occupied Areas ( GARIOA ) funds. In fiscal year 1946, this aid amounted to US$ 92 million in loans. From April 1946, under
9176-510: The imperial throne and was effectively granted full immunity from prosecution for war crimes after he agreed to replace the wartime cabinet with a ministry acceptable to the Allies and committed to implementing the terms of the Potsdam Declaration , which among other things called for the country to become a parliamentary democracy . Under MacArthur's guidance, the Japanese government introduced sweeping social reforms and implemented economic reforms that recalled American " New Deal " priorities of
9300-559: The individuals arrested as Class A suspects and incarcerated in Sugamo prison solemnly vowed to protect their sovereign against any possible taint of war responsibility. Thus, months before the Tokyo tribunal commenced, MacArthur's highest subordinates were working to attribute ultimate responsibility for attack on Pearl Harbor to former prime minister Hideki Tojo by allowing "the major criminal suspects to coordinate their stories so that
9424-528: The industrial sector, plans for further anti-trust actions against the remains of the old zaibatsu industrial conglomerates were scrapped, and some earlier anti-trust policies were partially undone. The incomplete suppression of the zaibatsu allowed them to partially reform as "informal associations" known as keiretsu . SCAP also attempted to weaken the labor unions they had recently empowered, most notably issuing an edict stripping public-sector workers of their right to go on strike. In order to stabilize
9548-591: The infected person to seek a medical professional. One report indicated that people turn to the Internet rather than to a medical professional for information on STIs to a higher degree than for other sexual problems. Until the 1990s, STIs were commonly known as venereal diseases , an antiquated euphemism derived from the Latin venereus , being the adjectival form of Venus , the Roman goddess of love. However, in
9672-535: The initial effort to punish and reform Japan; the so-called " Reverse Course " in which the focus shifted to suppressing dissent and reviving the Japanese economy to support the US in the Cold War as a country of the Western Bloc ; and the final establishment of a formal peace treaty with the 48 Allies of the Second World War and an enduring military alliance with the United States. American planning for
9796-825: The land and air force contributions arrived off the port of Kure on the Inland Sea of Japan in March 1946 in the company of HMNZS Achilles and HMNZS Hawera , which joined the Force from their stations in the Pacific where they had been serving during the Japanese surrender. In New Zealand service in Japan was more popular with applications from returned servicemen who were having trouble readjusting to civilian life as well as from young men and women who had missed out on wartime service and wanted adventure. Between May 1946 and August 1947 four relief drafts were dispatched from New Zealand to Japan. The relief drafts also featured women in
9920-462: The leading causes of death in present-day Sub-Saharan Africa . HIV/AIDS is transmitted primarily via unprotected sexual intercourse. More than 1.1 million persons are living with HIV/AIDS in the United States , and it disproportionately impacts African Americans . Hepatitis B is also considered a sexually transmitted infection because it can be spread through sexual contact. The highest rates are found in Asia and Africa and lower rates are in
10044-489: The main islands of Japan ( Honshu , Hokkaido , Shikoku , and Kyushu ) and the immediately surrounding islands, while outlying possessions were divided between the Allied Powers as follows: In early August 1945, with Japan's surrender seeming probable, the US Joint Chiefs of Staff recommended to President Harry S. Truman that Pacific Theatre Commander General Douglas MacArthur be named Supreme Commander for
10168-695: The occupation forces. It appears to have been the brainchild of Kosaku Teramoto, a former member of the Thought Police , who had become the head of the Labor Standards section of the Welfare Ministry. Before and during the war, Japanese education was based on the German system, with " Gymnasien " (selective grammar schools) and universities to train students after primary school. During the occupation, Japan's secondary education system
10292-481: The occupation of Japan. The establishment of a multilateral Allied council for Japan was proposed by the Soviet government as early as September 1945, and was supported partially by the British, French and Chinese governments. The initial phase of the Occupation focused on punishing Japan for having made war on the Allies, and undertook a thorough reformation of Japanese society to ensure that Japan would never again be
10416-438: The occupation of Japan. Due to its weakened condition at the end of the war Britain lacked the resources to provide a force by itself and it wanted members of Commonwealth to help supply sufficient numbers to show the United States that it was still a major power. On 21 August 1945 the New Zealand government agreed to contribute both a land and an air contingent. The army contribution which consisted of both male and female members
10540-506: The only time in the history of Japan that it has been occupied by a foreign power. However, unlike in Germany, the Allies never assumed direct control over Japan's civil administration. In the immediate aftermath of Japan's military surrender, the country's government continued to formally operate under the provisions of the Meiji Constitution . Furthermore, at General MacArthur's insistence, Emperor Hirohito remained on
10664-422: The original 1951 Security Treaty was revised into a somewhat less one-sided pact in 1960, resulting in the current U.S.-Japan Security Treaty , which has had the effect of establishing a military alliance between the United States and Japan . However, even the revised treaty was opposed by many in Japan, leading to the massive 1960 Anpo protests , which were the largest protests in Japan's modern history. Since
10788-475: The overall occupation, BCOF was responsible for supervising demilitarization and the disposal of Japan's war industries. BCOF was also responsible for occupation of several western prefectures and had its headquarters at Kure . At its peak, the force numbered about 40,000 personnel. During 1947, BCOF began to decrease its activities in Japan, and officially wound up in 1951. The Far Eastern Commission and Allied Council for Japan were also established to supervise
10912-428: The penis with a properly worn condom from the vagina or anus effectively stops HIV transmission. An infected fluid to broken skin borne direct transmission of HIV would not be considered "sexually transmitted", but can still theoretically occur during sexual contact. This can be avoided simply by not engaging in sexual contact when presenting open, bleeding wounds. Other STIs, even viral infections, can be prevented with
11036-487: The person return the test for follow-up. Other facilities strongly encourage that those previously infected return to ensure that the infection has been eliminated. Novel strategies to foster re-testing have been the use of text messaging and email as reminders. These types of reminders are now used in addition to phone calls and letters. After obtaining a sexual history, a healthcare provider can encourage risk reduction by providing prevention counseling . Prevention counseling
11160-725: The political ammunition he needed to begin the real work of the occupation. While other Allied political and military leaders pushed for Hirohito to be tried as a war criminal , MacArthur resisted such calls, arguing that any such prosecution would be overwhelmingly unpopular with the Japanese people. He also rejected calls for abdication , promoted by some members of the imperial family such as Takahito, Prince Mikasa (younger brother of Hirohito) and former prime minister Prince Naruhiko Higashikuni (Hirohito's eldest daughter, Princess Shigeko 's father-in-law) and demands of intellectuals like Tatsuji Miyoshi . Japanese soldiers were rapidly disarmed and demobilized en masse. On September 15, 1945,
11284-493: The post-classical education era the euphemistic effect was entirely lost, and the common abbreviation "VD" held only negative connotations. Other former euphemisms for STIs include "blood diseases" and "social diseases". The present euphemism is in the use of the initials "STI" rather than in the words they represent. The World Health Organization (WHO) has recommended the more inclusive term sexually transmitted infection since 1999. Public health officials originally introduced
11408-521: The pre-war women's suffrage movement) organized the Women's Committee to Cope with Postwar Conditions, a group of 70 Japanese women whose top priorities included women's enfranchisement. Swayed by the urges of female leaders, Home Minister Horiuchi Zenjiro advocated for granting women enfranchisement in a meeting of the Japanese male leaders of the Shidehara Cabinet on October 9, 1945. Convinced,
11532-416: The prevailing more judgemental view and published her own research on improving sex education and maternity care. The first effective treatment for a sexually transmitted infection was salvarsan , a treatment for syphilis. With the discovery of antibiotics , a large number of sexually transmitted infections became easily curable, and this, combined with effective public health campaigns against STIs, led to
11656-538: The quality of the accommodation and the supply of food had improved considerably. Because members of the BCOF were paid in pounds sterling whose exchange rate with the yen was set at an artificially low rate in an effort to slow inflation, this allowed members of the force to make money on the black market supplying Japanese with basic goods such as food and soap. Boredom was also initially a major problem, but as non-fraternisation rules were progressively relaxed high rates of venereal disease developed. J Force's first task
11780-443: The recommended method of diagnosis for gonorrhea and chlamydia. This can be done on either urine in both men and women, vaginal or cervical swabs in women, or urethral swabs in men. Screening can be performed: In the case of rape, the person can be treated prophylacticly with antibiotics. An option for treating partners of patients ( index cases ) diagnosed with chlamydia or gonorrhea is patient-delivered partner therapy , which
11904-436: The risk of certain infections including hepatitis B and few types of HPV . Safe sex practices such as use of condoms , having smaller number of sexual partners, and being in a relationship in which each person only has sex with the other also decreases STIs risk. Comprehensive sex education may also be useful. STI diagnostic tests are usually easily available in the developed world , but they are often unavailable in
12028-407: The same as in 2016, but there were more than 20% increases in confirmed cases of gonorrhoea and syphilis. Since 2008 syphilis cases have risen by 148%, from 2,874 to 7,137, mostly among men who have sex with men . The number of first cases of genital warts in 2017 among girls aged 15–17 years was just 441, 90% less than in 2009 – attributed to the national HPV immunisation programme. AIDS is among
12152-576: The scarce Japanese food. Flying the Hinomaru (sun disc), national flag of Japan was initially severely restricted (although individuals and prefectural offices could apply for permission to fly it); this restriction was partially lifted in 1948 and completely lifted the following year. On September 2, 1945, Japan formally surrendered with the signing of the Japanese Instrument of Surrender . On September 6, U.S. President Truman approved
12276-487: The seas between Japan and Korea to identify and turn back boats from smuggling Koreans into Japan. The squadron stayed in Japan for second year despite lacking a third of its ground staff due to the New Zealand Treasury Department refusing to fund recruiting advertisements. In February 1948, No.14 Squadron moved to Hōfu Air Field , where they replaced Royal Australian Air Force Mustangs. After
12400-658: The second half of the 19th century, the Contagious Diseases Acts were used to arrest suspected prostitutes. In 1924, a number of states concluded the Brussels Agreement , whereby states agreed to provide free or low-cost medical treatment at ports for merchant seamen with STIs. A proponent of these approaches was Nora Wattie , OBE, Venereal Diseases Officer in Glasgow from 1929, encouraged contact tracing and volunteering for treatment, rather than
12524-576: The sexual and reproductive health of adolescents. Incentive-based programmes may reduce adolescent pregnancy but more data is needed to confirm this. Specific age groups, persons who participate in risky sexual behavior, or those have certain health conditions may require screening. The CDC recommends that sexually active women under the age of 25 and those over 25 at risk should be screened for chlamydia and gonorrhea yearly. Appropriate times for screening are during regular pelvic examinations and preconception evaluations. Nucleic acid amplification tests are
12648-501: The sexual partner. There is no difference in reinfection prevention whether the sexual partner treated with medication without medical examination or after notification by patient. In 2008, it was estimated that 500 million people were infected with either syphilis, gonorrhea, chlamydia or trichomoniasis. At least an additional 530 million people have genital herpes and 290 million women have human papillomavirus (HPV). STIs other than HIV resulted in 142,000 deaths in 2013. In
12772-415: The shattered economy, and remilitarizing Japan to the extent possible under Article 9 , in support of U.S. Cold War objectives in East Asia . This involved relaxing and in some cases even partially undoing earlier reforms the Occupation had enacted in 1945 and 1946. As a U.S. Department of State official history puts it, "this 'Reverse Course'...focused on strengthening, not punishing, what would become
12896-399: The special work of experienced women, to create a breakwater to protect regular women and girls." A large contributor to this system being hastily implemented was the experience of the prior comfort women system. Venereal disease A sexually transmitted infection ( STI ), also referred to as a sexually transmitted disease ( STD ) and the older term venereal disease ( VD ),
13020-564: The squadron, the US provided Corsair FG-1D fighter aircraft, and extended its Lend-lease arrangement to cover the cost. The squadron was commanded by Squadron Leader Jesse de Willimoff, who was later succeeded by Squadron Leader D.F St George. Initially located in southern Honshu at the former Japanese naval air base at Iwakuni , the squadron undertook armed air patrols designed to protect armament and bomb dumps, identify locations of hidden ammunition, and check schoolyards for forbidden military parades. They also undertook surveillance flights over
13144-497: The term sexually transmitted infection , which clinicians are increasingly using alongside the term sexually transmitted disease in order to distinguish it from the former. Strategies for reducing STI risk include: vaccination, mutual monogamy , reducing the number of sexual partners, and abstinence. Also potentially helpful is behavioral counseling for sexually active adolescents and for adults who are at increased risk. Such interactive counseling, which can be resource-intensive,
13268-418: The two together is one of the most famous in Japanese history. Some were shocked that MacArthur wore his standard duty uniform with no tie, instead of his dress uniform, when meeting the Emperor Hirohito . The difference in height between the towering MacArthur and the diminutive Hirohito also impressed upon Japanese citizens who was in charge now. With the cooperation of Japan's reigning monarch, MacArthur had
13392-438: The use of latex, polyurethane or polyisoprene condoms as a barrier. Some microorganisms and viruses are small enough to pass through the pores in natural skin condoms but are still too large to pass through latex or synthetic condoms. Proper male condom usage entails: In order to best protect oneself and the partner from STIs, the old condom and its contents are to be treated as infectious and properly disposed of. A new condom
13516-487: The war crimes trials actually convened, the SCAP, its International Prosecution Section (IPS) and Shōwa officials worked behind the scenes not only to prevent the imperial family from being indicted, but also to slant the testimony of the defendants to ensure that no one implicated the Emperor. High officials in court circles and the Shōwa government collaborated with Allied GHQ in compiling lists of prospective war criminals, while
13640-569: The years to come and power the Japanese economic miracle . As part of the Reverse Course, the United States also began pressuring Japan to remilitarize. In 1950, SCAP established the National Police Reserve (NPR), which would later become the basis of the present-day Japan Self Defense Forces (JSDF), founded in 1954. The climax of the Reverse course came in the so-called " Red Purge " ( reddo pāji ) of 1950. The " fall " of China to
13764-603: Was occupied and administered by the Allies of World War II from the surrender of the Empire of Japan on September 2, 1945, at the war's end until the Treaty of San Francisco took effect on April 28, 1952. The occupation, led by the American military with support from the British Commonwealth and under the supervision of the Far Eastern Commission , involved a total of nearly one million Allied soldiers. The occupation
13888-669: Was also resolved during this time. The Japanese writing system was drastically reorganized with the Tōyō kanji -list in 1946, predecessor of today's Jōyō kanji , and orthography was greatly altered to reflect spoken usage. A sweeping land reform was also conducted, led by Wolf Ladejinsky from SCAP. However, Ladejinsky would claim that the real architect of the reform was Hiroo Wada [ ja ] , former Japanese Minister of Agriculture and Forestry . Between 1947 and 1949, approximately 5,800,000 acres (23,000 km ) of land (approximately 38% of Japan's cultivated land) were purchased from
14012-457: Was built around the 9th Infantry Brigade Group , and was placed under the command of Brigadier K. L. Stewart , who was later replaced by Brigadier W. G. Gentry . The initial draft consisted of two infantry battalions—the 27th and 22nd Battalions —as well as the 2nd Divisional Cavalry Regiment , the 25th Field Battery, and the 5th Engineer Company along with supporting elements which included signals, transport, workshops and medical units. Among
14136-586: Was changed to incorporate three-year junior high schools and senior high schools similar to those in the United States: Junior high school became compulsory, but senior high school remained optional. The Imperial Rescript on Education was repealed, and the Imperial University system reorganized. The longstanding issue of Japanese script reform , which had been planned for decades but continuously opposed by more conservative elements,
14260-506: Was developed after the cervical diaphragm . Both cover the cervix and the main difference between the diaphragm and the cap is that the latter must be used only once, using a new one in each sexual act. The diaphragm, however, can be used more than once. These two devices partially protect against STIs (they do not protect against HIV). Researchers had hoped that nonoxynol-9 , a vaginal microbicide would help decrease STI risk. Trials, however, have found it ineffective and it may put women at
14384-433: Was first definitely recorded in Europe in 1495, its pustules often covered the body from the head to the knees, caused flesh to fall from people's faces, and led to death within a few months," rendering it far more fatal than it is today. Diamond concludes, "[B]y 1546, the disease had evolved into the disease with the symptoms so well known to us today." Gonorrhea is recorded at least up to 700 years ago and associated with
14508-468: Was held, giving Japan its first prime minister partially elected by men and women, Shigeru Yoshida succeeded Kijūrō Shidehara as prime minister, took office on May 22, 1946. At SCAP's insistence, as part of a New Year's Day message, Emperor Hirohito publicly renounced his own divinity, declaring: The ties between Us and Our people have always stood upon mutual trust and affection. They do not depend upon mere legends and myths. They are not predicated on
14632-609: Was made through a number of drafts. The initial contingent of the NZEF (Japan) was formed in Florence, Italy, on 19 November 1945. This was intended to provide the initial occupation force until a special occupation force could be created in New Zealand. Prime Minister Peter Fraser wanted the 5,000-strong contribution to be drawn from single male volunteers from the 2NZEF. However, its commander, Lieutenant-General Sir Bernard Freyberg, did not believe this would provide sufficient numbers. As
14756-459: Was not big enough and so the area was extended to neighbouring prefectures. Within the BCOF J Force was responsible for the largely rural Yamaguchi Prefecture and Mishima Island, both in the south of Honshu. The initial draft encountered uncomfortable living conditions and poor food, which they compared unfavourably with what they had experienced in Italy. By the time the second relief draft arrived
14880-470: Was not willing to place Soviet troops under MacArthur's direct command. Furthermore, in terms of both strategic interests and prestige the Soviets had achieved most of their war aims in the Far East. Moreover, whereas China, Korea and Japan were all a considerable distance from the USSR's European heartland, Stalin regarded establishing a powerful buffer against further military threats from the west to be vital to
15004-527: Was occupied by the First Cavalry Division and Sixth Army . Hokkaido was occupied by the 77th Infantry and 11th Airborne Divisions. By the beginning of 1946, replacement troops began to arrive in the country in large numbers and were assigned to MacArthur's Eighth Army , headquartered in Tokyo's Dai-Ichi building. In total, including rotations of replacement troops throughout the seven years, nearly 1 million American soldiers would serve in
15128-630: Was overseen by the US General Douglas MacArthur , who was appointed Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers by the US President Harry S. Truman ; MacArthur was succeeded as supreme commander by General Matthew Ridgway in 1951. Unlike in the occupations of Germany and Austria , the Soviet Union had little to no influence in Japan, declining to participate because it did not want to place Soviet troops under MacArthur's direct command. This foreign presence marks
15252-599: Was searching for and collecting military equipment. Little was found as Yamaguchi had not had a major military presence during the war. J Force also oversaw the repatriation of Japanese soldiers coming home from the war and Koreans being returned to their country. Post-war Japan was economically devastated which made it an ideal environment for black marketeering. As such, J Force's policing duties included monitoring black market groups and also large gatherings of people on public occasions and generally keeping order until civilian government could be re-established. J Force also assisted
15376-465: Was the famous Article Nine , whereby Japan forever renounced war as an instrument of state policy and became forbidden to maintain a standing army. The 1947 Constitution also officially enfranchised women, guaranteed fundamental human rights, strengthened the powers of Parliament and the Cabinet, and decentralized the police and local government. To further remove Japan as a potential future threat to
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