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108-548: The Ottawa Catholic School Board ( OCSB , known as English-language Separate District School Board No. 53 prior to 1999) is a publicly funded separate school board in Ottawa , Ontario , Canada . Its headquarters are in the Nepean area of Ottawa. It employs approximately 4,777 people ( full-time equivalents ) and operates 84 schools in the greater Ottawa area, with a total student population of approximately 44,200. Before 2007,

216-634: A French patrol. In 1755, six colonial governors met with General Edward Braddock , the newly arrived British Army commander, and planned a four-way attack on the French. None succeeded, and the main effort by Braddock proved a disaster; he lost the Battle of the Monongahela on July 9, 1755, and died a few days later. British operations failed in the frontier areas of the Province of Pennsylvania and

324-600: A company of 40 men under William Trent to that point where they began construction of a small stockaded fort in the early months of 1754. Governor Duquesne sent additional French forces under Claude-Pierre Pécaudy de Contrecœur to relieve Saint-Pierre during the same period, and Contrecœur led 500 men south from Fort Venango on April 5, 1754. These forces arrived at the fort on April 16, but Contrecœur generously allowed Trent's small company to withdraw. He purchased their construction tools to continue building what became Fort Duquesne . Dinwiddie had ordered Washington to lead

432-598: A comprehensive code with respect to denominational school rights which cannot be enlarged through the operation of s. 2(a) of the Charter . It does not represent a guarantee of fundamental freedoms . Section 93 of the Constitution Act, 1867 only applies to provinces, not territories. Instead, the right to separate schools is protected in the three territories by the federal Acts of Parliament which establish those three territories. The Northwest Territories Act ,

540-690: A dispute over control of the confluence of the Allegheny River and Monongahela River called the Forks of the Ohio , and the site of the French Fort Duquesne at the location that later became Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania. The dispute erupted into violence in the Battle of Jumonville Glen in May 1754, during which Virginia militiamen under the command of 22-year-old George Washington ambushed

648-614: A large frontier with several companies of British regulars. When hostilities began, the British colonial governments preferred operating independently of one another and of the government in London. This situation complicated negotiations with Indian tribes, whose territories often encompassed land claimed by multiple colonies. As the war progressed, the leaders of the British Army establishment tried to impose constraints and demands on

756-491: A larger force to assist Trent in his work, and Washington learned of Trent's retreat while he was en route. Mingo sachem Tanaghrisson had promised support to the British, so Washington continued toward Fort Duquesne and met with him. He then learned of a French scouting party in the area from a warrior sent by Tanaghrisson, so he added Tanaghrisson's dozen Mingo warriors to his own party. Washington's combined force of 52 ambushed 40 Canadiens (French colonists of New France ) on

864-416: A natural or unconditional right available to all. Only Protestants or Roman Catholics, whichever is the minority faith population compared to the other in a community, can consider the establishment of separate school education. The separate school establishment right is not available to citizens of any other faith (such as Orthodox Christians , Jews , Mormons , Muslims , Hindus or Sikhs ). In addition,

972-606: A stance of neutrality to ensure continued trade with both French and British. Though maintaining this stance proved difficult as the Iroquois Confederation tribes sided and supported French or British causes depending on which side provided the most beneficial trade. The Southeast interior was dominated by Siouan-speaking Catawbas , Muskogee -speaking Creeks and Choctaw , and the Iroquoian-speaking Cherokee tribes. When war broke out,

1080-613: A strong house at the mouth of the Monongahela River on the modern site of Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania. Governor-General of New France Marquis de la Jonquière died on March 17, 1752, and he was temporarily replaced by Charles le Moyne de Longueuil. His permanent replacement was to be the Marquis Duquesne , but he did not arrive in New France until 1752 to take over the post. The continuing British activity in

1188-452: Is a clear and well-known process for determining the wishes of the members of the minority faith. In Alberta, for example, the geographic basis for separate school establishment is the underlying public school district. At any time, three or more residents, either Protestant or Roman Catholic, who believe that they are members of the minority faith locally, can initiate the process. A census must be conducted to confirm that they are, in fact,

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1296-686: Is one Protestant separate school jurisdiction in Ontario, the Burkevale Protestant Separate School , operated by the Penetanguishene Protestant Separate School Board . In Ontario, this determination was largely made throughout the province by the time of Confederation. The public school system in the province was historically Protestant but was gradually transformed into a secular public system. Prayer in public schools

1404-605: The Anglo-Cherokee War in 1758. In 1758, the Province of Pennsylvania successfully negotiated the Treaty of Easton in which a number of tribes in the Ohio Country promised neutrality in exchange for land concessions and other considerations. Most of the other northern tribes sided with the French, their primary trading partner and supplier of arms. The Creeks and Cherokees were subject to diplomatic efforts by both

1512-483: The Battle of Fort Bull , French forces destroyed the fort and large quantities of supplies, including 45,000 pounds of gunpowder. They set back any British hopes for campaigns on Lake Ontario and endangered the Oswego garrison, already short on supplies. French forces in the Ohio valley also continued to intrigue with Indians throughout the area, encouraging them to raid frontier settlements. This led to ongoing alarms along

1620-617: The Illinois Country , hugging the east side of the Mississippi River and its tributaries. French fur traders and trappers traveled throughout the St. Lawrence and Mississippi watersheds, did business with local Indian tribes, and often married Indian women. Traders married daughters of chiefs, creating high-ranking unions. British settlers outnumbered the French 20 to 1 with a population of about 1.5 million ranged along

1728-1136: The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights . The Committee restated its concerns on November 2, 2005, when it published its Concluding Observations regarding Canada's fifth periodic report under the Covenant. The Committee observed that Canada had failed to "adopt steps in order to eliminate discrimination on the basis of religion in the funding of schools in Ontario." Opposition to publicly funded separate schools continues in all three provinces where it remains, but most notably in Ontario, where court cases (see Reva Landau ) and long-standing, organized opposition groups (OneSchoolSystem.org and Civil Rights in Public Education) continue to actively seek to end or limit public funding for Catholic schools. French and Indian War [REDACTED]   Great Britain [REDACTED]   France [REDACTED] Wabanaki Confederacy The French and Indian War (1754–1763)

1836-531: The Iroquois , Catawba , and Cherokee tribes, and the French colonists were supported by Wabanaki Confederacy members Abenaki and Mi'kmaq , and the Algonquin , Lenape , Ojibwa , Ottawa , Shawnee , and Wyandot (Huron). Fighting took place primarily along the frontiers between New France and the British colonies, from the Province of Virginia in the south to Newfoundland in the north. It began with

1944-608: The Iroquois Confederacy in the area, and he was made a colonel of the Iroquois in 1746; he was later commissioned as a colonel of the Western New York Militia. The Indian representatives and Johnson met with Governor George Clinton and officials from some of the other American colonies at Albany, New York . Mohawk Chief Hendrick was the speaker of their tribal council, and he insisted that

2052-665: The Navigation Act 1756 , and the Continuance of Laws Act 1756 . England passed the Naval Prize Act 1756 following the proclamation of war on May 17 to allow the capture of ships and establish privateering. The French acquired a copy of the British war plans, including the activities of Shirley and Johnson. Shirley's efforts to fortify Oswego were bogged down in logistical difficulties, exacerbated by his inexperience in managing large expeditions. In conjunction, he

2160-611: The Province of New York during 1755–57 due to a combination of poor management, internal divisions, effective Canadien scouts, French regular forces, and Native warrior allies. In 1755, the British captured Fort Beauséjour on the border separating Nova Scotia from Acadia , and they ordered the expulsion of the Acadians (1755–64) soon afterwards. Orders for the deportation were given by Commander-in-Chief William Shirley without direction from Great Britain. The Acadians were expelled, both those captured in arms and those who had sworn

2268-570: The Yukon Act and the Nunavut Act all provide that the territorial legislatures can legislate with respect to education, provided they respect the right of religious minorities (whether Protestant or Roman Catholic) to establish separate schools. School boards funded by the province consist of 29 English Catholic and 8 French Catholic boards, as well as 35 non-denominational public school boards (31 English public, 4 French public). There

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2376-522: The "wrong" side of this division, with a French Catholic minority in Upper Canada and an Anglo-Protestant minority in Lower Canada. Schools of the era were almost entirely parochial schools controlled by the various churches. Only when government mandated standardization and public funding for education were introduced did this then become a political issue. By the time of Confederation in 1867,

2484-708: The (largely French-speaking) Roman Catholic population in Canada and the Protestant majority. The issue was a subject of debate at the 1864 Quebec Conference and was finally resolved at the London Conference of 1866 with a proposal to preserve the separate school systems in Quebec and Ontario . The way in which this agreement was written into the British North America Act , 1867 was to

2592-602: The 1740s during the reign of King George II , so British colonists named this conflict after their opponents, and it became known as the French and Indian War . This continues as the standard name for the war in the United States, although indigenous peoples fought on both sides of the conflict. It also led into the Seven Years' War overseas, a much larger conflict between France and Great Britain that did not involve

2700-572: The Acadians of 1755 saw some 12,000 Acadians killed and/or forcibly resettled to the Thirteen Colonies, Louisiana, France, England, etc. Some later returned, but their land and villages had been given away to Anglo-Protestant settlers. However, the trigger for expulsion was about the fear that Acadians would side with France during the " French and Indian War " (1754–1760/1763). When the much larger colony of Canada fell in 1763 ( Quebec City invaded in 1759, Montreal in 1760), deportation

2808-605: The American colonies; some historians make a connection between the French and Indian War and the Seven Years' War overseas, but most residents of the United States consider them as two separate conflicts—only one of which involved the American colonies, and American historians generally use the traditional name. Less frequently used names for the war include the Fourth Intercolonial War and the Great War for

2916-513: The Atlantic coast of the continent from Nova Scotia and the Colony of Newfoundland in the north to the Province of Georgia in the south. Many of the older colonies' land claims extended arbitrarily far to the west, as the extent of the continent was unknown at the time when their provincial charters were granted. Their population centers were along the coast, but the settlements were growing into

3024-524: The Austrian Succession ended in 1748 with the signing of the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle , which was primarily focused on resolving issues in Europe. The issues of conflicting territorial claims between British and French colonies were turned over to a commission, but it reached no decision. Frontier areas were claimed by both sides, from Nova Scotia and Acadia in the north to the Ohio Country in

3132-662: The British abide by their obligations and block French expansion. Clinton did not respond to his satisfaction, and Hendrick said that the " Covenant Chain " was broken, a long-standing friendly relationship between the Iroquois Confederacy and the British Crown. Governor Robert Dinwiddie of Virginia was an investor in the Ohio Company, which stood to lose money if the French held their claim. He ordered 21-year-old Major George Washington (whose brother

3240-487: The British encampment at Fort Edward at the upper end of navigation on the Hudson River , but Johnson had strongly fortified it, and Dieskau's Indian support was reluctant to attack. The two forces finally met in the bloody Battle of Lake George between Fort Edward and Fort William Henry . The battle ended inconclusively, with both sides withdrawing from the field. Johnson's advance stopped at Fort William Henry, and

3348-606: The British, since René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle had explored the Ohio Country nearly a century earlier. Washington's party left Fort Le Boeuf early on December 16 and arrived in Williamsburg on January 16, 1754. He stated in his report, "The French had swept south", detailing the steps which they had taken to fortify the area, and their intention to fortify the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers. Even before Washington returned, Dinwiddie had sent

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3456-535: The British. Marin followed the route that Céloron had mapped out four years earlier. Céloron, however, had limited the record of French claims to the burial of lead plates, whereas Marin constructed and garrisoned forts. He first constructed Fort Presque Isle on Lake Erie's south shore near Erie, Pennsylvania , and he had a road built to the headwaters of LeBoeuf Creek . He then constructed a second fort at Fort Le Boeuf in Waterford, Pennsylvania , designed to guard

3564-594: The Canadians attacked under the command of Jumonville's brother at the Battle of Fort Necessity on July 3. Washington surrendered and negotiated a withdrawal under arms. One of his men reported that the Canadian force was accompanied by Shawnee , Delaware , and Mingo warriors—just those whom Tanaghrisson was seeking to influence. News of the two battles reached England in August. After several months of negotiations,

3672-549: The Empire . In Europe, the French and Indian War is conflated into the Seven Years' War and not given a separate name. "Seven Years" refers to events in Europe, from the official declaration of war in 1756—two years after the French and Indian War had started—to the signing of the peace treaty in 1763. The French and Indian War in America, by contrast, was largely concluded in six years from the Battle of Jumonville Glen in 1754 to

3780-458: The English. I don't know in what way they could be brought back." Even before his return to Montreal, reports on the situation in the Ohio Country were making their way to London and Paris, each side proposing that action be taken. Massachusetts governor William Shirley was particularly forceful, stating that British colonists would not be safe as long as the French were present. The War of

3888-538: The French and British to gain either their support or neutrality in the conflict. At this time, Spain claimed only the province of Florida in eastern America. It controlled Cuba and other territories in the West Indies that became military objectives in the Seven Years' War. Florida's European population was a few hundred, concentrated in St. Augustine . There were no French regular army troops stationed in America at

3996-520: The French claims on the territory and told them to leave. Céloron's expedition arrived at Logstown where the Indians in the area informed him that they owned the Ohio Country and that they would trade with the British colonists regardless of the French. He continued south until his expedition reached the confluence of the Ohio and the Miami rivers, which lay just south of the village of Pickawillany ,

4104-672: The French colonists used their trading connections to recruit fighters from tribes in western portions of the Great Lakes region , which was not directly subject to the conflict between the French and British; these included the Hurons , Mississaugas , Ojibwas , Winnebagos , and Potawatomi . The British colonists were supported in the war by the Iroquois Six Nations and also by the Cherokees, until differences sparked

4212-400: The French fleet had already sailed. Admiral Edward Hawke detached a fast squadron to North America in an attempt to intercept them. In a second British action, Admiral Edward Boscawen fired on the French ship Alcide on June 8, 1755, capturing her and two troop ships. The British harassed French shipping throughout 1755, seizing ships and capturing seamen. These actions contributed to

4320-472: The French forces after Marin died on October 29, and he invited Washington to dine with him. Over dinner, Washington presented Saint-Pierre with the letter from Dinwiddie demanding an immediate French withdrawal from the Ohio Country. Saint-Pierre said, "As to the Summons you send me to retire, I do not think myself obliged to obey it." He told Washington that France's claim to the region was superior to that of

4428-530: The French war party attacked the trading center at Pickawillany, capturing three traders and killing 14 Miami Indians, including Old Briton. He was reportedly ritually cannibalized by some Indians in the expedition party. In the spring of 1753, Paul Marin de la Malgue was given command of a 2,000-man force of Troupes de la Marine and Indians. His orders were to protect the King's land in the Ohio Valley from

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4536-534: The French with military action, which Marin contemptuously dismissed. The Iroquois sent runners to the manor of William Johnson in upstate New York, who was the British Superintendent for Indian Affairs in the New York region and beyond. Johnson was known to the Iroquois as Warraghiggey , meaning "he who does great things." He spoke their languages and had become a respected honorary member of

4644-561: The French withdrew to Ticonderoga Point, where they began the construction of Fort Carillon (later renamed Fort Ticonderoga after the British captured it in 1759). Colonel Monckton captured Fort Beauséjour in June 1755 in the sole British success that year, cutting off the French Fortress Louisbourg from land-based reinforcements. To cut vital supplies to Louisbourg, Nova Scotia's Governor Charles Lawrence ordered

4752-553: The French, with whom they had long trading relationships. One of Tanaghrisson's men told Contrecoeur that Jumonville had been killed by British musket fire. Historians generally consider the Battle of Jumonville Glen as the opening battle of the French and Indian War in North America, and the start of hostilities in the Ohio valley. Following the battle, Washington pulled back several miles and established Fort Necessity , which

4860-542: The Maritime provinces, similar issues were at play. In 1864, the government of Nova Scotia reformed its system of education, withdrawing support from all schools which were religious or which used any language other than English as a medium of instruction. In New Brunswick under the Parish Schools Act of 1858, there was only loose supervision from the central board of education, and in practice each school

4968-516: The Ohio territories prompted Longueuil to dispatch another expedition to the area under the command of Charles Michel de Langlade , an officer in the Troupes de la Marine. Langlade was given 300 men, including French-Canadians and warriors of the Ottawa tribe . His objective was to punish the Miami people of Pickawillany for not following Céloron's orders to cease trading with the British. On June 21,

5076-625: The Ottawa Catholic School Board on March 27, 2007, to emphasize the commitment to Catholicity and to reflect the amalgamation of the City of Ottawa. Separate school The constitutionally provided mandate of a separate school jurisdiction and of a separate school is to provide education in a school setting that the separate school board considers reflective of Roman Catholic (or, rarely, Protestant ) theology, doctrine, and practices. This mandate can manifest itself in

5184-685: The Program of Studies and the curriculum , exercises and practices, and staffing. The limits of this mandate are determined by the application of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms , and judicial decisions. The different experience in Ontario as compared to Alberta and Saskatchewan is principally the result of the same constitutional provisions having effect on settlement at different stages in Canadian history. The Constitution of Canada does not establish separate school education as

5292-481: The St. Lawrence, continued along the northern shore of Lake Ontario , crossed the portage at Niagara, and followed the southern shore of Lake Erie . At the Chautauqua Portage near Barcelona, New York , the expedition moved inland to the Allegheny River , which it followed to the site of Pittsburgh . There Céloron buried lead plates engraved with the French claim to the Ohio Country. Whenever he encountered British colonial merchants or fur-traders, he informed them of

5400-463: The Town of St. Paul ( Glen Avon Protestant Separate School District ). One anomaly of the system is that the Town of Morinville has only a public Catholic high school (part of the Greater St. Albert Catholic Regional Division ), and no secular or Protestant high schools of any kind. In Alberta and Saskatchewan, there continues to be large areas of the province where separate school education has never been established. In these two provinces, there

5508-411: The beginning of the English Reformation . Since the Glorious Revolution of 1688, however, Protestantism had been the official religion of the British state as evidenced by the Act of Settlement 1701 which forbade Catholics to become monarch. This was the beginning of a long period of anti-Catholic laws and policies in the British Empire , most famously expressed through the Irish "Penal" Laws . In

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5616-440: The board was known as Ottawa-Carleton Catholic School Board ( OCCSB ) and its two former boards prior to 1998, Carleton Roman Catholic Separate School Board ( CRCSSB ) and Ottawa Roman Catholic Separate School Board ( ORCSSB ). Merging of the former Ottawa and former Carleton Roman Catholic School Boards resulted in the establishment of the Ottawa-Carleton Catholic School Board on January 1, 1998. The board changed its name to

5724-431: The campaigns to expel the Acadians ranging around the Bay of Fundy , on the Petitcodiac and St. John rivers, and Île Saint-Jean . Following the death of Braddock, William Shirley assumed command of British forces in North America, and he laid out his plans for 1756 at a meeting in Albany in December 1755. He proposed renewing the efforts to capture Niagara, Crown Point, and Duquesne, with attacks on Fort Frontenac on

5832-460: The capture of Montreal in 1760. Canadians conflate both the European and American conflicts into the Seven Years' War ( Guerre de Sept Ans ). French Canadians also use the term "War of Conquest" ( Guerre de la Conquête ), since it is the war in which New France was conquered by the British and became part of the British Empire. In Quebec, this term was promoted by popular historians Jacques Lacoursière and Denis Vaugeois , who borrowed from

5940-413: The case of the New World French there was also the fear that the new population was potentially more loyal to a foreign king, that of France, than to Britain. The first French colony to fall to the British was Acadia on the Atlantic coast in 1713 (invaded in 1710). Here the problem of dealing with a French Catholic community was solved through the simple but brutal method of expulsion. The Expulsion of

6048-457: The city of Quebec (1759). The following year the British were victorious in the Montreal Campaign in which the French ceded Canada in accordance with the Treaty of Paris (1763) . France also ceded its territory east of the Mississippi to Great Britain, as well as French Louisiana west of the Mississippi River to its ally Spain in compensation for Spain's loss to Britain of Spanish Florida . (Spain had ceded Florida to Britain in exchange for

6156-542: The colonial administrations. New France's Governor-General Roland-Michel Barrin de La Galissonière was concerned about the incursion and expanding influence in the Ohio Country of British colonial traders such as George Croghan . In June 1747, he ordered Pierre-Joseph Céloron to lead a military expedition through the area. Its objectives were: Céloron's expedition force consisted of about 200 Troupes de la marine and 30 Indians, and they covered about 3,000 miles (4,800 km) between June and November 1749. They went up

6264-512: The colonies at a time when France was unwilling to risk large convoys to aid the limited forces that they had in New France, preferring to concentrate their forces against Prussia and its allies who were now engaged in the Seven Years' War in Europe. The conflict in Ohio ended in 1758 with the British–American victory in the Ohio Country. Between 1758 and 1760, the British military launched a campaign to capture French Canada . They succeeded in capturing territory in surrounding colonies and ultimately

6372-434: The constitutional negotiations surrounding Canadian Confederation in the 1860s. At the Confederation conferences, Roman Catholic Archbishop Connolly of Halifax argued for separate Catholic and Protestant school systems across the entire federation, administered by the central government. This was forcefully rejected by French Canadian delegates from Canada East, who demanded provincial control over education. The compromise

6480-419: The delegates agreed to was neither ratified by the colonial legislatures nor approved by the Crown. Nevertheless, the format of the congress and many specifics of the plan became the prototype for confederation during the War of Independence . The British formed an aggressive plan of operations for 1755. General Braddock was to lead the expedition to Fort Duquesne, while Massachusetts governor William Shirley

6588-606: The deportation of the French-speaking Acadian population from the area. Monckton's forces, including companies of Rogers' Rangers , forcibly removed thousands of Acadians, chasing down many who resisted and sometimes committing atrocities. Cutting off supplies to Louisbourg led to its demise. The Acadian resistance was sometimes quite stiff, in concert with Indian allies including the Mi'kmaq, with ongoing frontier raids against Dartmouth and Lunenburg , among others. The only clashes of any size were at Petitcodiac in 1755 and at Bloody Creek near Annapolis Royal in 1757, other than

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6696-451: The eastern portions of the province of Canada , as well as much of Maine. The Iroquois Confederation dominated much of upstate New York and the Ohio Country , although Ohio also included Algonquian -speaking populations of Delaware and Shawnee , as well as Iroquoian -speaking Mingos . These tribes were formally under Iroquois rule and were limited by them in their authority to make agreements. The Iroquois Confederation initially held

6804-442: The effect that the condition of education in each colony (or territory) at the time it entered Confederation would be continued thereafter. Consequently, the provinces of British Columbia , New Brunswick , Nova Scotia , and Prince Edward Island have never had an education system that included "separate schools". Up until 1997 the Quebec education system was also separated, with Protestant and Catholic school boards. The system

6912-477: The election and the issue was not raised again in the subsequent election. In Alberta and Saskatchewan, the extent of separate school education is more limited, and Protestant separate schools are slightly more present. For example, in Alberta, about 40% of the land area of the province is included in separate school jurisdictions and there are two Protestant Separate School Districts, in the City of St. Albert ( St. Albert Protestant Separate School District ) and in

7020-420: The eventual formal declarations of war in spring 1756. An early important political response to the opening of hostilities was the convening of the Albany Congress in June and July, 1754. The goal of the congress was to formalize a unified front in trade and negotiations with the Indians, since the allegiance of the various tribes and nations was seen to be pivotal in the war that was unfolding. The plan that

7128-498: The government of the Duke of Newcastle decided to send an army expedition the following year to dislodge the French. They chose Major General Edward Braddock to lead the expedition. Word of the British military plans leaked to France well before Braddock's departure for North America. In response, King Louis XV dispatched six regiments to New France under the command of Baron Dieskau in 1755. The British sent out their fleet in February 1755, intending to blockade French ports, but

7236-410: The headwaters of LeBoeuf Creek. As he moved south, he drove off or captured British traders, alarming both the British and the Iroquois. Tanaghrisson was a chief of the Mingo Indians, who were remnants of Iroquois and other tribes who had been driven west by colonial expansion. He intensely disliked the French whom he accused of killing and eating his father. He traveled to Fort Le Boeuf and threatened

7344-444: The home of the Miami chief known as " Old Briton ". Céloron threatened Old Briton with severe consequences if he continued to trade with British colonists, but Old Briton ignored the warning. Céloron returned disappointedly to Montreal in November 1749. Céloron wrote an extensively detailed report. "All I can say is that the Natives of these localities are very badly disposed towards the French," he wrote, "and are entirely devoted to

7452-619: The ideas of Maurice Séguin in considering this war as a dramatic tipping point of French Canadian identity and nationhood. At this time, North America east of the Mississippi River was largely claimed by either Great Britain or France. Large areas had no colonial settlements. The French population numbered about 75,000 and was heavily concentrated along the St. Lawrence River valley, with some also in Acadia (present-day New Brunswick and parts of Nova Scotia ), including Île Royale ( Cape Breton Island ). Fewer lived in New Orleans ; Biloxi, Mississippi ; Mobile, Alabama ; and small settlements in

7560-471: The interior. The British captured Nova Scotia from France in 1713, which still had a significant French-speaking population. Britain also claimed Rupert's Land where the Hudson's Bay Company traded for furs with local Indian tribes. Between the French and British colonists, large areas were dominated by Indian tribes. To the north, the Mi'kmaq and the Abenakis were engaged in Father Le Loutre's War and still held sway in parts of Nova Scotia, Acadia, and

7668-544: The latter province in the 1890s prompted a national crisis known as the Manitoba Schools Question , and led to Pope Leo XIII 's papal encyclical Affari Vos . Separate school rights have often been criticized as contrary to the spirit of official multiculturalism , primarily, but not exclusively, because only adherents of the Protestant or Roman Catholic faith have these constitutional rights and only in some provinces and territories. In addition, where separate school systems exist, employees or prospective employees who are of

7776-557: The loyalty oath to the king. Natives likewise were driven off the land to make way for settlers from New England. The British Pitt government fell due to disastrous campaigns in 1757, including a failed expedition against Louisbourg and the Siege of Fort William Henry ; this last was followed by the Natives torturing and massacring their colonial victims. William Pitt came to power and significantly increased British military resources in

7884-563: The majority of Catholics in Upper Canada were of Irish extraction as well as English speaking. In the 1840s Methodist minister and Reformist politician Egerton Ryerson championed "common schools" that would educate the children of all faiths under one system. He became Chief Superintendent of Education for Upper Canada in 1844. However, Ryerson was not able to convince the Catholic minority and grudgingly agreed to clauses in his education reforms that allowed for minority-faith schools within

7992-416: The majority of the minority vote in favour of establishment, the establishment becomes a fact. If the majority of the minority vote against establishment, it does not proceed. The process is civil, democratic, and binding on the minority of the minority. A decision at the meeting against establishment precludes a number of the minority faith who may have favoured establishment from continuing for themselves. (At

8100-512: The minority faith have more employment opportunities. (All other things being equal, a member of the minority faith can be employed by either the public board or by the separate board, while anyone else can be excluded from employment by the separate system.) On November 5, 1999, the United Nations Human Rights Committee condemned Canada and Ontario for having violated the equality provisions (Article 26) of

8208-406: The minority faith locally. When the census confirms minority status, a meeting must be widely advertised. The purpose of meeting is to provide a venue at which all of the local members of the minority faith can debate the pros and cons of leaving the public school jurisdiction and creating a separate school district. At the end of the meeting, a vote may be held on the question of establishment. If

8316-475: The minority faith must establish that they wish to leave the public school system and create a separate school system. When France's colonies in North America were conquered by Britain during the 18th century, British authorities were faced with the dilemma of ruling over a large Roman Catholic community. This was significant, as Catholic-Protestant violence in England and Ireland had been nearly constant since

8424-485: The morning of May 28 in what became known as the Battle of Jumonville Glen . They killed many of the Canadiens, including their commanding officer Joseph Coulon de Jumonville , whose head was reportedly split open by Tanaghrisson with a tomahawk. Historian Fred Anderson suggests that Tanaghrisson was acting to gain the support of the British and to regain authority over his own people. They had been inclined to support

8532-701: The north shore of Lake Ontario and an expedition through the wilderness of the Maine district and down the Chaudière River to attack the city of Quebec . His plan, however, got bogged down by disagreements and disputes with others, including William Johnson and New York's Governor Sir Charles Hardy , and consequently gained little support. Newcastle replaced him in January 1756 with Lord Loudoun , with Major General James Abercrombie as his second in command. Neither of these men had as much campaign experience as

8640-482: The onset of war. New France was defended by about 3,000 troupes de la marine , companies of colonial regulars (some of whom had significant woodland combat experience). The colonial government recruited militia support when needed. The British had few troops. Most of the British colonies mustered local militia companies to deal with Indian threats, generally ill trained and available only for short periods, but they did not have any standing forces. Virginia, by contrast, had

8748-416: The public school system except by leaving the minority faith. In Saskatchewan and Ontario, members of the minority faith may choose to be supporters of the public school system, notwithstanding their faith. Retention of separate school boards with public funding was a major issue of contention in the negotiations that led to Canadian confederation , chiefly as a result of ethnic and religious tension between

8856-593: The publicly funded system. The Catholic case was strengthened by the fact that the Protestant minority in Lower Canada had already won the right to a separate system. The institutionalization of separate schools in Canada West (Upper Canada before 1840) was secured by the Scott Act of 1863, but with the caveat that rural Catholic schools could only serve an area with a radius of 3 miles (4.8 km). In

8964-657: The relevant provision is s. 93(1), as amended by the Alberta Act and the Saskatchewan Act , respectively. As held by the Supreme Court of Canada in Adler v. Ontario , the provincial education power under section 93 of the Constitution Act, 1867 is plenary , and is not subject to Charter attack. As Iacobucci J. noted, it is the product of a historical compromise crucial to Confederation and forms

9072-752: The retreat—two future opponents in the American Revolutionary War . The British government initiated a plan to increase their military capability in preparation for war following news of Braddock's defeat and the start of parliament's session in November 1755. Among the early legislative measures were the Recruiting Act 1756 , the Commissions to Foreign Protestants Act 1756 for the Royal American Regiment ,

9180-465: The return of Havana , Cuba.) France's colonial presence north of the Caribbean was reduced to the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon , confirming Great Britain's position as the dominant colonial power in northern America . In British America, wars were often named after the sitting British monarch, such as King William's War or Queen Anne's War . There had already been a King George's War in

9288-620: The rites of the Romish church, as far as the laws of Great Britain permit. His Britannick Majesty farther agrees, that the French inhabitants, or others who had been subjects of the Most Christian King in Canada, may retire with all safety and freedom wherever they shall think proper... This guarantee was later threatened on several occasions by assimilationist legislation such as the Royal Proclamation of 1763 , but this

9396-493: The same time, any decision against establishment has no term: proponents can begin almost immediately to organize a subsequent effort.) In Alberta, wherever a separate school system exists, individuals who are of the minority faith that established the separate school system must be residents, electors, and ratepayers of the separate school system (the Schmidt decision ). There is no way by which they could opt to be supporters of

9504-433: The schooling for children of many members of so-called "mainstream" Protestant denominations. All of these schools received grants from the provincial government for their operation. Ownership of the schools ranged from parochial (owned and operated directly by a church) to ownership and operation by a separate not-for-profit society. The constitutional obligation on the province to maintain this system of confessional schools

9612-605: The south. The disputes also extended into the Atlantic Ocean , where both powers wanted access to the rich fisheries of the Grand Banks off Newfoundland . In 1749, the British government gave land to the Ohio Company of Virginia for the purpose of developing trade and settlements in the Ohio Country. The grant required that it settle 100 families in the territory and construct a fort for their protection. But

9720-552: The territory was also claimed by Pennsylvania, and both colonies began pushing for action to improve their respective claims. In 1750, Christopher Gist explored the Ohio territory, acting on behalf of both Virginia and the company, and he opened negotiations with the Indian tribes at Logstown. He completed the 1752 Treaty of Logstown in which the local Indians agreed to terms through their "Half-King" Tanacharison and an Iroquois representative. These terms included permission to build

9828-505: The trio of officers whom France sent to North America. French regular army reinforcements arrived in New France in May 1756, led by Major General Louis-Joseph de Montcalm and seconded by the Chevalier de Lévis and Colonel François-Charles de Bourlamaque, all experienced veterans from the War of the Austrian Succession . On May 17, 1756, Britain formally declared war on France, which expanded

9936-530: The war into Europe and came to be known as the Seven Years' War . Governor Vaudreuil had ambitions to become the French commander in chief, in addition to his role as governor, and he acted during the winter of 1756 before those reinforcements arrived. Scouts had reported the weakness of the British supply chain, so he ordered an attack against the forts which Shirley had erected at the Oneida Carry. In

10044-526: The war, in 1756, Great Britain declared war on France, beginning the worldwide Seven Years' War. Many view the French and Indian War as being merely the American theater of this conflict; however, in the United States the French and Indian War is viewed as a singular conflict which was not associated with any European war. French Canadians call it the guerre de la Conquête ('War of the Conquest'). The British colonists were supported at various times by

10152-609: The western frontiers, with streams of refugees returning east to get away from the action. The new British command was not in place until July. Abercrombie arrived in Albany but refused to take any significant actions until Loudoun approved them, and Montcalm took bold action against his inertia. He built on Vaudreuil's work harassing the Oswego garrison and executed a strategic feint by moving his headquarters to Ticonderoga, as if to presage another attack along Lake George. With Abercrombie pinned down at Albany, Montcalm slipped away and led

10260-560: Was a theater of the Seven Years' War , which pitted the North American colonies of the British Empire against those of the French , each side being supported by various Native American tribes. At the start of the war, the French colonies had a population of roughly 60,000 settlers, compared with 2 million in the British colonies. The outnumbered French particularly depended on their native allies. Two years into

10368-409: Was a disaster. It was attacked by French regulars, Canadian Militiamen , and Indian warriors ambushing them from hiding places up in trees and behind logs, and Braddock called for a retreat. He was killed and approximately 1,000 British soldiers were killed or injured. The remaining 500 British troops retreated to Virginia, led by Washington. Washington and Thomas Gage played key roles in organizing

10476-487: Was added in each of the next two years. The right to have a publicly funded separate denominational school system continues to be guaranteed to Roman Catholics in Ontario by s. 93 of the Constitution Act, 1867 . The issue of extending public funding to other religious schools was raised by the Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario in the 2007 Ontario general election ; however they lost

10584-567: Was another Ohio Company investor) of the Virginia Regiment to warn the French to leave Virginia territory in October 1753. Washington left with a small party, picking up Jacob Van Braam as an interpreter, Christopher Gist (a company surveyor working in the area), and a few Mingos led by Tanaghrisson. On December 12, Washington and his men reached Fort Le Boeuf. Jacques Legardeur de Saint-Pierre succeeded Marin as commander of

10692-729: Was banned in the late 1980s by a decision of the Ontario Court of Appeal. Since the 19th century, funding for the Roman Catholic separate school system was provided up to Grade 10 under the British North America (BNA) Act . In 1984, the government of Premier William Davis extended full funding to include the last three (Grades 11–13 ( OAC )) years of Roman Catholic secondary schools after having rejected that proposal fifteen years earlier. The first funded academic year occurred in 1985–86, as grade 11, and one grade

10800-474: Was better organized than Shirley's, which was noticed by New France's governor the Marquis de Vaudreuil . Vaudreuil had been concerned about the extended supply line to the forts on the Ohio, and he had sent Baron Dieskau to lead the defenses at Frontenac against Shirley's expected attack. Vaudreuil saw Johnson as the larger threat and sent Dieskau to Fort St. Frédéric to meet that threat. Dieskau planned to attack

10908-561: Was eliminated by the Constitution Amendment, 1998 (Newfoundland Act) , following a provincial referendum in 1997. The province then established a single non-denominational public school system. The question of separate schools has been most controversial in Ontario and Manitoba . In the former, the issue of separate schools aggravated tensions between anglophones and francophones , both Protestant and Catholic . The ending of public support for separate schools in

11016-538: Was given the task of fortifying Fort Oswego and attacking Fort Niagara . Sir William Johnson was to capture Fort St. Frédéric at Crown Point, New York , and Lieutenant Colonel Robert Monckton was to capture Fort Beauséjour to the east on the frontier between Nova Scotia and Acadia. Braddock led about 1,500 army troops and provincial militia on the Braddock expedition in June 1755 to take Fort Duquesne, with George Washington as one of his aides. The expedition

11124-608: Was largely reversed by the Quebec Act of 1774. After the American Revolution , the new colony was flooded with Anglo-Protestant refugees. The colony was then divided by Constitutional Act of 1791 , with the Anglican Church becoming the established religion in Upper Canada (now Ontario) while Lower Canada remained legally secular but dominated by the Catholic church. Inevitably, some people ended up on

11232-532: Was made aware that the French were massing for an attack on Fort Oswego in his absence when he planned to attack Fort Niagara. As a response, he left garrisons at Oswego, Fort Bull , and Fort Williams, the last two located on the Oneida Carry between the Mohawk River and Wood Creek at Rome, New York . Supplies were cached at Fort Bull for use in the projected attack on Niagara. Johnson's expedition

11340-623: Was replaced by a linguistically based secular school system, after the passage of a constitutional amendment The province of Newfoundland and Labrador had a separate school system until 1997. At the time that the Dominion of Newfoundland joined Canada on March 31, 1949, the Newfoundland schools were all organized on a confessional basis with separate denominational schools for Roman Catholics , Seventh-day Adventists , Salvationists , Pentecostals , and an integrated stream which oversaw

11448-734: Was run independently by its board of trustees, and most schools boards were dominated by partisans from one religion or another. Textbooks were not standardized; Protestant-majority regions used the textbooks of the Irish National Schools while the English-speaking Catholic areas used the books of the Irish Christian Brothers . The few Acadian schools used French-language textbooks from Canada East (Lower Canada). These pre-existing rights for tax-funded minority faith schools were then part of

11556-484: Was section 93 of the Constitution Act, 1867 which allows the federal government to intervene only to protect minority schools which are established after Confederation. Apart from that caveat, section 93 provides that education is a matter of exclusive provincial jurisdiction. The relevant provision for Ontario is s. 93(1) of the Constitution Act, 1867 as originally enacted. For Alberta and Saskatchewan,

11664-471: Was seen as less practical. Instead British officials promised to allow French Canadians to keep their religion and customs: His Britannick Majesty, on his side, agrees to grant the liberty of the Catholick religion to the inhabitants of Canada: he will, in consequence, give the most precise and most effectual orders, that his new Roman Catholic subjects may profess the worship of their religion according to

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