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71-452: The Jewish Autonomous Oblast ( JAO ; Russian: Еврейская автономная область (ЕАО) , romanized : Yevreyskaya avtonomnaya oblast , IPA: [jɪˈvrʲejskəjə ɐftɐˈnomnəjə ˈobləsʲtʲ (ˌje‿ˌa‿ˈo)] ; Yiddish : ייִדישע אװטאָנאָמע (אױטאָנאָמע) געגנט ‎ , romanized :  Yidishe avtonome (oytonome) gegnt , cyrillized : Йидише автономе (ойтономе) гегнт, IPA: [ˈjɪdɪʃə avtɔˈnɔmə (ɔɪtɔˈnɔmə) ˈɡɛɡn̩t] )

142-526: A moist climate . The largest companies in the region include Kimkano–Sutarsky Mining and Processing Plant (with revenues of $ 116.55 million in 2017), Teploozersky Cement Plant ($ 29.14 million) and Brider Trading House ($ 24 million). The region's well-developed transportation network consists of 530 km (330 mi) of railways, including the Tsarist-era Trans-Siberian Railway; 600 km (370 mi) of waterways along

213-597: A Latin alphabet for the Russian language was discussed in 1929–30 during the campaign of latinisation of the languages of the USSR , when a special commission was created to propose a latinisation system for Russian. The letters of the Latin script are named in Russian as following (and are borrowed from French and/or German ): Khabarovsk Bridge Khabarovsk Bridge is a road and rail bridge built in 1999. It crosses

284-639: A Working Group of the United Nations , in 1987 recommended a romanization system for geographical names, which was based on the 1983 version of GOST 16876-71 . It may be found in some international cartographic products. American Library Association and Library of Congress (ALA-LC) romanization tables for Slavic alphabets are used in North American libraries and in the British Library since 1975. The formal, unambiguous version of

355-567: A merger would be allowed pursuant to the Constitution of Russia and whether a merger would require a national referendum. JAO and its history have been portrayed in the documentary film L'Chayim, Comrade Stalin! . Released in 2002, the film tells the story of Joseph Stalin 's creation of the Jewish Autonomous Oblast and its partial settlement by thousands of Russian and Yiddish speaking Jews . As well as relating

426-618: A new Chabad -sponsored synagogue opened at the 14a Sholom-Aleichem Street, and the Sholem Aleichem Amur State University offers a Yiddish course. According to a 2015 article, kosher meat arrives by train from Moscow every few weeks, a Sunday school functions, and there is also a minyan on Friday night and Shabbat . A November 2017 article in The Guardian , titled, "Revival of a Soviet Zion: Birobidzhan celebrates its Jewish heritage", examined

497-559: A religion ran counter to the Bolshevik party 's policy of atheism and their crackdown on organized Jewish communities by closing synagogues and harassing believers, Vladimir Lenin also wanted to appease minority groups to gain their support and provide examples of tolerance. In 1924, the unemployment rate among Jews exceeded 30 percent, as a result of USSR policies against private property ownership, which prohibited them from being craftspeople and small businessmen as many had been prior to

568-462: A result, the bridge became double-track for train traffic on the lower level and two-lane for automobile traffic on the upper level. In 1999, a new bridge was constructed alongside the old one, accommodating both automobile and rail traffic on two levels. With a length of 3,890 m, it holds significant importance. In the 21st century, the original spans of the old bridge were carefully disassembled, while its supports were thoughtfully preserved. During

639-519: A socialist utopia there. In one instance, leaflets promoting Birobidzhan were dropped from an airplane over a Jewish neighborhood in Belarus. In another instance, a government-produced Yiddish film called Seekers of Happiness told the story of a Jewish family from overseas making a new life for itself in Birobidzhan. Early Jewish settlements included Valdgeym , dating from 1928, which included

710-453: A system of transliteration fitted for their keyboard layout , such as for English QWERTY keyboards, and then use an automated tool to convert the text into Cyrillic. There are a number of distinct and competing standards for the romanization of Russian Cyrillic , with none of them having received much popularity, and, in reality, transliteration is often carried out without any consistent standards. Scientific transliteration, also known as

781-864: Is a federal subject of Russia in the far east of the country, bordering Khabarovsk Krai and Amur Oblast in Russia and Heilongjiang province in China . Its administrative center is the town of Birobidzhan . The JAO was designated by a Soviet official decree in 1928, and officially established in 1934. At its height, in the late 1940s, the Jewish population in the region peaked around 46,000–50,000, approximately 25% of its population. By 1959, its Jewish population had fallen by half, and by 1989, with emigration restrictions removed, Jews made up 4% of its population. By 2010, according to census data, there were only approximately 1,600 people of Jewish descent remaining in

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852-480: Is a free economic zone . The oblast's mineral and building and finishing material resources are in demand on the Russian market . Nonferrous metallurgy , engineering, metalworking, and the building material , forest, woodworking , light industrial , and food industries are the most highly developed industrial sectors. Agriculture is the Jewish Autonomous Oblast's main economic sector owing to fertile soils and

923-531: Is a 2.215 km (1.38 mi) long, $ 355 million bridge that links Nizhneleninskoye in the Jewish Autonomous Oblast with Tongjiang in the Heilongjiang Province of China . The bridge opened in 2021 and transports more than 3 million tonnes (3.3 million short tons; 3.0 million long tons) of cargo and 1.5 million passengers per year. The population of JAO has declined by over 40% since 1989 due to massive exodus in 1989–1996, with

994-540: Is an adoption of an ICAO standard for travel documents. It was used in Russian passports for a short period during 2010–2013 ( see below ). The standard was substituted in 2013 by GOST R ISO/ IEC 7501-1-2013, which does not contain romanization, but directly refers to the ICAO romanization ( see below ). Names on street and road signs in the Soviet Union were romanized according to GOST 10807-78 (tables 17, 18), which

1065-753: Is an equivalent of GOST 16876-71 and was adopted as an official standard of the COMECON . GOST 7.79-2000 System of Standards on Information, Librarianship, and Publishing–Rules for Transliteration of the Cyrillic Characters Using the Latin Alphabet is an adoption of ISO 9:1995 . It is the official standard of both Russia and the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). GOST 52535.1-2006 Identification cards. Machine readable travel documents. Part 1. Machine readable passports

1136-423: Is based on its predecessor ISO/R 9:1968, which it deprecates; for Russian, the two are the same except in the treatment of five modern letters. ISO 9:1995 is the first language-independent, univocal system of one character for one character equivalents (by the use of diacritics) that faithfully represents the original and allows for reverse transliteration for Cyrillic text in any contemporary language. The UNGEGN ,

1207-402: Is estimated that as many as 40,000 men from the Russian military moved into the region. Expeditions of scientists, including geographers, ethnographers, naturalists, and botanists such as Mikhail Ivanovich Venyukov , Leopold von Schrenck , Karl Maximovich , Gustav Radde , and Vladimir Leontyevich Komarov promoted research in the area. In 1899, construction began on the regional section of

1278-730: Is taught in the schools, a Yiddish radio station is in operation, and the Birobidzhaner Shtern newspaper includes a section in Yiddish. In 2002, L'Chayim, Comrade Stalin! , a documentary on Stalin's creation of the Jewish Autonomous Region and its settlement, was released by The Cinema Guild . In addition to being a history of the creation of the Jewish Autonomous Oblast, the film features scenes of contemporary Birobidzhan and interviews with Jewish residents. According to an article published in 2010, Yiddish

1349-512: Is the language of instruction in only one of Birobidzhan's 14 public schools. Two schools, representing a quarter of the city's students, offer compulsory Yiddish classes for children aged 6 to 10. As of 2012, the Birobidzhaner Shtern continues to publish 2 or 3 pages per week in Yiddish and one local elementary school still teaches Yiddish. According to a 2012 article, "only a very small minority, mostly seniors, speak Yiddish",

1420-737: The Amur River in eastern Russia , and connects the urban-type settlement of Imeni Telmana in the Jewish Autonomous Oblast with the city of Khabarovsk in Khabarovsk Krai . Until that time an older bridge built in 1916 existed nearby. The Khabarovsk Bridge, originally constructed in 1916 as a single-track structure, serves as a vital crossing for the Trans-Siberian Railway over the Amur River near Khabarovsk , Russia . This historic bridge held

1491-634: The Constitution of Russia provides that the JAO is Russia's only autonomous oblast . The Jewish Autonomous Oblast is divided into five districts , including Birobidzhan, a town which has district status ; the oblast has one other town ( Obluchye ) and a further 11 urban-type settlements . The Jewish Autonomous Oblast is part of the Far Eastern Economic Region ; it has industry and agriculture and its transportation network involves roads, rail and water ways. Although landlocked, it

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1562-815: The International Scholarly System , is a system that has been used in linguistics since the 19th century. It is based on the Czech alphabet and formed the basis of the GOST and ISO systems. OST 8483 was the first Soviet standard on romanization of Russian, introduced on 16 October 1935. Developed by the National Administration for Geodesy and Cartography at the USSR Council of Ministers , GOST 16876-71 has been in service since 1973. Replaced by GOST 7.79-2000. This standard

1633-454: The Latin script ), aside from its primary use for including Russian names and words in text written in a Latin alphabet, is also essential for computer users to input Russian text who either do not have a keyboard or word processor set up for inputting Cyrillic, or else are not capable of typing rapidly using a native Russian keyboard layout ( JCUKEN ). In the latter case, they would type using

1704-736: The Russian Empire pursuant to the Treaty of Aigun (1858) and the Convention of Peking (1860). In December 1858, the Russian government authorized the formation of the Amur Cossack Host to protect the south-east boundary of Siberia and communications on the Amur and Ussuri rivers. This military colonization included settlers from Transbaikalia . Between 1858 and 1882, many settlements consisting of wooden houses were founded. It

1775-463: The Trans-Siberian Railway connecting Chita and Vladivostok . The project produced a large influx of new settlers and the foundation of new settlements. Between 1908 and 1912, stations opened at Volochayevka, Obluchye , Bira , Birakan , Londoko , In , and Tikhonkaya . The railway construction finished in October 1916 with the opening of the 2,590-metre (8,500 ft) Khabarovsk Bridge across

1846-455: The 1939 population census, 17,695 Jews lived in the region (16% of the total population). After the war ended in 1945, there was renewed interest in the idea of Birobidzhan as a potential home for Jewish refugees. The Jewish population in the region peaked at around 46,000–50,000 Jews in 1948, around 25% of the entire population of the JAO. The census of 1959 found that the Jewish population of

1917-489: The American Jewish community that it would allow the emigration of 11,000 Jewish refuseniks . According to the 1989 Soviet Census, there were 8,887 Jews living in the JAO, or 4% of the total JAO population of 214,085. In 1991, after the breakup of the Soviet Union, the Jewish Autonomous Oblast became the federal subject of Russia and thus was no longer subordinated to Khabarovsk Krai . However, by that time, most of

1988-532: The Amur and Tunguska rivers; and 1,900 km (1,200 mi) of roads, including 1,600 km (1,000 mi) of paved roads. The most important road is the Khabarovsk-Birobidzhan-Obluchye-Amur Region highway with ferry service across the Amur. The Birobidzhan Yuzhniy Airfield , in the center of the region, connects Birobidzhan with Khabarovsk and outlying district centers. The Tongjiang-Nizhneleninskoye railway bridge

2059-671: The Amur at Khabarovsk . During this time, before the 1917 revolution , most local inhabitants were farmers. The only industrial enterprise was the Tungussky timber mill, although gold was mined in the Sutara River, and there were some small railway workshops. In 1922, during the Russian Civil War , the territory of the future Jewish Autonomous Oblast became the scene of the Battle of Volochayevka . Although Judaism as

2130-406: The JAO (or just under 1% of the total population of the JAO and around 1% of Jews in the country), while ethnic Russians made up 93% of its population. According to the 2021 census, there were only 837 ethnic Jews left in the JAO (0.6%). Article 65 of the Constitution of Russia provides that the JAO is Russia's only autonomous oblast . It is one of two officially Jewish jurisdictions in the world,

2201-461: The JAO had declined by approximately 50%, down to 14,269 persons. A synagogue was opened at the end of World War II, but it closed in the mid-1960s after a fire left it severely damaged. In 1980, a Yiddish school was opened in Valdgeym . In 1987, the reformist Soviet government led by Mikhail Gorbachev pardoned many political prisoners and told the American Jewish community that it would allow

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2272-563: The Jewish Autonomous Oblast. The southern and eastern section is part of the Amur valley , with only a few small residual ridges. The territory has a monsoonal / anticyclonic climate , with warm, wet, humid summers due to the influence of the East Asian monsoon, and cold, dry, windy conditions prevailing in the winter months courtesy of the Siberian high-pressure system . Article 65 of

2343-630: The Jewish Autonomous Region within the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic . In 1938, with the formation of the Khabarovsk Territory , the Jewish Autonomous Region (JAR) was included in its structure. In the 1930s, a Soviet promotional campaign was created to entice more Jewish settlers to move there. The campaign partly incorporated the standard Soviet promotional tools of the era, including posters and Yiddish-language novels describing

2414-402: The Jewish population grew, so did the impact of Yiddish culture on the region. The settlers established a Yiddish newspaper, the Birobidzhaner Shtern ; a theatre troupe was created; and streets being built in the new city were named after prominent Yiddish authors such as Sholom Aleichem and I. L. Peretz . The Jewish population of JAO reached a pre-war peak of 20,000 in 1937. According to

2485-521: The Jewish population had grown to about 4,000. The article cited Mordechai Scheiner , the Chief Rabbi of the JAO from 2002 to 2011, who said that, at the time the article was published, Jewish culture was enjoying a religious and cultural resurgence. Romanization of Russian The romanization of the Russian language (the transliteration of Russian text from the Cyrillic script into

2556-482: The Jewish population had grown to about 4,000. The article cited Mordechai Scheiner , the Chief Rabbi of the JAO from 2002 to 2011, who said that, at the time the article was published, Jewish culture was enjoying a religious and cultural resurgence. By 2010, according to data provided by the Russian Census Bureau, there were only approximately 1,600 people of Jewish descent remaining in the JAO (1% of

2627-517: The Jews had emigrated from the Soviet Union and the remaining Jews constituted fewer than 2% of the local population. In early 1996, 872 people, or 20% of the Jewish population at that time, emigrated to Israel. As of 2002, 2,357 Jews were living in the JAO. A 2004 article stated that the number of Jews in the region "was now growing". An April 2007 article in The Jerusalem Post claimed that

2698-619: The Oxford University Press, and a variation was used by the British Library to catalogue publications acquired up to 1975. The Library of Congress system (ALA-LC) is used for newer acquisitions. The BGN/PCGN system is relatively intuitive for Anglophones to read and pronounce. In many publications, a simplified form of the system is used to render English versions of Russian names, typically converting ë to yo , simplifying -iy and -yy endings to -y , and omitting apostrophes for ъ and ь . It can be rendered using only

2769-456: The Soviet Union and the remaining Jews constituted fewer than 2% of the local population. In early 1996, 872 people, or 20% of the Jewish population at that time, emigrated to Tel Aviv via chartered flights. As of 2002, 2,357 Jews were living in the JAO. A 2004 article stated that the number of Jews in the region "was now growing". As of 2005, Amurzet had a small active Jewish community. An April 2007 article in The Jerusalem Post claimed that

2840-622: The basic letters and punctuation found on English-language keyboards: no diacritics or unusual letters are required, although the interpunct character (·) may be used to avoid ambiguity. This particular standard is part of the BGN/PCGN romanization system which was developed by the United States Board on Geographic Names and by the Permanent Committee on Geographical Names for British Official Use . The portion of

2911-424: The bridge provided uninterrupted rail traffic, the volume of traffic of which increased every year. Naturally, at the end of the 80s of the 20th century, the structural elements of the bridge were no longer in satisfactory condition. Research was conducted with the goal of renovating the bridge. It was discovered that the spans and arches of the bridge were defective, leading to the implementation of speed limits, while

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2982-407: The bridge supports are in satisfactory condition. After many years of preparatory work, office visits, heated discussions and disputes with the public, who did not want to put up with the loss of the original appearance of the bridge, it was decided to restore it. The new project was developed by design teams from St. Petersburg, Moscow and Khabarovsk. Work began in 1991 and ended in October 1999. As

3053-509: The construction began on 30 July 1913, posed challenges. The bridge was being constructed by the Warsaw -based K. Rudzki i S-ka company, and the spans were manufactured in its factory in Mińsk Mazowiecki . Consequently, the spans had to be transported to Khabarovsk by sea, taking a longer route around Eurasia . During the autumn of 1914, a merchant ship transporting the final two sections

3124-444: The current status of the city and suggested that, even though the Jewish Autonomous Region in Russia's far east is now barely 1% Jewish, officials hope to woo back people who left after Soviet collapse. In 2013, there were proposals to merge the JAO with Khabarovsk Krai or with Amur Oblast . The proposals led to protests, and were rejected by residents, as well as the Jewish community of Russia. There were also questions as to whether

3195-404: The emigration of 11,000 Jewish refuseniks . According to the 1989 Soviet Census, there were 8,887 Jews living in the JAO, or 4% of the total JAO population of 214,085. In 1991, after the breakup of the Soviet Union, the Jewish Autonomous Oblast became the federal subject of Russia and thus was no longer subordinated to Khabarovsk Krai . However, by that time, most of the Jews had emigrated from

3266-519: The establishment of the Mandate of Palestine as a Jewish homeland. Socialist Zionists such as Ber Borochov were gaining followers at that time, and Zionism was the favored ideology in the world's political economy to the Yiddish interpretations, which were essentially incompatible with the USSR because of the Yiddish movement's growing opposition (e.g. Emma Goldman ) to the very ethno-nationalism which constituted and structured Soviet states. Crimea

3337-545: The first collective farm established in the oblast, Amurzet , which was the center of Jewish settlement south of Birobidzhan from 1929 to 1939, and Smidovich . The Organization for Jewish Colonisation in the Soviet Union , a Jewish Communist organization in North America, successfully encouraged the immigration of some US residents, such as the family of the future spy George Koval , which arrived in 1932. Some 1,200 non-Soviet Jews chose to settle in Birobidzhan. As

3408-583: The history of the creation of the proposed Jewish homeland , the film features scenes of life in contemporary Birobidzhan and interviews with Jewish residents. The northern and western section of the oblast is mountainous, with the Lesser Khingan and the Bureya Range , among others. At 1,421 metres (4,662 ft) Mount Studencheskaya , located in the Bureya Range, is the highest point of

3479-496: The introduction of a dedicated Latin alphabet for writing the Russian language. Such an alphabet would not necessarily bind closely to the traditional Cyrillic orthography. The transition from Cyrillic to Latin has been proposed several times throughout history (especially during the Soviet era), but was never conducted on a large scale, except for informal romanizations in the computer era. The most serious possibility of adoption of

3550-484: The new system and the old one, citizens who wanted to retain the old version of a name's transliteration, especially one that had been in the old pre-2010 passport, could apply to the local migration office before they acquired a new passport. The standard was abandoned in 2013. In 2013, Order No. 320 of the Federal Migration Service of Russia came into force. It states that all personal names in

3621-466: The numbers recorded being 215,937 ( 1989 Soviet census ) and 150,453 ( 2021 Census ) ; In the late 1940s, the Jewish population in the region peaked around 46,000–50,000, approximately 25% of its population. The census of 1959 found that the Jewish population of the JAO had declined by approximately 50%, down to 14,269 persons. In 1987, the reformist Soviet government led by Mikhail Gorbachev pardoned many political prisoners and told

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3692-556: The oblast to get a free farm. In the spring of 1928, 654 Jews arrived to settle in the area; however, by October 1928, 49.7% of them had left because of the severe conditions. In the summer of 1928, there were torrential rains that flooded the crops and an outbreak of anthrax that killed the cattle. On 7 May 1934, the Presidium of the General Executive Committee accepted the decree on its transformation into

3763-514: The other being Israel . It is also the only territory in the world where Yiddish is a recognized minority language . Prior to 1858, the area of what is today the Jewish Autonomous Oblast was ruled by a succession of Chinese imperial dynasties . In 1858, the northern bank of the Amur River , including the territory of today's Jewish Autonomous Oblast, was split away from the Qing Chinese territory of Manchuria and became incorporated into

3834-459: The passports must be transliterated by using the ICAO system , which is published in Doc 9303 " Machine Readable Travel Documents, Part 3 ". The system differs from the GOST R 52535.1-2006 system in two things: ц is transliterated into ts (as in pre-2010 systems), ъ is transliterated into ie (a novelty). In a second sense, the romanization or Latinization of Russian may also indicate

3905-800: The provocative speeches of the Japanese military in the midst of the Civil War . Consequently, the Trans-Siberian railway was disrupted for a period of 5 years. The reconstruction of the bridge began shortly after Soviet rule was established in the Far East in November 1922. The 13th span was assembled in Vladivostok at the Dalzavod plant using parts from the spans that had fallen into

3976-553: The reconstruction of the bridge, the management of the Far Eastern Railroad Company came up with the idea of creating a museum of the history of the bridge. The first exhibit was an openwork truss from Proskuryakov's design, which was saved during dismantling (18 other Tsarist-era metal supports were sold to China as scrap metal). Over three weeks, experts used hydraulic jacks to rotate the 127-metre span, which weighs more than 1,000 tonnes, symbolically placing

4047-518: The remote Russian Far East , especially along the vulnerable border with China. General Pavel Sudoplatov writes about the government's rationale behind picking the area in the Far East: "The establishment of the Jewish Autonomous Oblast in Birobidzhan in 1928 was ordered by Stalin only as an effort to strengthen the Far Eastern border region with an outpost, not as a favour to the Jews. The area

4118-460: The revolution. With the goal of getting Jews back to work to be more productive members of society, the government established Komzet , the committee for the agricultural settlement of Jews. The Soviet government entertained the idea of resettling all Jews in the USSR in a designated territory where they would be able to pursue a lifestyle that was "socialist in content and national in form". The Russians also wanted to offer an alternative to Zionism ,

4189-584: The river. A reserve span was installed across the Vetluga River (a tributary of the Volga River ) instead of the 12th span, as it had a slightly different shape but was suitable in dimensions and design. The plant Arsenal (now Daldiesel), located in Khabarovsk, made minor repairs and replaced missing parts. The bridge was reopened to through traffic by March 22, 1925. For more than 70 years,

4260-410: The system for bibliographic cataloguing requires some diacritics, two-letter tie characters , and prime marks. The standard is also often adapted as a "simplified" or "modified Library of Congress system" for use in text for a non-specialized audience, omitting the special characters and diacritics, simplifying endings, and modifying iotated initials. British Standard 2979:1958 is the main system of

4331-502: The system pertaining to the Russian language was adopted by BGN in 1944 and by PCGN in 1947. In Soviet international passports , transliteration was based on French rules but without diacritics and so all names were transliterated in a French-style system . In 1997, with the introduction of new Russian passports , a diacritic-free English-oriented system was established by the Russian Ministry of Internal Affairs , but

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4402-447: The system was also abandoned in 2010. In 2006, GOST R 52535.1-2006 was adopted, which defines technical requirements and standards for Russian international passports and introduces its own system of transliteration. In 2010, the Federal Migration Service of Russia approved Order No. 26, stating that all personal names in the passports issued after 2010 must be transliterated using GOST R 52535.1-2006. Because of some differences between

4473-537: The territory of said region". The new territory was initially called the Birobidzhan Jewish National Raion. Birobidzhan had a harsh geography and climate: it was mountainous, covered with virgin forests of oak, pine and cedar, and also swamplands, and any new settlers would have to build their lives from scratch. To make colonization more enticing, the Soviet government allowed private land ownership. This led to many non-Jews settling in

4544-546: The title of being the longest in both Imperial Russia and the Soviet Union for many years, boasting a length of 2,590 meters (8,500 ft). The initial plan for the bridge construction involved a budget of 13,500,000 Russian rubles and a completion timeline of 26 months, following the design by the esteemed bridge builder Lavr Proskouriakov . Unfortunately, the outbreak of the First World War , one year after

4615-524: The total population), while ethnic Russians made up 93% of the JAO population. According to an article published in 2000, Birobidzhan has several state-run schools that teach Yiddish, a Yiddish school for religious instruction and a kindergarten. The five- to seven-year-olds spend two lessons a week learning to speak Yiddish, as well as being taught Jewish songs, dance, and traditions. A 2006 article in The Washington Times stated that Yiddish

4686-464: Was a surprise to Komzet; the area had been chosen for military and economic reasons. This area was often infiltrated by China , while Japan also wanted Russia to lose the provinces of the Soviet Far East . At the time, there were only about 30,000 inhabitants in the area, mostly descendants of Trans-Baikal Cossacks resettled there by tsarist authorities, Koreans, Kazakhs, and the Tungusic peoples . The Soviet government wanted to increase settlement in

4757-418: Was amended by newer Russian GOST R 52290-2004 (tables Г.4, Г.5), the romanizations in both the standards are practically identical. ISO/R 9, established in 1954 and updated in 1968, was the adoption of the scientific transliteration by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). It covers Russian and seven other Slavic languages. ISO 9:1995 is the current transliteration standard from ISO. It

4828-423: Was constantly penetrated by Chinese and White Russian resistance groups, and the idea was to shield the territory by establishing a settlement whose inhabitants would be hostile to white Russian émigrés , especially the Cossacks. The status of this region was defined shrewdly as an autonomous district, not an autonomous republic, which meant that no local legislature, high court, or government post of ministerial rank

4899-419: Was initially considered in the early 1920s, when it already had a significant Jewish population. Two Jewish districts ( raiony ) were formed in Crimea and three in south Ukraine. However, an alternative scheme, perceived as more advantageous, was put into practice. Eventually, Birobidzhan , in what is now the JAO, was chosen by the Soviet leadership as the site for the Jewish region. The choice of this area

4970-410: Was permitted. It was an autonomous area, but a bare frontier, not a political center." On 28 March 1928, the Presidium of the General Executive Committee of the USSR passed the decree "On the attaching for Komzet of free territory near the Amur River in the Russian Far East for settlement of the working Jews." The decree meant "a possibility of establishment of a Jewish administrative territorial unit on

5041-484: Was unfortunately sunk in the Indian Ocean by the German cruiser Emden , resulting in an unforeseen delay of over a year in the construction of the bridge. Eventually, on October 5, 1916, the bridge was successfully finished and officially inaugurated under the name Alekseyevsky , in honor of the esteemed Alexei Nikolaevich, Tsarevich of Russia . On April 5, 1920, two of the bridge's eighteen metal spans were detonated by guerrilla units retreating from Khabarovsk during

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