129-672: Jiboa River is a river of El Salvador . The river sources from Lake Ilopango and drains into the Pacific Ocean. This article related to a river in El Salvador is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . El Salvador El Salvador , officially the Republic of El Salvador , is a country in Central America . It is bordered on the northeast by Honduras , on the northwest by Guatemala , and on
258-426: A pike for infantrymen. A variety of halberds and bills were also employed. As well as the one-handed broadsword, a 1.7-metre (5.5 ft) long two-handed version was also used. Crossbows had 0.61-metre (2 ft) arms stiffened with hardwoods, horn, bone and cane, and supplied with a stirrup to facilitate drawing the string with a crank and pulley. Crossbows were easier to maintain than matchlocks, especially in
387-597: A talud - tablero style of architecture that is associated with Nahua culture and corresponds with their migration history from Anahuac. In eastern El Salvador, the Lenca site of Quelepa is highlighted as a major pre-Columbian cultural center and demonstrates links to the Mayan site of Copan in western Honduras as well as the previously mentioned sites in Chalchuapa, and Cara Sucia in western El Salvador. An investigation of
516-529: A Maya-Lenca crown princess, Antu Silan Ulap I, organized resistance to the conquistadors. The commonwealth of the Lenca was alarmed by de Moscoso's invasion, and Antu Silan travelled from village to village, uniting all the Lenca towns in present-day El Salvador and Honduras against the Spaniards. Through surprise attacks and overwhelming numbers, they were able to drive the Spanish out of San Miguel and destroy
645-424: A defensive position upon the strongly fortified Peñol de Cinacantan ("Rock of Cinacantan", now known as Cerro Redondo); at least one of the groups was Pipil , and possibly all of them. The sides of the fortress were shear, except for a single approach that was strongly defended. As the Spanish party attempted to storm the fortress, the natives threw rocks down upon them, and showered them with arrows and spears. On
774-422: A devastating impact on massed native infantry. The Spanish also employed fierce war dogs in battle. When laying siege to native fortresses, they would on occasion build wooden siege engines padded with cotton armour, which would act to shield attackers from enemy missiles, and allow them to climb over any fortifications. Mounted conquistadors were armed with a 3.7-metre (12 ft) lance , that also served as
903-499: A few families. Throughout the last half of the 19th century, a succession of presidents from the ranks of the Salvadoran oligarchy, nominally both conservative and liberal, generally agreed on the promotion of coffee as the predominant cash crop , the development of infrastructure (railroads and port facilities) primarily in support of the coffee trade, the elimination of communal landholdings to facilitate further coffee production,
1032-464: A great many indigenous allies . These included Tlaxcaltecs , Mexicas , Cholutecs , Xochimilcos , Texcocanos , and Huejotzincas that accompanied Pedro de Alvarado from central Mexico , Zapotecs and Mixtecs that joined him as he marched south towards Guatemala and El Salvador , and Kaqchikels that joined him in Guatemala. A key strategy was the establishment of colonial towns across
1161-441: A humid tropical climate. Metal armour was of limited use in the hot, wet tropical climate. It was heavy and had to be constantly cleaned to prevent rusting; in direct sunlight, metal armour became unbearably hot. Conquistadores often went without metal armour, or only donned it immediately prior to battle. They were quick to adopt quilted cotton armour based upon that used by their native opponents, and commonly combined this with
1290-462: A native uprising there. He was challenged by Andrés de Cerezeda , governor of Honduras, and eventually marched south to San Miguel with his men, bringing an urgently needed influx of new colonists. San Miguel was refounded as San Miguel de la Frontera by Cristóbal de la Cueva on 15 April 1535. De la Cueva brought the area back within the jurisdiction of Guatemala, although the governor of Honduras vigorously protested. Eastern El Salvador, centred on
1419-461: A nearby hill. The native forces pursued for a quarter of a league, arriving within bow-shot of the invaders, at which point Alvarado ordered both cavalry and infantry to charge. In the battle that followed, the defending natives were killed to a man. Alvarado described how the natives were so encumbered by their thick cotton armour and their weapons, that when they fell they were unable to stand back up to defend themselves. Many Spaniards were wounded in
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#17327730451221548-404: A relief force sent from Guatemala . In 1530, Pedro de Alvarado ordered the establishment of a new settlement at San Miguel , in the east of the country, to protect against further incursions from Nicaragua and to assist in the conquest of the surrounding area. Indigenous uprisings against the invaders continued, spreading from neighbouring Honduras . The general uprising across the two provinces
1677-533: A result of the Napoleonic Wars , with the resulting inability to control its colonies effectively. In November 1811 Salvadoran priest José Matías Delgado rang the bells of Iglesia La Merced in San Salvador, calling for insurrection and launching the 1811 Independence Movement . This insurrection was suppressed, and many of its leaders were arrested and served sentences in jail. Another insurrection
1806-453: A salary; many were experienced soldiers who had already campaigned in Europe . The Spanish expeditions to Central America were launched from three different Spanish jurisdictions, resulting in rival conquests by mutually hostile Spanish captains. Spanish weaponry included swords, firearms, crossbows and light artillery. Metal armour was impractical in the hot, humid climate of Central America and
1935-551: A shadowy figure, a rich anti-communist banker called Rodolfo Duke, and later installed the vice-president Martínez as president. The revolt was probably caused by the army's discontent at not having been paid by President Araujo for some months. Araujo left the National Palace and unsuccessfully tried to organize forces to defeat the revolt. The U.S. Minister in El Salvador met with the Directorate and later recognized
2064-401: A significant body of Nahua allies from central and southern Mexico. On 1 April 1528, Diego de Alvarado reestablished San Salvador , and distributed encomienda rights among his supporters. This site is now known as Ciudad Vieja , and is situated 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) south of Suchitoto . The location may have been chosen because it occupied a no-man's-land between the territory of
2193-547: A time, believing that the two forces were separated by a swamp. As soon as the Spanish discovered that the apparent swamp was in fact solid ground, they charged the enemy and routed them, killing a great many. After this battle, the Pipil refused to confront the Spanish upon an open battlefield, and resorted to guerilla tactics. Alvarado rested two days at Tazuzcalco, before proceeding to Miahuaclan, which had been abandoned by its inhabitants, then on to Atehuan (modern Ateos , near
2322-440: A trick, and launched a new attack using their newly built siege tower . They breached the fortifications and killed many of the defenders, while many others fled in terror. Once the fortress had fallen, the defeated Pipil defenders were given in encomienda to the inhabitants of San Salvador; the inhabitants were probably reduced to Tamanique . In 1529, Pedrarias Dávila sent an expedition led by Martín de Estete to annex
2451-623: A union named the Federal Republic of Central America . In early 1822, the authorities of the newly independent Central American provinces, meeting in Guatemala City, voted to join the newly constituted First Mexican Empire under Agustín de Iturbide . El Salvador resisted, insisting on autonomy for the Central American countries. A Mexican military detachment marched to San Salvador and suppressed dissent, but with
2580-588: A vest-like armour made of three inch cotton which arrows could not penetrate, and long spears. Both armies suffered many casualties, with a wounded Alvarado retreating and losing a lot of his men, especially among the Mexican Indian auxiliaries. Once his army had regrouped, Alvarado decided to head to the Cuzcatlan capital and again faced armed Cuzcatlec. Wounded, unable to fight and hiding in the cliffs, Alvarado sent his Spanish men on their horses to approach
2709-632: A volcanic eruption, after which it never regained its former prominence. Another major Pre-Columbian settlement is Cara Sucia in the far west of the country, which began as a small settlement around 800 BC at the beginning of the Middle Preclassic, during the Late Classic (600-900 AD), Cara Sucia emerged as a major urban settlement, before being abruptly destroyed during the 10th century. The Pipil people , Nahua speaking groups migrated from Anahuac beginning around 800 AD and occupied
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#17327730451222838-706: Is also likely to have spread throughout the Pipil region of El Salvador . By the time the Spanish arrived in the area in 1524, it is estimated that up to 50% of the native population of El Salvador had already been eliminated by the new diseases, against which they had no immunity. It is likely that disease had significantly weakened the Pipil by the time they fielded large armies against the Spanish at Acajutla and Tacuzcalco . Further waves of epidemic diseases spread across Mesoamerica in 1545–1548, and again in 1576–1581, reducing indigenous populations to just 10% of their pre-contact levels, making successful resistance against
2967-463: Is now Salvadoran territory was made by the admiral Andrés Niño , who led an expedition to Central America. He disembarked in the Gulf of Fonseca on 31 May 1522, at Meanguera island , naming it Petronila, and then traversed to Jiquilisco Bay on the mouth of Lempa River . The first indigenous people to have contact with the Spanish were the Lenca of eastern El Salvador. In 1524, after participating in
3096-593: The Caribbean island of Hispaniola in the 1490s. In the first decades after the discovery of the new lands, the Spanish colonised the Caribbean and established a centre of operations on the island of Cuba . In the first two decades of the 16th century, the Spanish established their domination over the islands of the Caribbean Sea , and used these as a staging point to launch their campaigns of conquest on
3225-685: The Chapultepec Peace Accords . This negotiated settlement established a multiparty constitutional republic, which remains in place to this day. During the civil war and afterwards, large numbers of Salvadorans emigrated to the United States. From 1980 through 2008, nearly one million Salvadorans immigrated to the United States, such that by 2008, they were the sixth largest immigrant group in the US. El Salvador's economy has historically been dominated by agriculture, beginning with
3354-477: The Greater Republic of Central America , which dissolved in 1898. After the mid-19th century, the economy was based on coffee growing. As the world market for indigo withered away, the economy prospered or suffered as the world coffee price fluctuated. The enormous profits that coffee yielded as a monoculture export served as an impetus for the concentration of land into the hands of an oligarchy of just
3483-524: The Guatemalan Highlands , but by July 1524 he had retreated back to Guatemala . Gonzalo de Alvarado founded San Salvador the following year, but it was eradicated by a native attack in 1526, during a general uprising that spread across the region. Pedro de Alvarado returned to campaign in El Salvador in 1526 and 1528, and in the latter year, Diego de Alvarado reestablished San Salvador and issued encomiendas to his supporters. In 1528,
3612-642: The Kakawira , the Mangue , and the Matagalpa . The Postclassic Maya and Pipil cities were relatively small by Mesoamerican standards, especially when compared with the great Maya cities of the earlier Classic period (c. 250–950 AD). The Lenca occupied territory to the east of the Lempa River, where their principal kingdom was Chaparrastique. Chaparrastique extended across territory now incorporated into
3741-511: The Pipil to the west, the Lenca to the east, and the Ch'orti' to the north. For the first few years, San Salvador was a frontier town under the constant threat of indigenous attack. Soon after the town was re-founded, a Spaniard and some indigenous auxiliaries were killed when visiting a nearby settlement. The uprising around San Salvador was put down about a month later, when the Spanish stormed
3870-599: The Preclassic Period and earlier. A notable archaeological site in western El Salvador is Chalchuapa , which was first settled around 1200 BC, and became a major urban settlement on the periphery of the Maya civilization during the Preclassic Period and was heavily involved in the trading of valuable items like ceramics, obsidian, cacao and hematite. The settlement was heavily damaged around 430 AD by
3999-892: The Roman Catholic diocese of Guatemala . The native inhabitants of the Izalco region of El Salvador, famed for its prodigious production of cacao, were among the most heavily exploited in the whole Spanish Empire . By the end of the 16th century, this had led to the collapse of cacao production in the province. The Annals of the Cakchiquels , an indigenous document from the Guatemalan Highlands , contains an account of Pedro de Alvarado 's initial incursion into El Salvador . Pedro de Alvarado wrote four letters to Hernán Cortés describing his conquest of Guatemala and El Salvador, of which two survive. One of these relates his expedition into El Salvador, with an eye to military detail. It
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4128-556: The arquebus ), crossbows and light artillery such as the falconet . An important Spanish advantage was the use of war horses ; their deployment often terrified the native inhabitants of the Americas , who had never seen horses until European contact. As important as the physical advantage given to a mounted conquistador was the ability to rapidly move bodies of troops across a battlefield to outmaneuver their opponents, who were exclusively on foot. Repeated mounted charges could have
4257-514: The conquest of the Aztec Empire , Pedro de Alvarado , his brother Gonzalo, and their men crossed the Rio Paz southward into Cuzcatlec territory. Upon their arrival, Spaniards were disappointed to discover that the Pipil had little gold compared to what they had found in Guatemala or Mexico. The small amount of gold that was available had to be panned so that it could be obtained. Eventually,
4386-606: The election . He was sworn in as president on 31 May 2014. He was the first former guerrilla to become the president of El Salvador. In October 2017, an El Salvador court ruled that former president Funes and one of his sons had illegally enriched themselves. Funes had sought asylum in Nicaragua in 2016. In September 2018, former president Saca was sentenced to 10 years in prison after he pleaded guilty to diverting more than US$ 300 million in state funds to his own businesses and third parties. On 1 June 2019, Nayib Bukele became
4515-555: The glyptodont Glyptotherium , the llama Hemiauchenia , and the horse Equus conversidens . El Salvador has likely been occupied by humans since the Paleoindian period, based on fluted stone points found in western El Salvador. Archaeological knowledge of Pre-Columbian civilisation in El Salvador is poor, due to its high population density limiting excavation, as well as volcanic eruptions blanketing potential archaeological sites. This lack of knowledge particularly effects
4644-682: The Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan had fallen to the Spanish. The Spanish conquered a large part of Mexico within three years, extending as far south as the Isthmus of Tehuantepec . The newly conquered territory became New Spain , headed by a viceroy who answered to the Spanish Crown via the Council of the Indies . The conquest of Central America that followed was effectively an extension of
4773-766: The Cuzcatlec to see if they would fear the horses, but they did not retreat, Alvarado recalls in his letters to Hernán Cortés . The Cuzcatlec attacked again, and on this occasion stole Spanish weaponry. Alvarado retreated and sent Mexican messengers to demand that the Cuzcatlec warriors return the stolen weapons and surrender to their opponent's king. The Cuzcatlec responded with the famous response, "If you want your weapons, come get them". As days passed, Alvarado, fearing an ambush, sent more Mexican messengers to negotiate, but these messengers never came back and were presumably executed. The Spanish efforts were firmly resisted by Pipil and their Mayan-speaking neighbours. They defeated
4902-514: The European colonisers extremely difficult. The deadliest of the newly introduced diseases were smallpox, malaria , measles , typhus , and yellow fever . Their introduction was catastrophic in the Americas; it is estimated that 90% of the indigenous population had been eliminated by disease within the first century of European contact. Gil González Dávila and Andrés Niño first explored
5031-499: The Pipil city of Cuzcatlan , capital of the province of the same name). Messengers from the lords of Cuzcatlan brought promises of submission to the King of Spain, but when Pedro de Alvarado's army arrived at the city, he found that the majority of the inhabitants had fled. Alvarado sent messengers to them, ordering them to return and submit, but they refused. Alvarado tried them in their absence, and condemned them to death; he branded all
5160-420: The Pipil prisoners as slaves. Although the Spanish had won decisive victories at Sonsonate and Acajutla , they failed to take the fortified Pipil cities of Cuzcatlan and Izalco . Alvarado was informed that extensive lands lay ahead, with difficult terrain, many cities, and large populations. Frustrated by the lack of progress, Alvarado withdrew to Guatemala to regroup, with the intention of returning in
5289-583: The Salvadoran left had formed the Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front , or FMLN. By the end of the 1970s, government-contracted death squads were killing about 10 people each day. Meanwhile, the FMLN had 6,000 to 8,000 active guerrillas and hundreds of thousands of part-time militia, supporters, and sympathizers. The U.S. supported and financed the creation of a second junta to change the political environment and stop
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5418-424: The Spaniards and what was left of their Tlaxcalan allies, forcing them to withdraw to Guatemala. After being wounded, Alvarado abandoned the war and appointed his brother, Gonzalo de Alvarado , to continue the task. Two subsequent expeditions (the first in 1525, followed by a smaller group in 1528) brought the Pipil under Spanish control, since the Pipil also were weakened by a regional epidemic of smallpox. In 1525,
5547-452: The Spaniards recognized the richness of the land's volcanic soil. Following this discovery, the Spanish crown began granting land based on the terms of the encomienda system. Pedro Alvarado led the first incursion to extend their dominion to the domain of Cuzcatlan in June 1524. When he arrived at the borders of the kingdom, he saw that civilians had been evacuated. Cuzcatlec warriors moved to
5676-771: The Spaniards then resident in the town. After three days the attackers were repulsed by reinforcements that were passing through from Guatemala en route to Peru , with the help of a detachment from San Salvador under the command of Antonio de Quintanilla. This uprising enveloped the territory of El Salvador , led by the Lenca ruler Lempira , and focused upon the Peñol de Cerquín , about 80 kilometres (50 mi) north of San Salvador, within Honduras. Francisco de Montejo , then governor of Honduras, urgently appealed to San Salvador for reinforcements and supplies. Montejo sent twenty Spaniards supported by native auxiliaries south towards
5805-478: The Spanish Crown. The most important internal factors were the desire of local elites to control the country's affairs free of involvement from Spanish authorities, and the long-standing Creole aspiration for independence. The main external factors motivating the independence movement were the success of the French and American revolutions in the 18th century, and the weakening of the Spanish Crown's military power as
5934-609: The Spanish taking control of the indigenous cacao crop in the 16th century, with production centred in Izalco , along with balsam from the ranges of La Libertad and Ahuachapán . This was followed by a boom in use of the indigo plant in the 19th century, mainly for its use as a dye. Thereafter the focus shifted to coffee , which by the early 20th century accounted for 90% of export earnings. El Salvador has since reduced its dependence on coffee and embarked on diversifying its economy by opening up trade and financial links and expanding
6063-412: The Spanish were quick to adopt the quilted cotton armour of the natives. The conquistadors were supported by a large number of Indian auxiliaries drawn from previously encountered Mesoamerican groups. The first campaign against the native inhabitants was undertaken in 1524 by Pedro de Alvarado . Alvarado launched his expedition against the Pipil province of Cuzcatlan , also known as Nequepio, from
6192-516: The United Nations ending the 12-year civil war. This event, held at Chapultepec Castle in Mexico, was attended by U.N. dignitaries and other representatives of the international community. After signing the armistice, the president stood and shook hands with the newly ex-guerrilla commanders, an action which was widely admired. The so-called Chapultepec Peace Accords mandated reductions in
6321-702: The Valley of Xocorro, within the jurisdictional claim of San Miguel, but a scouting party was captured by the Spaniards resident there, and Montejo's column withdrew back to Honduras; en route to Comayagua they were attacked by a Lenca force, and killed almost to a man. The inhabitants of San Salvador , alarmed by the uprising engulfing the region, responded by sending a great quantity of weapons, armour, gunpowder, and other supplies to Francisco de Montejo in Honduras . They also sent 100 Indian auxiliaries, with 1,000 native porters. Further supplies were forthcoming from
6450-473: The battle, and Alvarado was seriously injured by an arrow that passed through his leg, he needed much time to recover and was left with a permanent limp. The Spanish rested in Acajutla for five days after the battle, in order to rest and recover from their wounds. Six days after the battle, Alvarado marched northeast searching for the city of Tacuzcalco , some 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) from Acajutla , in
6579-403: The battles of Acajutla and Tacuzcalco . The campaign that followed lasted two years, during which the Spanish battled continually against indigenous resistance. During this time, the natives defended themselves from fortified mountain strongholds. Pedro de Alvarado undertook further expeditions to El Salvador in 1526 and 1528. In 1528, the conquest of Cuzcatlan was completed, with the aid of
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#17327730451226708-595: The beginning of the 16th century, the Spanish Empire conquered the Central American territory, incorporating it into the Viceroyalty of New Spain ruled from Mexico City . However the Viceroyalty of New Spain had little to no influence in the daily affairs of the isthmus, which was colonized in 1524. In 1609, the area was declared the Captaincy General of Guatemala by the Spanish, which included
6837-540: The campaign that overthrew the Aztec Empire . The conquistadors were all volunteers, the majority of whom did not receive a fixed salary but instead a portion of the spoils of victory, in the form of precious metals , land grants and provision of native labour. Many of the Spanish were already experienced soldiers who had previously campaigned in Europe . A sizeable portion of the Spanish conquistadors were from
6966-462: The central and western regions of El Salvador. The Nahua Pipil were the last indigenous people to arrive in El Salvador. They called their territory Kuskatan , a Nawat word meaning "The Place of Precious Jewels," back-formed into Classical Nahuatl Cōzcatlān , and as Cuzcatlán . It was the largest domain in Salvadoran territory up until European contact. The term Cuzcatleco is commonly used to identify someone of Salvadoran heritage, although
7095-567: The coast of El Salvador in 1522 as they sailed northwest along the Pacific coast of Central America from Panama , and briefly landed in the Bay of Fonseca . El Salvador fell in a frontier region between rival conquests launched southward from Mexico under the command of Hernán Cortés and his trusted lieutenant Pedro de Alvarado , and northward from Panama under the command of Pedrarias Dávila . The territory now incorporated into El Salvador
7224-476: The coastal city of Acajutla and waited for Alvarado and his forces. Alvarado approached, confident that the result would be similar to what occurred in Mexico and Guatemala. He thought he would easily deal with this new indigenous force since the Mexican allies on his side and the Pipil spoke a similar language. Alvarado described the Cuzcatlec soldiers as having shields decorated with colourful exotic feathers,
7353-623: The colonial period, San Salvador and San Miguel were part of the Captaincy General of Guatemala, also known as the Kingdom of Guatemala ( Spanish : Reino de Guatemala ), created in 1609 as an administrative division of New Spain . The Salvadoran territory was administered by the mayor of Sonsonate, with San Salvador being established as an intendencia in 1786. In 1811, a combination of internal and external factors motivated Central American elites to attempt to gain independence from
7482-492: The conquest of Cuzcatlán was completed and the city of San Salvador was established. The Spanish faced much resistance from the Pipil and were not able to reach eastern El Salvador, the area of the Lencas. In 1526 the Spanish founded the garrison town of San Miguel in northern Managuara—territory of the Lenca, headed by another explorer and conquistador, Luis de Moscoso Alvarado , nephew of Pedro Alvarado. Oral history holds that
7611-532: The conquest the country formed a part of the Mesoamerican cultural region, and was inhabited by a number of indigenous peoples, including the Pipil , the Lenca , the Xinca , and Maya . Native weaponry consisted of spears, bows and arrows, and wooden swords with inset stone blades; they wore padded cotton armour. The Spanish conquistadores were largely volunteers, receiving the spoils of victory instead of
7740-627: The conquistadors on an open battlefield. A common tactic of the natives was to concentrate themselves in strongly defended mountaintop fortresses. Christopher Columbus discovered the New World for the Kingdom of Castile and Leon in 1492. Private adventurers thereafter entered into contracts with the Spanish Crown to conquer the newly discovered lands in return for tax revenues and the power to rule. The Spanish founded Santo Domingo on
7869-426: The conquistadors sought wealth through slaving and mining, but both of these industries soon faltered, and the colonists instead turned to agriculture. In 1545, San Salvador was moved to its current location, and on 27 September 1546, it was elevated in status to a city. El Salvador originally formed three administrative divisions, those of Sonsonate (Izalcos), San Salvador (Cuzcatlan), and San Miguel . Sonsonate
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#17327730451227998-478: The continental mainland of the Americas . From Hispaniola , the Spanish launched expeditions and campaigns of conquest, reaching Puerto Rico in 1508, Jamaica in 1509, Cuba in 1511, and Florida in 1513. The Spanish heard rumours of the rich empire of the Aztecs on the mainland to the west of their Caribbean island settlements and, in 1519, Hernán Cortés set sail to explore the Mexican coast. By August 1521
8127-553: The country in 1979 to enter politics after working on projects in Venezuela as an engineer. On 15 October 1979, a coup d'état brought the Revolutionary Government Junta (JRG) to power. It nationalized many private companies and took over much privately owned land. The purpose of this new junta was to stop the revolutionary movement already underway in response to Duarte's stolen election. Nevertheless,
8256-510: The definite form "El Salvador", The Savior, again a reference to Jesus, rather than Salvador. The legislature reaffirmed the country's name as El Salvador with another law passed in 1958. During the Pleistocene El Salvador was inhabited by now extinct megafauna species, including the elephant-sized giant ground sloth Eremotherium , the rhinoceros-like Mixotoxodon , the gomphothere (elephant-relative) Cuvieronius ,
8385-743: The departments of La Unión , Morazán , and San Miguel . The Ch'orti' and Poqomam occupied territories in the west near the present day border of Guatemala . The extreme east of El Salvador was occupied by the Mangue, with the Matagalpa in the southeast. The population of the entire territory of El Salvador is variously estimated between 130,000 and 1,000,000 at the time of the conquest; the low-mid estimates within this range are more likely. The three principal kingdoms of Cuscatlan, Izalco, and Chaparrastique engaged in regular warfare, and smaller groups occasionally rebelled against their larger neighbours. There
8514-424: The dry season; He had been in the province of Cuzcatlan for seventeen days, and left it at the end of June 1524. Gonzalo de Alvarado founded the settlement of Villa de San Salvador in early 1525, before May of that year, but it was attacked and destroyed by natives in 1526, during a general Pipil uprising that engulfed the province of Cuzcatlan . Diego de Alvarado , who was Pedro de Alvarado 's cousin,
8643-655: The early 1990s brought major benefits in terms of improved social conditions, diversification of the export sector, and access to international financial markets at investment grade level. Crime remains a major problem for the investment climate. Early in the new millennium, El Salvador's government created the Ministerio de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales — the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources (MARN) — in response to climate change concerns. In March 2014, former FMLN guerrilla leader Cerén narrowly won
8772-465: The embattled residents of San Miguel . By the end of 1538, Lempira 's stronghold had been taken by the Spanish, and Montejo crossed from Honduras to San Miguel to assist in putting down continued indigenous resistance in the district. By 1539, the Spanish advances in El Salvador were sufficient that Cuzcatlan was considered fully pacified. In the immediate aftermath of the Spanish conquest,
8901-567: The fall of Iturbide on 19 March 1823, the army decamped back to Mexico. Shortly thereafter, the authorities of the provinces revoked the vote to join Mexico, deciding instead to form a federal union of the five remaining provinces (Chiapas permanently joined Mexico at this juncture) known as the Federal Republic of Central America . El Salvador declared its independence from the Federal Republic of Central America on 30 January 1841. El Salvador joined Honduras and Nicaragua in 1896 to form
9030-408: The first day, Spanish assaults were twice beaten back. Seeing that the fortress could not easily be taken, the Spanish built a wooden siege engine , which greatly impressed the defenders. One of the native lords called a truce and asked the Spanish to return to San Salvador , and promised that the rebellious Indians would arrive to swear loyalty to the King of Spain. The attackers believed this to be
9159-420: The garrison. For ten years the Lencas prevented the Spanish from building a permanent settlement. Then the Spanish returned with more soldiers, including about 2,000 forced conscripts from indigenous communities in Guatemala. They pursued the Lenca leaders further up into the mountains of Intibucá . Antu Silan Ulap eventually handed over control of the Lenca resistance to Lempira (also called Empira). Lempira
9288-601: The government of Martínez, which agreed to hold presidential elections. He resigned six months prior to running for re-election, winning back the presidency as the only candidate on the ballot. He ruled from 1935 to 1939, then from 1939 to 1943. He began a fourth term in 1944 but resigned in May after a general strike. Martínez had said he was going to respect the constitution, which stipulated he could not be re-elected, but he refused to keep his promise. Beginning in January 1932, there
9417-426: The horse and firearms. The Spanish described how the natives of El Salvador wore thick cotton armour, described as three fingers thick, that extended down to their feet and significantly encumbered them. After the first two large-scale battles between the Spanish and Pipil armies resulted in decisive victories for the European invaders, the natives preferred to flee their settlements at their approach rather than face
9546-413: The inhabitants had also fled the approaching Spanish expedition. From Acatepeque, the Spanish expedition proceeded to Acajutla , on the Pacific coast. On 8 June 1524, they met with a massed native force, arrayed for battle half a league (approximately 2 kilometres (1.2 mi)) beyond the settlement. Alvarado's army initially approached close to the waiting warriors, before feigning a retreat towards
9675-405: The land was divided into the province of San Salvador, which means "Holy Savior"; a Spanish title for Jesus . From 1579 that also including the province of San Miguel (Saint Michael). San Salvador would become, throughout the colonial era, an alcaldía mayor (great mayor's office), intendancy, and finally a province with a provincial council, and the province of Izalcos (which would become be called
9804-569: The late 19th to the mid-20th century, El Salvador endured chronic political and economic instability characterized by coups, revolts, and a succession of authoritarian rulers. Persistent socioeconomic inequality and civil unrest culminated in the Salvadoran Civil War from 1979 to 1992, fought between the military-led government backed by the United States , and a coalition of left-wing guerrilla groups. The conflict ended with
9933-466: The left-wing party to win presidential elections led to its selection of a journalist rather than a former guerrilla leader as a candidate. On 15 March 2009, Mauricio Funes , a television figure, became the first president from the FMLN. He was inaugurated on 1 June 2009. One focus of the Funes government has been revealing the alleged corruption from the past government. ARENA formally expelled Saca from
10062-504: The majority of the eastern population has an indigenous heritage of Lenca origin, as do their place names such as Intipuca , Chirilagua , and Lolotique . Most of the archaeological sites in western El Salvador such as Lago de Guija and Joya De Ceren indicate a pre-Columbian Mayan culture. Cihuatan shows signs of material trade with northern Nahua culture, eastern Mayan and Lenca culture, and southern Nicaraguan and Costa Rican indigenous culture. Tazumal 's smaller B1-2 structure shows
10191-415: The manufacturing sector. The colón , the currency of El Salvador since 1892, was replaced by the United States dollar in 2001. As of 2019 economic improvements had led to El Salvador experiencing the lowest level of income inequality among nearby countries. Among 77 countries included in a 2021 study, El Salvador had one of the least complex economies for doing business. After the Spanish conquest ,
10320-559: The mayor's office of Sonsonate). In 1824 the two jurisdictions were united in the State of Salvador, a part of the Federal Republic of Central America . After the dissolution of the Federal Republic of Central America, the country was referred to as the "Republic of Salvador" ( República del Salvador ), but in 1915, the Legislative Assembly passed a law which officially stated that the country's name should be rendered as
10449-640: The meantime, the guerrilla movement was spreading to all sectors of Salvadoran society. Middle and high school students were organized in MERS (Movimiento Estudiantil Revolucionario de Secundaria, Revolutionary Movement of Secondary Students); college students were involved with AGEUS (Asociacion de Estudiantes Universitarios Salvadorenos; Association of Salvadoran College Students); and workers were organized in BPR (Bloque Popular Revolucionario, Popular Revolutionary Block). In October 1980, several other major guerrilla groups of
10578-565: The middle class and the latter the interests of the Salvadoran military. PDC leader José Napoleón Duarte was the mayor of San Salvador from 1964 to 1970, winning three elections during the regime of PCN president, Julio Adalberto Rivera Carballo , who allowed free elections for mayors and the National Assembly. Duarte later ran for president with a political grouping called the National Opposing Union (UNO) but
10707-412: The modern department of Sonsonate . Pedro de Portocarrero led a group of mounted scouts that managed to capture two native lookouts, from whom they learned that a large native army had gathered near the city, with forces gathered from the surrounding area. The Spanish scouts advanced until they found the enemy, then waited for the vanguard of forty cavalry led by Gonzalo de Alvarado . Pedro de Alvarado
10836-594: The mountaintop stronghold at Cinacantan , 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) south of the modern town of Tamanique . The hostile natives had retreated to their stronghold after their earlier attack. The uprising was considered the first native rebellion in Cuzcatlan , since the initial invasion had already taken place, and San Salvador founded as a Spanish town. A Spanish column was despatched from San Salvador, led by Diego de Alvarado and supported by indigenous auxiliaries. They found three or four allied native groups had set up
10965-786: The nature and effects of the violence, and...recommend methods of promoting national reconciliation". In 1993 the Commission delivered its findings reporting human rights violations on both sides of the conflict. Five days later the Salvadoran legislature passed an amnesty law for all acts of violence during the period. From 1989 until 2004, Salvadorans favoured the Nationalist Republican Alliance (ARENA), voting in ARENA presidents in every election ( Alfredo Cristiani , Armando Calderón Sol , Francisco Flores Pérez , Antonio Saca ) until 2009. The unsuccessful attempts of
11094-442: The new president of El Salvador. Bukele was the winner of February 2019 presidential election . He represented GANA, as he was denied participating with the newly formed Nuevas Ideas party. ARENA and the FMLN, El Salvador's two main parties, had dominated politics in El Salvador over the past three decades. Spanish conquest of El Salvador Indigenous peoples of El Salvador , including: The Spanish conquest of El Salvador
11223-492: The oligarchy opposed agrarian reform , and a junta formed with young reformist elements from the army such as Colonels Adolfo Arnoldo Majano and Jaime Abdul Gutiérrez , as well as with progressives such as Guillermo Ungo and Alvarez. Pressure from the oligarchy soon dissolved the junta because of its inability to control the army in its repression of the people fighting for unionization rights, agrarian reform, better wages, accessible health care and freedom of expression. In
11352-558: The party in December 2009. With 12 loyalists in the National Assembly, Saca established his own party, the Grand Alliance for National Unity (GANA), and entered into a tactical legislative alliance with the FMLN. After three years in office, with Saca's GANA party providing the FMLN with a legislative majority, Funes had not taken action to either investigate or to bring corrupt former officials to justice. Economic reforms since
11481-430: The passage of anti- vagrancy laws to ensure that displaced campesinos and other rural residents provided sufficient labour for the coffee fincas (plantations), and the suppression of rural discontent. In 1912, the national guard was created as a rural police force. In 1898, General Tomas Regalado gained power by force, deposing Rafael Antonio Gutiérrez and ruling as president until 1903. Once in office he revived
11610-501: The practice of presidents designating their successors. After serving his term, he remained active in the Army of El Salvador and was killed on 11 July 1906, at El Jicaro, during a war against Guatemala . Until 1913 El Salvador was politically stable, with undercurrents of popular discontent. When President Manuel Enrique Araujo was killed in 1913, many hypotheses were advanced for the political motive of his murder. Araujo's administration
11739-469: The rain season of 1524, leading an army of 250 Spaniards, 100 of which were mounted, and 5,000 Guatemalan allies. The invaders overcame the natives in pitched battles and fought off guerrilla attacks on their forces. Alvarado crossed the Río Paz from Guatemala on 6 June 1524, and arrived at Mopicalco, in what is now the department of Ahuachapán , to find it abandoned. They continued to Acatepeque, where
11868-581: The relief force; Estete abandoned his camp and retreated towards Nicaragua , taking with him 2,000 enslaved Cuzcatlecos. López pursued Estete and caught up with his forces after crossing the Lempa River . Estete and his second-in-command fled for Nicaragua, and his soldiers surrendered to López. Diego de Rojas was freed, and the slaves recovered. This intervention put an end to Pedrarias Dávila's hopes of securing El Salvador as part of Nicaragua. In order to defend against further rival Spanish incursions from
11997-466: The settlement included Mexica and Tlaxcalan allies, among other Indian auxiliaries. Most of the Spanish population of San Miguel abandoned El Salvador with Pedro de Alvarado when he set out on his expedition to Peru . Cristóbal de la Cueva, under orders from Jorge de Alvarado in Guatemala , had entered Honduras with about 40 men to establish a new port and road to Guatemala, and to put down
12126-648: The site of La Laguna in Usulutan has also produced Copador items that link it to the Lenca-Maya trade route. By 1521, the indigenous population of the Mesoamerican area had been drastically reduced by the smallpox epidemic that was spreading throughout the territory, although it had not yet reached pandemic levels in Cuzcatlán or the northern portion Managuara. The first known visit by Spaniards to what
12255-794: The size of the army, and the dissolution of the National Police, the Treasury Police, the National Guard and the Civilian Defence, a paramilitary group. A new Civil Police was to be organized. Judicial immunity for crimes committed by the armed forces ended; the government agreed to submit to the recommendations of a Commission on the Truth for El Salvador (Comisión de la Verdad Para El Salvador) , which would "investigate serious acts of violence occurring since 1980, and
12384-583: The south by the Pacific Ocean . El Salvador's capital and largest city is San Salvador . The country's population in 2024 was estimated to be 6 million according to a government census. Among the Mesoamerican nations that historically controlled the region are the Mayans , and then the Cuzcatlecs . Archaeological monuments also suggest an early Olmec presence around the first millennium BC. In
12513-414: The southeast, Pedro de Alvarado established the Spanish town of San Miguel , which he also used as a base of operations for attacks against the Lenca . A Spanish force commanded by Luis de Moscoso Alvarado , consisting of about 120 Spanish cavalry, accompanied by infantry and Indian auxiliaries , crossed the Lempa River and founded San Miguel on 21 November 1530. In addition to the Spanish colonists,
12642-723: The southwestern regions of Spain, with their origins in Andalusia and Extremadura . Up to 1519, according to licenses issued in Spain , over half were from these two regions. From 1520 to 1539, this fell to just under half of all conquistadors leaving Spain. The conquest of the Central American Isthmus was launched from three directions; Mexico , Panama , and the Caribbean island of Hispaniola . Relations between rival conquistadors were dominated by mutual distrust, greed, and envy. The conquistadors were accompanied by
12771-545: The spread of a leftist insurrection. Napoleón Duarte was recalled from his exile in Venezuela to head this new junta. However, a revolution was already underway and his new role as head of the junta was seen by the general population as opportunistic. He was unable to influence the outcome of the insurrection. Óscar Romero , the Roman Catholic Archbishop of San Salvador, denounced injustices and massacres committed against civilians by government forces. He
12900-462: The territories that underwent the process of conquest and colonisation; they were used to project Spanish power over the surrounding countryside. The Spanish were particularly horrified by the Mesoamerican religious practice of human sacrifice , prompting them to attempt to eradicate the native religion . The steel sword was the greatest Spanish advantage in terms of weaponry. The conquistadors employed broadswords , rapiers , firearms (including
13029-419: The territory of El Salvador to his domains in neighbouring Nicaragua , going so far as to distribute the unconquered natives of the Gulf of Fonseca in encomienda to his followers. At the time, Diego de Rojas was in command of the Spanish forces attempting to pacify indigenous resistance centred on Popocatepet. In January or February 1530, Martín de Estete captured Rojas, and marched on San Salvador , but
13158-525: The territory that would become El Salvador until its independence from Spain in 1821. It was forcibly incorporated into the First Mexican Empire , then seceded, joining the Federal Republic of Central America in 1823. When the federation dissolved in 1841, El Salvador became a sovereign state, then formed a short-lived union with Honduras and Nicaragua called the Greater Republic of Central America , which lasted from 1896 to 1898. From
13287-458: The territory were inhabited by the Pipil , a Nahua people culturally related to the Aztecs of Mexico . The Pipil were divided into three main provinces in El Salvador; the two largest were Cuscatlan and Izalco , while Nonualco was the smallest of the three. Cuscatlan extended from the Paz River in the west to the Lempa River in the east. Izalco lay to the southwest of Cuscatlan and
13416-512: The town of San Miguel, became the Province of San Miguel, which included the territory of the pre-Columbian province of Chaparrastique. In early 1537, San Miguel was isolated by a general Lenca uprising that spread south from Honduras . A native army laid siege to San Miguel over the course of three days from 27 March. Their surprise attack caught many of the inhabitants defenceless, and 50–60 Spanish colonists were killed, more than half of
13545-448: The uprising finally ended when the Spanish stormed the native stronghold at the Peñol de Cinacantan . In 1529, El Salvador became embroiled in a jurisdictional dispute with neighbouring Nicaragua . Pedrarias Dávila sent Martín de Estete at the head of an expedition to annex the territory to Nicaragua. Estete captured the leader of a rival Spanish expedition in eastern El Salvador, and marched on San Salvador , before being repulsed by
13674-415: The use of Marxist–Leninist ideology. In December 1930, at the height of the country's economic and social depression, Martí was once again exiled because of his popularity among the nation's poor and rumours of his upcoming nomination for president the following year. Once Araujo was elected president in 1931, Martí returned to El Salvador and, along with Alfonso Luna and Mario Zapata, began the movement that
13803-523: The use of a simple metal war hat . Shields were considered essential by both infantry and cavalry; generally this was a circular target shield, convex in form and fashioned from iron or wood. Rings secured it to the arm and hand. Diseases introduced to the Americas by the conquistadors had a great impact upon indigenous populations. As the Spanish were occupied with the conquest of Mexico , these diseases ran ahead of them from 1519 onwards. A smallpox epidemic swept through Guatemala in 1520–1521, and
13932-552: The western part of the country, killing an estimated 2,000 people. The government suppressed the rebellion brutally, killing between 10,000 and 40,000 people, mostly, Pipil peasants. Many of the rebellion's leaders, including Ama and Martí, were captured and executed. Historically, the high Salvadoran population density has contributed to tensions with neighbouring Honduras , as land-poor Salvadorans emigrated to less densely populated Honduras and established themselves as squatters on unused or underused land. This phenomenon
14061-556: The whim of individual conquistadors, with no formal planning of their location or of communication routes between them, often leaving them isolated. In 1548, El Salvador was formally placed within the jurisdiction of the Audiencia Real of Guatemala , which extended along the Central American isthmus from Chiapas , now in southern Mexico, to Costa Rica . Pedro de Alvarado entered El Salvador from Guatemala in
14190-480: Was flourishing trade , with cacao as the principal commodity, although maize , cotton , and balsam were also traded. The Pipil used wooden weapons with stone blades. Their weapons included long spears, atlatls (spear-throwers), arrows, and the macana (a wooden sword with inset obsidian blades similar to the Aztec macahuitl ). These weapons proved inferior to elements of Spanish warfare such as steel,
14319-487: Was General Maximiliano Hernández Martínez . In December 1931, a coup d'état was organized by junior officers and led by Martínez. Only the First Regiment of Cavalry and the National Police defended the presidency (the National Police had been on its payroll), but later that night, after hours of fighting, the badly outnumbered defenders surrendered to rebel forces. The Directorate, composed of officers, hid behind
14448-645: Was a major cause of the 1969 Football War between the two countries. As many as 130,000 Salvadorans were forcibly expelled or fled from Honduras. The Christian Democratic Party (PDC) and the National Conciliation Party (PCN) were active in Salvadoran politics from 1960 until 2011, when they were disbanded by the Supreme Court because they had failed to win enough votes in the 2004 presidential election. Both parties have since reconstituted. They share common ideals, but one represents
14577-480: Was an alcaldía mayor , while San Salvador, San Miguel, and Choluteca (now in Honduras ) formed the alcaldía mayor of San Salvador. From 1524, all of these fell within the jurisdiction of Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala . In 1542, this jurisdiction was reorganised as the Real Audiencia de Guatemala , and later the Captaincy General of Guatemala . Ecclesiastically, all of El Salvador fell within
14706-549: Was brutal suppression of a rural revolt known as La Matanza . In the unstable political climate of the previous few years, social activist and revolutionary leader Farabundo Martí helped found the Communist Party of Central America, and led a communist alternative to the Red Cross, called " International Red Aid ", serving as one of its representatives. Their goal was to help poor and underprivileged Salvadorans through
14835-454: Was considered "the voice of the voiceless", but he was assassinated by a death squad while saying Mass on 24 March 1980. Some consider this to be the beginning of the full Salvadoran Civil War , which lasted from 1980 to 1992. An unknown number of people "disappeared" during the conflict, and the UN reports that more than 75,000 were killed. The Salvadoran Army 's US-trained Atlácatl Battalion
14964-430: Was defeated in the 1972 presidential elections. He lost to the ex-minister of interior, Colonel Arturo Armando Molina , in an election that was widely viewed as fraudulent; Molina was declared the winner even though Duarte was said to have received a majority of the votes. Duarte, at some army officers' requests, supported a revolt to protest the election fraud, but was captured, tortured and later exiled. Duarte returned to
15093-489: Was followed by the Melendez-Quinonez dynasty that lasted from 1913 to 1927. Pio Romero Bosque , ex-minister of the government and a trusted collaborator of the dynasty, succeeded President Jorge Meléndez , and in 1930 announced free elections, in which Arturo Araujo came to power on 1 March 1931, in what was considered the country's first freely contested election. His government lasted only nine months before it
15222-568: Was later truncated by the military. On 22 January 1932, thousands of poorly armed peasants in the western part of El Salvador revolted against the government and Martínez. The rebellion occurred amid widespread unrest over suppression of democratic political freedoms following the cancelation of the results of the 1932 legislative election. The rebels were led by Feliciano Ama and Farabundo Martí and were largely composed of indigenous people and communists. The rebellion made gains initially, capturing several towns and cities across
15351-542: Was launched in 1814, which was also suppressed. In 1821, in light of unrest in Guatemala, Spanish authorities capitulated and signed the Act of Independence of Central America , which released all of the Captaincy General of Guatemala (comprising current territories of Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica and the Mexican state of Chiapas ) from Spanish rule and declared its independence. In 1821, El Salvador joined Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua in
15480-537: Was not politically unified at the time of Spanish contact. As with neighbouring regions, this hindered the progress of incorporation into the Spanish Empire , as each small kingdom had to be overcome in turn; this contrasted with Mexico where a large empire had been rapidly overcome with the fall of its capital, Tenochtitlan . As Spanish authority gradually spread out from Mexico and Panama , this left El Salvador in an intermediate region temporarily beyond Spanish control. Spanish colonial towns were founded according to
15609-477: Was noteworthy among indigenous leaders in that he mocked the Spanish by wearing their clothes after capturing them and using their weapons captured in battle. Lempira fought in command of thousands of Lenca forces for six more years in Managuara until he was killed in battle. The remaining Lenca forces retreated into the hills. The Spanish were then able to rebuild their garrison town of San Miguel in 1537. During
15738-437: Was overthrown by junior military officers who accused his Labor Party of lacking political and governmental experience and of using its government offices inefficiently. President Araujo faced general popular discontent, as the people had expected economic reforms and the redistribution of land. There were demonstrations in front of the National Palace from the first week of his administration. His vice president and minister of war
15867-440: Was put down by the end of 1538, and by 1539 the province was considered pacified. The conquistadores discovered that there was little gold or silver to be found in El Salvador, and it became a colonial backwater with a small Spanish population, within the jurisdiction of the Captaincy General of Guatemala . Before the conquest, El Salvador formed a part of the Mesoamerican cultural region. The central and western portions of
15996-613: Was responsible for the El Mozote massacre where more than 800 civilians were murdered, over half of them children, the El Calabozo massacre , and the murder of UCA scholars . On 16 January 1992, the government of El Salvador, represented by president Alfredo Cristiani , and the FMLN, represented by the commanders of the five guerrilla groups – Schafik Hándal , Joaquín Villalobos , Salvador Sánchez Cerén , Francisco Jovel and Eduardo Sancho , all signed peace agreements brokered by
16125-453: Was sent to reconquer Cuzcatlan in the same year; he was accompanied by 300 Indian auxiliaries from Soconusco , 160 of whom died in the campaign. He was joined by Pedro de Alvarado after the latter returned from an expedition to Chiapas . By 1526, the territory of El Salvador , Guatemala , and Honduras was racked by indigenous wars against the Spanish invaders. Izalco did not join the general uprising, having been militarily exhausted by
16254-456: Was subservient to it on the eve of the Spanish conquest; its territory is now incorporated into the modern departments of Ahuachapan and Sonsonate . The Nonualco area is in the region of La Paz centered around the city of Zacatecoluca . Other indigenous groups with territories in El Salvador were the Ch'orti' and the Poqomam (both of these were Maya peoples ), the Lenca , the Xinca ,
16383-566: Was the campaign undertaken by the Spanish conquistadores against the Late Postclassic Mesoamerican polities in the territory that is now incorporated into the modern Central American country of El Salvador . El Salvador is the smallest country in Central America, and is dominated by two mountain ranges running east–west. Its climate is tropical, and the year is divided into wet and dry seasons. Before
16512-430: Was travelling in the rearguard, slowed by his wounds. Alvarado watched the battle unfold from a nearby viewpoint, and left command in the hands of his brothers. He sent Gómez de Alvarado with twenty cavalry to attack the left flank, and Gonzalo de Alvarado with thirty cavalry against the right flank. He sent Jorge de Alvarado with the rest of his men against a mass of warriors that was still distant but they stood off for
16641-705: Was unable to gain the support of the residents there, and set up camp at Perulapan (modern San Martín Perulapán ), just to the south, which he called Ciudad de los Caballeros ("City of the Knights"). The acting governor of Guatemala , Francisco de Orduña , sent his captain Francisco López at the head of an expedition to drive out the interlopers. López left Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala in March 1530 with thirty cavalry, and an unspecified body of infantry. The residents of San Salvador rose up in arms to join
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