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90-508: The structure is significant in the island's history as it represents the tensions within the Theravada and Mahayana sects of Buddhism ; it is also significant in recorded history as one of the tallest structures in the ancient world ; and the tallest non-pyramidal building; the height of the stupa was 122 metres (400 ft), making it the tallest stupa in the ancient world. With the destruction and abandonment of Anuradhapura kingdom in

180-429: A ⁠ + ⁠ y / b ⁠ + ⁠ z / c ⁠ = 1 and the plane with equation n x x + n y y + n z z = d , which have an ellipse in common. Wanted: Three vectors f 0 (center) and f 1 , f 2 (conjugate vectors), such that the ellipse can be represented by the parametric equation (see ellipse ). Solution: The scaling u = ⁠ x /

270-505: A ⁠ , v = ⁠ y / b ⁠ , w = ⁠ z / c ⁠ transforms the ellipsoid onto the unit sphere u + v + w = 1 and the given plane onto the plane with equation Let m u u + m v v + m w w = δ be the Hesse normal form of the new plane and its unit normal vector. Hence is the center of the intersection circle and its radius (see diagram). Where m w = ±1 (i.e.

360-595: A Buddhist education. Anagarika Dhammapala , Migettuwatte Gunananda Thera , Hikkaduwe Sri Sumangala Thera and Henry Steel Olcott (one of the first American western converts to Buddhism) were some of the main figures of the Sri Lankan Buddhist revival. Two new monastic orders were formed in the 19th century, the Amarapura Nikāya and the Rāmañña Nikāya . In Burma, an influential modernist figure

450-637: A dominant religion in the Southeast Asian kingdoms of Sri Ksetra and Dvaravati from about the 5th century CE onwards. The oldest surviving Buddhist texts in the Pāli language are gold plates found at Sri Ksetra dated circa the 5th to 6th century. Before the Theravāda tradition became the dominant religion in Southeast Asia, Mahāyāna, Vajrayana and Hinduism were also prominent. Starting at around

540-433: A more general triaxial ellipsoid, see ellipsoidal latitude . The volume bounded by the ellipsoid is In terms of the principal diameters A , B , C (where A = 2 a , B = 2 b , C = 2 c ), the volume is This equation reduces to that of the volume of a sphere when all three elliptic radii are equal, and to that of an oblate or prolate spheroid when two of them are equal. The volume of an ellipsoid

630-523: A penalty was established for any person providing alms to monks dwelling in the mahavihara. The Mahavamsa quotes Sanghamitra: "The dwellers in the Mahavihara do not teach the (true) vinaya, we are those who teach the (true) Vinaya, O king". The Mahavihara was eventually abandoned. The monks dwelling at the premises moved to Malaya country and the Principality of Ruhuna , this was followed by

720-594: A self ( attā ) and conditioned. This is spelled out in the Patisambhidhamagga , which states that dhammas are empty of svabhava ( sabhavena suññam ). According to Ronkin, the canonical Pāli Abhidhamma remains pragmatic and psychological, and "does not take much interest in ontology " in contrast with the Sarvastivada tradition. Paul Williams also notes that the Abhidhamma remains focused on

810-399: A value of p = ⁠ 8 / 5 ⁠ = 1.6 is optimal for nearly spherical ellipsoids, with a relative error of at most 1.178%. In the "flat" limit of c much smaller than a and b , the area is approximately 2π ab , equivalent to p = log 2 3 ≈ 1.5849625007 . The intersection of a plane and a sphere is a circle (or is reduced to a single point, or is empty). Any ellipsoid

900-415: A vihara on the grounds of Mahavihara. The Mahavamsa quotes the king: "We will make the vihara to be dwelt in yet again; forgive me my fault." Sanghamitra was assassinated by a labourer on the instructions of a wife of the king. Sangamitra's demise and the construction of parivena by minister Meghavannabhaya marked the return of monks to the site of Mahavihara. Thus the construction of Jetavanaramaya began and

990-600: Is ⁠ 2 / 3 ⁠ the volume of a circumscribed elliptic cylinder , and ⁠ π / 6 ⁠ the volume of the circumscribed box. The volumes of the inscribed and circumscribed boxes are respectively: The surface area of a general (triaxial) ellipsoid is where and where F ( φ , k ) and E ( φ , k ) are incomplete elliptic integrals of the first and second kind respectively. The surface area of this general ellipsoid can also be expressed in terms of ⁠ R G {\displaystyle R_{G}} ⁠ , one of

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1080-556: Is nibbana . The 81 conditioned dhammas are divided into three broad categories: consciousness ( citta ), associated mentality ( cetasika ) and materiality, or physical phenomena ( rupa ). Since no dhamma exists independently, every single dhamma of consciousness, known as a citta , arises associated ( sampayutta ) with at least seven mental factors ( cetasikas ) . In Abhidhamma, all awareness events are thus seen as being characterized by intentionality and never exist in isolation. Much of Abhidhamma philosophy deals with categorizing

1170-404: Is where These parameters may be interpreted as spherical coordinates , where θ is the polar angle and φ is the azimuth angle of the point ( x , y , z ) of the ellipsoid. Measuring from the equator rather than a pole, where θ is the reduced latitude , parametric latitude , or eccentric anomaly and λ is azimuth or longitude. Measuring angles directly to

1260-538: Is "only for the purposes of description" that they are postulated. Noa Ronkin defines dhammas as "the constituents of sentient experience; the irreducible 'building blocks' that make up one's world, albeit they are not static mental contents and certainly not substances." Thus, while in Theravāda Abhidhamma, dhammas are the ultimate constituents of experience, they are not seen as substances , essences or independent particulars, since they are empty ( suñña ) of

1350-669: Is a far greater volume of Theravāda literature in vernacular languages than in Pāli." An important genre of Theravādin literature, in both Pāli and vernacular languages, are the Jataka tales , stories of the Buddha's past lives. They are very popular among all classes and are rendered in a wide variety of media formats, from cartoons to high literature. The Vessantara Jātaka is one of the most popular of these. Most Theravāda Buddhists generally consider Mahāyāna Buddhist scriptures to be apocryphal , meaning that they are not authentic words of

1440-602: Is also the author of a very important compendium of Theravāda doctrine, the Visuddhimagga . Other figures like Dhammapala and Buddhadatta also wrote Theravāda commentaries and other works in Pali during the time of Buddhaghosa. While these texts do not have the same scriptural authority in Theravāda as the Tipiṭaka, they remain influential works for the exegesis of the Tipiṭaka. An important genre of Theravādin literature

1530-479: Is attained in four stages of awakening ( bodhi ): In Theravāda Buddhism, a Buddha is a sentient being who has discovered the path out of samsara by themselves, has reached Nibbana and then makes the path available to others by teaching (known as "turning the wheel of the Dhamma"). A Buddha is also believed to have extraordinary powers and abilities ( abhiññā ), such as the ability to read minds and fly through

1620-554: Is defined in Cartesian coordinates as: where a {\displaystyle a} , b {\displaystyle b} and c {\displaystyle c} are the length of the semi-axes. The points ( a , 0 , 0 ) {\displaystyle (a,0,0)} , ( 0 , b , 0 ) {\displaystyle (0,b,0)} and ( 0 , 0 , c ) {\displaystyle (0,0,c)} lie on

1710-436: Is invariant under a rotation around the third axis, and there are thus infinitely many ways of choosing the two perpendicular axes of the same length. If the third axis is shorter, the ellipsoid is an oblate spheroid ; if it is longer, it is a prolate spheroid . If the three axes have the same length, the ellipsoid is a sphere. The general ellipsoid, also known as triaxial ellipsoid, is a quadratic surface which

1800-460: Is shorter handbooks and summaries, which serve as introductions and study guides for the larger commentaries. Two of the more influential summaries are Sariputta Thera's Pālimuttakavinayavinicchayasaṅgaha, a summary of Buddhaghosa's Vinaya commentary and Anuruddha's Abhidhammaṭṭhasaṅgaha (a "Manual of Abhidhamma"). Throughout the history of Theravāda, Theravāda monks also produced other works of Pāli literature such as historical chronicles (like

1890-524: Is the fact that Theravāda rejects the authenticity of the Mahayana sutras (which appeared c.  1st century BCE onwards). Consequently, Theravāda generally does not recognize the existence of many Buddhas and bodhisattvas believed by the Mahāyāna school, such as Amitābha and Vairocana , because they are not found in the canonical scriptures. Modern Theravāda derives from Sri Lankan Branch of

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1980-461: Is the image of the unit sphere under some affine transformation, and any plane is the image of some other plane under the same transformation. So, because affine transformations map circles to ellipses, the intersection of a plane with an ellipsoid is an ellipse or a single point, or is empty. Obviously, spheroids contain circles. This is also true, but less obvious, for triaxial ellipsoids (see Circular section ). Given: Ellipsoid ⁠ x /

2070-420: Is the language of realism that one encounters. The whole Buddhist practical doctrine and discipline, which has the attainment of Nibbana as its final goal, is based on the recognition of the material world and the conscious living beings living therein. The Theravāda Abhidhamma holds that there is a total of 82 possible types of dhammas, 81 of these are conditioned ( sankhata ), while one is unconditioned, which

2160-541: The Dipavamsa and the Mahavamsa ), hagiographies , poetry, Pāli grammars, and " sub-commentaries " (that is, commentaries on the commentaries). While Pāli texts are symbolically and ritually important for many Theravādins, most people are likely to access Buddhist teachings through vernacular literature, oral teachings, sermons, art and performance as well as films and Internet media. According to Kate Crosby, "there

2250-774: The Agamas , the parallel collections used by non-Theravāda schools in India which are preserved in Chinese and partially in Sanskrit , Prakrit , and Tibetan , as well as the various non-Theravāda Vinayas. On this basis, these Early Buddhist texts (i.e. the Nikayas and parts of the Vinaya) are generally believed to be some of the oldest and most authoritative sources on the doctrines of pre-sectarian Buddhism by modern scholars. Much of

2340-644: The Carlson symmetric forms of elliptic integrals: Simplifying above formula using properties of R G , this can be also be expressed in terms of the volume of the ellipsoid V : Unlike the expression with F ( φ , k ) and E ( φ , k ) , the equations in terms of R G do not depend on the choice of an order on a , b , and c . The surface area of an ellipsoid of revolution (or spheroid) may be expressed in terms of elementary functions : or or and which, as follows from basic trigonometric identities, are equivalent expressions (i.e.

2430-464: The Jain cosmology . This entire cyclical multiverse of constant birth and death is called samsara . Outside of this system of samsara is nibbana (lit. "vanishing, quenching, blowing out"), a deathless ( amata ) and transcendent reality, which is a total and final release ( vimutti ) from all suffering ( dukkha ) and rebirth. According to Theravāda doctrine, release from suffering (i.e. nibbana )

2520-462: The Pāli Canon for over two millennia. The Pāli Canon is the most complete Buddhist canon surviving in a classical Indian language , Pāli , which serves as the school's sacred language and lingua franca . In contrast to Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna , Theravāda tends to be conservative in matters of doctrine ( pariyatti ) and monastic discipline ( vinaya ). One element of this conservatism

2610-698: The Sixth Buddhist council ( Vesak 1954 to Vesak 1956) to create a new redaction of the Pāli Canon , which was then published by the government in 40 volumes. The Vipassana movement continued to grow after independence, becoming an international movement with centers around the world. Influential meditation teachers of the post-independence era include U Narada , Mahasi Sayadaw , Sayadaw U Pandita , Nyanaponika Thera , Webu Sayadaw , U Ba Khin and his student S.N. Goenka. Meanwhile, in Thailand (the only Theravāda nation to retain its independence throughout

2700-666: The Sri Lankan kings , who saw themselves as the protectors of the religion. Over time, two other sects split off from the Mahāvihāra tradition, the Abhayagiri and Jetavana . While the Abhayagiri sect became known for the syncretic study of Mahayana and Vajrayana texts, as well as the Theravāda canon, the Mahāvihāra tradition did not accept these new scriptures. Instead, Mahāvihāra scholars like Buddhaghosa focused on

2790-758: The Sthāvira nikāya , one of the two major orders that arose after the first schism in the Indian Buddhist community. Theravāda sources trace their tradition to the Third Buddhist council when elder Moggaliputta-Tissa is said to have compiled the Kathavatthu , an important work which lays out the Vibhajjavāda doctrinal position. Aided by the patronage of Mauryan kings like Ashoka , this school spread throughout India and reached Sri Lanka through

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2880-706: The Vipassana movement which reinvigorated Theravāda meditation practice, the growth of the Thai Forest Tradition which reemphasized forest monasticism and the spread of Theravāda westward to places such as India and Nepal, along with Buddhist immigrants and converts in the European Union and in the United States . The Theravāda school descends from the Vibhajjavāda , a division within

2970-513: The five aggregates or khandha and the eighteen elements of cognition or dhatus . Theravāda traditionally promotes itself as the Vibhajjavāda "teaching of analysis" and as the heirs to the Buddha's analytical method. Expanding this model, Theravāda Abhidhamma scholasticism concerned itself with analyzing " ultimate truth " ( paramattha-sacca ) which it sees as being composed of all possible dhammas and their relationships. The central theory of

3060-684: The 11th century, Sinhalese Theravāda monks and Southeast Asian elites led a widespread conversion of most of mainland Southeast Asia to the Theravādin Mahavihara school. The patronage of monarchs such as the Burmese king Anawrahta (Pali: Aniruddha, 1044–1077) and the Thai king Ram Khamhaeng ( floruit . late 13th century) was instrumental in the rise of Theravāda Buddhism as the predominant religion of Burma and Thailand. Burmese and Thai kings saw themselves as Dhamma Kings and as protectors of

3150-418: The 11th century, the stupa with others was covered by jungle. King Parakramabahu in the 12th century tried to renovate this stupa and it was rebuilt to the current height, a reduction from the original height. Today it stands at 71 metres (233 ft). The compound covers approximately 5.6 hectares and is estimated to have housed 10,000 Buddhist monks. One side of the stupa is 176 m (576 ft) long, and

3240-598: The 19th and 20th centuries, Theravāda Buddhists came into direct contact with western ideologies, religions and modern science. The various responses to this encounter have been called " Buddhist modernism ". In the British colonies of Ceylon (modern Sri Lanka) and Burma (Myanmar), Buddhist institutions lost their traditional role as the prime providers of education (a role that was often filled by Christian schools). In response to this, Buddhist organizations were founded which sought to preserve Buddhist scholarship and provide

3330-554: The Abhidhamma is thus known as the " dhamma theory ". "Dhamma" has been translated as "factors" (Collett Cox), "psychic characteristics" (Bronkhorst), "psycho-physical events" (Noa Ronkin) and "phenomena" ( Nyanaponika Thera ). According to the Sri Lankan scholar Y. Karunadasa , a dhammas ("principles" or "elements") are "those items that result when the process of analysis is taken to its ultimate limits". However, this does not mean that they have an independent existence, for it

3420-560: The Buddha. Consequently, Theravādin generally does not recognize the existence of many Buddhas and bodhisattvas believed by the Mahāyāna school, such as Amitābha and Vairocana , because they are not found in the canonical scriptures. The core of Theravāda Buddhist doctrine is contained in the Pāli Canon, the only complete collection of Early Buddhist Texts surviving in a classical Indic language . These basic Buddhist ideas are shared by

3510-652: The Far East, and artistic influences that point to a shared culture in South Asia. [REDACTED] Sri Lanka portal Theravada Theravāda ( / ˌ t ɛr ə ˈ v ɑː ð ə / ; lit. 'School of the Elders') is the most commonly accepted name of Buddhism 's oldest existing school. The school's adherents, termed Theravādins ( anglicized from Pali theravādī ), have preserved their version of Gautama Buddha 's teaching or Dhamma in

3600-474: The Pali Nikayas, then we should be compelled to conclude that Buddhism is realistic. There is no explicit denial anywhere of the external world. Nor is there any positive evidence to show that the world is mind-made or simply a projection of subjective thoughts. That Buddhism recognizes the extra-mental existence of matter and, the external world is clearly suggested by the texts. Throughout the discourses it

3690-813: The Pāli Tipiṭaka has been transmitted with a high degree of accuracy for well over 1,500 years." There are numerous editions of the Tipiṭaka, some of the major modern editions include the Pali Text Society edition (published in Roman script), the Burmese Sixth Council edition (in Burmese script , 1954–56) and the Thai Tipiṭaka edited and published in Thai script after the council held during

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3780-453: The Sangha (the community of monks and nuns)." The language of the Tipiṭaka, Pāli , is a middle-Indic language which is the main religious and scholarly language in Theravāda. This language may have evolved out of various Indian dialects, and is related to, but not the same as, the ancient language of Magadha . An early form of the Tipiṭaka may have been transmitted to Sri Lanka during

3870-540: The Theravāda faith. They promoted the building of new temples, patronized scholarship, monastic ordinations and missionary works as well as attempted to eliminate certain non-Buddhist practices like animal sacrifices. During the 15th and 16th centuries, Theravāda also became established as the state religion in Cambodia and Laos. In Cambodia, numerous Hindu and Mahāyāna temples, most famously Angkor Wat and Angkor Thom , were transformed into Theravādin monasteries. In

3960-678: The Theravāda school. There are also some texts which were late additions that are included in the fifth Nikaya, the Khuddaka Nikāya ('Minor Collection'), such as the Paṭisambhidāmagga (possibly c. 3rd to 1st century BCE) and the Buddhavaṃsa (c. 1st and 2nd century BCE). The main parts of the Sutta Pitaka and some portions of the Vinaya show considerable overlap in content with

4050-450: The Tipiṭaka from Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia date to the 15th Century, and they are incomplete. Complete manuscripts of the four Nikayas are only available from the 17th Century onwards. However, fragments of the Tipiṭaka have been found in inscriptions from Southeast Asia, the earliest of which have been dated to the 3rd or 4th century. According to Alexander Wynne, "they agree almost exactly with extant Pāli manuscripts. This means that

4140-687: The Vibhajyavada tradition, which is in turn a sect of the Indian Sthavira nikāya . This tradition began to establish itself in Sri Lanka from the 3rd century BCE onwards. It was in Sri Lanka that the Pāli Canon was written down and the school's commentary literature developed. From Sri Lanka the Theravāda tradition subsequently spread to Southeast Asia . Theravāda is the official religion of Sri Lanka , Myanmar , and Cambodia , and

4230-415: The air. Ellipsoid An ellipsoid is a surface that can be obtained from a sphere by deforming it by means of directional scalings , or more generally, of an affine transformation . An ellipsoid is a quadric surface ;  that is, a surface that may be defined as the zero set of a polynomial of degree two in three variables. Among quadric surfaces, an ellipsoid is characterized by either of

4320-400: The axes of symmetry by the ellipsoid are called the principal axes , or simply axes of the ellipsoid. If the three axes have different lengths, the figure is a triaxial ellipsoid (rarely scalene ellipsoid ), and the axes are uniquely defined. If two of the axes have the same length, then the ellipsoid is an ellipsoid of revolution , also called a spheroid . In this case, the ellipsoid

4410-462: The bonding slurry thus limiting lateral movement. The stupa was then covered with lime plaster ; the plaster used contained seashells , sugar syrup , egg whites , coconut water , glues , oils, plant resin , sand, clay and pebbles . The plaster also provided waterproofing for the structure. The Mahavamsa also mentions the use of copper sheets over the foundation and arsenic dissolved in sesame oil to prevent insect and plant intrusions inside

4500-404: The bricks used for Jetavanaramaya had a composition of 60 percent fine sand and 35 percent clay , the bricks could withstand 44 kg/cm (281 kg/in). Finely crushed dolomite , limestone, sieved sand and clay provided the bonding material for the bricks. The clay employed was pliable and thus accommodates movement within the structure. One of the sides of the brick was roughened to trap

4590-749: The canon, mainly the Abhidhamma and some parts of the Vinaya, contain some distinctive elements and teachings which are unique to the Theravāda school and often differ from the Abhidharmas or Vinayas of other early Buddhist schools . For example, while the Theravāda Vinaya contains a total of 227 monastic rules for bhikkhus , the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya (used in East Asian Buddhism ) has a total of 253 rules for bhikkhus (though

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4680-574: The colonial era), the religion became much more centralized, bureaucratized and controlled by the state after a series of reforms promoted by Thai kings of the Chakri dynasty . King Mongkut (r. 1851–1868) and his successor Chulalongkorn (1868–1910) were especially involved in centralizing sangha reforms. Under these kings, the sangha was organized into a hierarchical bureaucracy led by the Sangha Council of Elders ( Pali : Mahāthera Samāgama ),

4770-406: The different consciousnesses and their accompanying mental factors as well as their conditioned relationships ( paccaya ). The Pāli Tipiṭaka outlines a hierarchical cosmological system with various planes existence ( bhava ) into which sentient beings may be reborn depending on their past actions. Good actions lead one to the higher realms, bad actions lead to the lower realms. However, even for

4860-417: The doctrinal position that the canonical Abhidhamma Pitaka was actually taught by the Buddha himself. Modern scholarship in contrast, has generally held that the Abhidhamma texts date from the 3rd century BCE onwards. However some scholars, such as Frauwallner , also hold that the early Abhidhamma texts developed out of exegetical and catechetical work which made use of doctrinal lists which can be seen in

4950-455: The dome was constructed of full and half bricks and earth fill, the unique shape of a perfect ellipsoid allowed for stress and thus allowed the construction of the large structure. The Mahavamsa describes the foundation laying, where fissures were filled with stones and stamped down by elephants whose feet were protected with leather bindings. The bricks used for the construction were a significant development of ancient Sri Lankan engineering,

5040-628: The efforts of missionary monks like Mahinda . In Sri Lanka, it became known as the Tambapaṇṇiya (and later as Mahāvihāravāsins) which was based at the Great Vihara (Mahavihara) in Anuradhapura (the ancient Sri Lankan capital). According to Theravāda sources, another one of the Ashokan missions was also sent to Suvaṇṇabhūmi ("The Golden Land"), which may refer to Southeast Asia. By

5130-441: The ellipsoid is a spheroid or ellipsoid of revolution. In particular, if a = b > c {\displaystyle a=b>c} , it is an oblate spheroid ; if a = b < c {\displaystyle a=b<c} , it is a prolate spheroid . The ellipsoid may be parameterized in several ways, which are simpler to express when the ellipsoid axes coincide with coordinate axes. A common choice

5220-525: The end of the Anuradhapura period , Jetavana monastery had developed into one of the three fraternities in the island along with Mahavihara and Abhyagiriya. The fraternities were united during the reign of King Parakramabahu I , who carried out pro-orthodox reforms against unorthodox or limited Theravadins. The importance of the Jetavanaramaya's location is that Mahinda, who brought Buddhism to Sri Lanka , took up residence here to preach Dharma. Thus

5310-683: The end of the communist regime the Cambodian Sangha was re-established by monks who had returned from exile. In contrast, communist rule in Laos was less destructive since the Pathet Lao sought to make use of the sangha for political ends by imposing direct state control. During the late 1980s and 1990s, the official attitudes toward Buddhism began to liberalise in Laos and there was a resurgence of traditional Buddhist activities such as merit-making and doctrinal study. The modern era also saw

5400-508: The engineering ingenuity behind the construction of the structure is a significant development in the history of the island. Following King Jettha Tissa's death, his brother Mahasena was consecrated as king by Mahayana monk Sanghamitra; under the monk's influence King Mahasena brought about a campaign against Theravadins dwelling in the Mahavihara. The differences between the Theravadins and Mahayanins escalated to an extent to which

5490-508: The exegesis of the Pali scriptures and on the Abhidhamma . These Theravāda sub-sects often came into conflict with each other over royal patronage. The reign of Parākramabāhu I (1153–1186) saw an extensive reform of the Sri Lankan sangha after years of warfare on the island. Parākramabāhu created a single unified sangha which came to be dominated by the Mahāvihāra sect. Epigraphical evidence has established that Theravāda Buddhism became

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5580-519: The first century BCE, Theravāda Buddhism was well established in the main settlements of the Kingdom of Anuradhapura . The Pali Canon, which contains the main scriptures of the Theravāda, was committed to writing in the first century BCE. Throughout the history of ancient and medieval Sri Lanka, Theravāda was the main religion of the Sinhalese people and its temples and monasteries were patronized by

5670-475: The flights of stairs at each of the four sides of it are 9 m (28 ft) wide. The doorpost to the shrine, which is situated in the courtyard, is 8 m (27 ft) high. The stupa has a 8.5 m (28 ft) deep foundation , and sits on bedrock . The structure is no longer the tallest, but it is still the largest, with a base-area of 233,000 m (2,508,000 sq ft). Approximately 93.3 million baked bricks were used in its construction;

5760-441: The forest was named Joitavana and was later called Jetavana. As the largest ancient stupa constructed and one of the tallest ancient structures in the world, the structural ingenuity and engineering skills employed for the construction are significant. The foundations of the structure were 8.5m deep and the size of the structure required bricks which could withstand loads of up to 166 kg. The solid foundation lay on bedrock and

5850-418: The formula for S oblate can be used to calculate the surface area of a prolate ellipsoid and vice versa). In both cases e may again be identified as the eccentricity of the ellipse formed by the cross section through the symmetry axis. (See ellipse ). Derivations of these results may be found in standard sources, for example Mathworld . Here p ≈ 1.6075 yields a relative error of at most 1.061%;

5940-407: The general ellipsoid is defined as: where θ {\displaystyle \theta } is the polar angle and φ {\displaystyle \varphi } is the azimuthal angle. When a = b = c {\displaystyle a=b=c} , the ellipsoid is a sphere. When a = b ≠ c {\displaystyle a=b\neq c} ,

6030-434: The gods ( devas ) in the higher realms like Indra , there is still death, loss and suffering. The main categories of the planes of existence are: These various planes of existence can be found in countless world systems ( loka-dhatu ), which are born, expand, contract and are destroyed in a cyclical nature across vast expanses of time (measures in kappas). This cosmology is similar to other ancient Indian systems, such as

6120-448: The highest body of the Thai sangha. Mongkut also led the creation of a new monastic order, the Dhammayuttika Nikaya, which kept a stricter monastic discipline than the rest of the Thai sangha (this included not using money, not storing up food and not taking milk in the evening). The Dhammayuttika movement was characterized by an emphasis on the original Pali Canon and a rejection of Thai folk beliefs which were seen as irrational. Under

6210-483: The leadership of Prince Wachirayan Warorot , a new education and examination system was introduced for Thai monks. The 20th century also saw the growth of "forest traditions" which focused on forest living and strict monastic discipline. The main forest movements of this era are the Sri Lankan Forest Tradition and the Thai Forest Tradition , founded by Ajahn Mun (1870–1949) and his students. Theravāda Buddhism in Cambodia and Laos went through similar experiences in

6300-425: The main dominant Buddhist variant found in Laos and Thailand . It is practiced by minorities in India , Bangladesh , China , Nepal , North Korea , Vietnam , the Philippines , Indonesia , Malaysia , and Taiwan . The diaspora of all of these groups, as well as converts around the world, also embrace and practice Theravāda Buddhism. During the modern era, new developments have included Buddhist modernism ,

6390-414: The material in the earlier portions is not specifically "Theravādan", but the collection of teachings that this school's adherents preserved from the early, non-sectarian body of teachings. According to Peter Harvey , while the Theravādans may have added texts to their Tipiṭaka (such as the Abhidhamma texts and so on), they generally did not tamper with the earlier material. The historically later parts of

6480-634: The modern era. Both had to endure French colonialism, destructive civil wars and oppressive communist governments. Under French Rule , French indologists of the École française d'Extrême-Orient became involved in the reform of Buddhism, setting up institutions for the training of Cambodian and Lao monks, such as the Ecole de Pali which was founded in Phnom Penh in 1914 . While the Khmer Rouge effectively destroyed Cambodia's Buddhist institutions, after

6570-456: The monk decided to settle down. Polonnaruwa Sobita sought and received permission to continue clearing the premises but approval was once again cancelled when the monk initiated the collection of contributions. However, the monk refused to leave. Conservation in the late 1990s was funded by the income from ticket sales, mainly to foreign tourists to the three cultural triangle sites of Anuradhapura, Polonnaruwa and Sigiriya. Bricks were burned using

6660-492: The other Early Buddhist schools as well as by Mahayana traditions . They include central concepts such as: The orthodox standpoints of Theravāda in comparison to other Buddhist schools are presented in the Kathāvatthu ("Points of Controversy"), as well as in other works by later commentators like Buddhaghosa. Traditionally, the Theravāda maintains the following key doctrinal positions, though not all Theravādins agree with

6750-440: The overall structure is the same). These differences arose from the systematization and historical development of doctrines and monasticism in the centuries after the death of the Buddha. The Abhidhamma-pitaka contains "a restatement of the doctrine of the Buddha in strictly formalized language." Its texts present a new method, the Abhidhamma method, which attempts to build a single consistent philosophical system (in contrast with

6840-488: The pillaging of Mahavihara by Sanghamitra and minister Sona, and all valuables were transferred to Abhayagiri vihāra . The pillaging led to a rebellion by minister Meghavannabhaya, he raised an army from Malaya and set camp by the Duratissaka tank. King Mahasena marched an army to meet minister Meghavannabhaya and negotiations occurred the night before the battle. The king apologized for the pillaging and agreed to build

6930-471: The practicalities of insight meditation and leaves ontology "relatively unexplored". Ronkin does note however that later Theravāda sub-commentaries ( ṭīkā ) do show a doctrinal shift towards ontological realism from the earlier epistemic and practical concerns. On the other hand, Y. Karunadasa contends that the tradition of realism goes back to the earliest discourses, as opposed to developing only in later Theravada sub-commentaries: If we base ourselves on

7020-528: The reign of Ashoka , which saw a period of Buddhist missionary activity. After being orally transmitted (as was the custom for religious texts in those days) for some centuries, the texts were finally committed to writing in the 1st century BCE. Theravāda is one of the first Buddhist schools to commit its Tipiṭaka to writing. The recension of the Tipiṭaka which survives today is that of the Sri Lankan Mahavihara sect. The oldest manuscripts of

7110-599: The reign of Rama VII (1925–35). There is also a Khmer edition, published in Phnom Penh (1931–69). The Pāli Tipitaka consists of three parts: the Vinaya Pitaka , Sutta Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka . Of these, the Abhidhamma Pitaka is believed to be a later addition to the collection, its composition dating from around the 3rd century BCE onwards. The Pāli Abhidhamma was not recognized outside

7200-533: The same kind of mixture that was used by the builders of the original dagoba. There has however been a decline of the city due to the significant war that existed in the late 1990s. A brick shortage has slowed down the restoration efforts. Excavations have revealed artefacts indicating that Sri Lanka was the primary entrepot for trade activity connecting the Indian rim countries as well as the Mediterranean and

7290-515: The spread of Theravāda Buddhism around the world and the revival of the religion in places where it remains a minority faith. Some of the major events of the spread of modern Theravāda include: According to Kate Crosby, for Theravāda, the Pāli Tipiṭaka , also known as the Pāli Canon is "the highest authority on what constitutes the Dhamma (the truth or teaching of the Buddha) and the organization of

7380-409: The stupa. It is estimated that Jetavanaramaya took 15 years to complete and would have required a skillful workforce of hundreds, including brickyard workers and bricklayers , and stonemasons . Until 1909, the colossal structure was covered with shrub jungle. Monk Kumbuke Dhammarama of Sailabimbaramaya temple of Gammanpita received approval to clear the stupa. The approval was, however, cancelled as

7470-451: The surface of the ellipsoid, not to the circumscribed sphere, where γ would be geocentric latitude on the Earth, and λ is longitude. These are true spherical coordinates with the origin at the center of the ellipsoid. In geodesy , the geodetic latitude is most commonly used, as the angle between the vertical and the equatorial plane, defined for a biaxial ellipsoid. For

7560-665: The surface. The line segments from the origin to these points are called the principal semi-axes of the ellipsoid, because a , b , c are half the length of the principal axes. They correspond to the semi-major axis and semi-minor axis of an ellipse . In spherical coordinate system for which ( x , y , z ) = ( r sin ⁡ θ cos ⁡ φ , r sin ⁡ θ sin ⁡ φ , r cos ⁡ θ ) {\displaystyle (x,y,z)=(r\sin \theta \cos \varphi ,r\sin \theta \sin \varphi ,r\cos \theta )} ,

7650-405: The suttas, called matikas. There are numerous Theravāda works which are important for the tradition even though they are not part of the Tipiṭaka. Perhaps the most important texts apart from the Tipiṭaka are the works of the influential scholar Buddhaghosa (4th–5th century CE), known for his Pāli commentaries (which were based on older Sri Lankan commentaries of the Mahavihara tradition). He

7740-465: The suttas, which present numerous teachings given by the Buddha to particular individuals according to their needs). Because the Abhidhamma focuses on analyzing the internal lived experience of beings and the intentional structure of consciousness, it has often been compared to a kind of phenomenological psychology by numerous modern scholars such as Nyanaponika , Bhikkhu Bodhi and Alexander Piatigorsky . The Theravāda school has traditionally held

7830-550: The traditional point of view: Theravāda scholastics developed a systematic exposition of the Buddhist doctrine called the Abhidhamma . In the Pāli Nikayas, the Buddha teaches through an analytical method in which experience is explained using various conceptual groupings of physical and mental processes, which are called "dhammas". Examples of lists of dhammas taught by the Buddha include the twelve sense 'spheres' or ayatanas ,

7920-452: The two following properties. Every planar cross section is either an ellipse , or is empty, or is reduced to a single point (this explains the name, meaning "ellipse-like"). It is bounded , which means that it may be enclosed in a sufficiently large sphere. An ellipsoid has three pairwise perpendicular axes of symmetry which intersect at a center of symmetry , called the center of the ellipsoid. The line segments that are delimited on

8010-641: Was king Mindon Min (1808–1878), known for his patronage of the Fifth Buddhist council (1871) and the Tripiṭaka tablets at Kuthodaw Pagoda (still the world's largest book) with the intention of preserving the Buddha Dhamma. Burma also saw the growth of the " Vipassana movement ", which focused on reviving Buddhist meditation and doctrinal learning . Ledi Sayadaw (1846–1923) was one of the key figures in this movement. After independence, Myanmar held

8100-524: Was offered to the monk Tissa, but later the monk was accused of a grave offense upon investigation and proof by a minister, monk Tissa was eventually disrobed and expelled from the order. The Dakkhinagiri monks were then entrusted with the premises of Jetavana. The Jetavanaramaya was under the monks of the Sagalika sect. The Sagalika sect was closely linked with the Abhyagiri Viharaya. Towards

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