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126-611: The valley's principal cities are Frosinone , Cassino , Sora , Grottaferrata , Anagni , Alatri . According to the tradition, in 496 BC the Romans defeated their Latin rivals in the Battle of Lake Regillus and imposed their dominion over the Latium vetus , corresponding in part to the northern area of the current Latin Valley. In the following centuries, the center and south of the Valley

252-412: A Lesser Festival on 28 January. The Catholic Church honours Thomas Aquinas as a saint and regards him as the model teacher for those studying for the priesthood. In modern times, under papal directives, the study of his works was long used as a core of the required program of study for those seeking ordination as priests or deacons, as well as for those in religious formation and for other students of

378-425: A bell tower (Il Campanile), 68 meters high, which is considered the most emblematic monument of the city, with three rows of mullioned windows. The facade of the cathedral is in white marble. Among the works of art preserved in the sacred place there is a "Madonna with Sant'Anna, San Giovannino and angels" by Sementi . The church has been a Cathedral since 1986, the year the diocese was established. Built in 1134,

504-680: A saint . A monastery at Naples, Italy, near Naples Cathedral , shows a cell in which he supposedly lived. His remains were translated from Fossanova to the Church of the Jacobins in Toulouse , France, on 28 January 1369. Between 1789 and 1974, they were held in the Basilica of Saint-Sernin . In 1974, they were returned to the Church of the Jacobins, where they have remained ever since. When he

630-462: A villa or a property, as it is possible to guess from a letter sent to his friend Atticus. Despite the political and military troubles, Frusino was a prefecture and a municipality with all the rights that Roman citizenship entailed. The city obtained citizenship rights and became a colony in Roman imperial times, when part of its lands was assigned to Roman legionaries . As some historians report,

756-401: A collection of his responses to questions de quodlibet posed to him by the academic audience; and both Expositio super librum Boethii De trinitate ( Commentary on Boethius's De trinitate ) and Expositio super librum Boethii De hebdomadibus ( Commentary on Boethius's De hebdomadibus ), commentaries on the works of 6th-century Roman philosopher Boethius . By the end of his regency, Thomas

882-422: A conclusion given in advance is not philosophy, but special pleading . I cannot, therefore, feel that he deserves to be put on a level with the best philosophers either of Greece or of modern times. This criticism is illustrated with the following example: according to Russell, Thomas advocates the indissolubility of marriage "on the ground that the father is useful in the education of the children, (a) because he

1008-890: A culminating chapter on Thomas, in which Adams calls Thomas an "artist" and constructs an extensive analogy between the design of Thomas's "Church Intellectual" and that of the gothic cathedrals of that period. Erwin Panofsky later would echo these views in Gothic Architecture and Scholasticism (1951). Thomas's aesthetic theories, especially the concept of claritas , deeply influenced the literary practice of modernist writer James Joyce , who used to extol Thomas as being second only to Aristotle among Western philosophers. Joyce refers to Thomas's doctrines in Elementa philosophiae ad mentem D. Thomae Aquinatis doctoris angelici (1898) of Girolamo Maria Mancini, professor of theology at

1134-469: A distinction between "demonstrations" of sacred doctrines and the "persuasiveness" of those doctrines. The former is akin to something like "certainty", whereas the latter is more probabilistic in nature. In other words, Thomas thought Christian doctrines were "fitting" to reason (i.e. reasonable), even though they cannot be demonstrated beyond a reasonable doubt. In fact, the Summa Theologica

1260-519: A friend. For that occasion, numerous politicians and officials of the King arrived in the city. The villa where Rattazzi died, Casale Ricci in via Armando Fabi, is now completely abandoned. At the time of the First World War, Frosinone had about 12,000 inhabitants, scattered throughout the countryside in hamlets, small villages, or scattered houses, mainly devoted to agriculture. A smaller part of

1386-606: A hypothetical Etruscan gens Fursina (or alternatively, Frusina or Prusina ). These have been accompanied by a more recent hypothesis, which, based on the links between the pre-Roman Italic civilizations, and in particular the Etruscan one, with the Akkadian-Sumerian peoples, posits similar influences also for toponyms: according to this, Frusna would have the meaning of "Land sprinkled by rivers". The first traces of human presence around modern Frosinone date from

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1512-592: A large circular hole on one of the clocks. Furthermore, the monument to the fallen of the Great War located in Piazza Armando Diaz, of which only the pedestal remained, was completely lost. This was then reused for the new monument to the fallen, of all wars, in Frosinone, built by Umberto Mastroianni at the end of the seventies and which is now located in one of the "corners" of Viale Mazzini. At

1638-401: A life of celibacy. According to the official records for his canonization, Thomas drove her away wielding a burning log—with which he inscribed a cross onto the wall—and fell into a mystical ecstasy; two angels appeared to him as he slept and said, "Behold, we gird thee by the command of God with the girdle of chastity, which henceforth will never be imperilled. What human strength can not obtain,

1764-530: A master's degree in theology. He lectured on the Bible as an apprentice professor, and upon becoming a baccalaureus Sententiarum (bachelor of the Sentences ) he devoted his final three years of study to commenting on Peter Lombard 's Sentences . In the first of his four theological syntheses, Thomas composed a massive commentary on the Sentences entitled, Scriptum super libros Sententiarium ( Commentary on

1890-589: A message to the command: "The city is empty and in ruins!" The bombings razed 80% of the city to the ground, including the Church of the Annunziata, the Berardi Palace, the Town Hall, the entire medieval village which was developed in the area of Via Cavour, the barracks of the R.R. Carabinieri, the final stretch of Via Vittorio Emanuele II, now Corso della Repubblica. Significant damage was reported at

2016-675: A new demographic, economic and social development. In this period, numerous new public buildings were also built, including the Palace of the Province and that of the Chamber of Commerce. In 1924 the Monument to the Fallen of the First World War was inaugurated in the presence of King Vittorio Emanuele III , the work of the architect Cesare Bazzani . The latest destruction would be inflicted on

2142-856: A point of reference for the Christian identity of Western Europe. A few years later, in 535, the Greek-Gothic war broke out and ended in 553 with the Byzantine victory. With the subsequent Lombard invasion, the political unity of the Latin Valley was compromised: the Lower Latin Valley was incorporated into the Lombard Duchy of Benevento , to then follow the history of southern Italy, while the Upper and Middle Valle remained in

2268-460: A ribbed barrel vault, stuccoed and lunette at each window. Inside the church there is the painting of the "Madonna del Buon Consiglio" by an unknown local artist, to which a miracle is linked that would have occurred on 10 July 1796: while some women were gathered for the rosary in front of the painting "the Madonna opened her eyes and looked at the faithful, then her face became vermilion.Sometimes

2394-551: A science, by which he meant a field of study in which humanity could learn more by its own efforts (as opposed to being totally dependent on having divine revelation planted into our minds). For Thomas, the raw material data of this field consists of written scripture and the tradition of the Catholic Church. These sources of data were produced by the self-revelation of God to individuals and groups of people throughout history. Faith and reason, being distinct but related, are

2520-825: A secret escape from detention was less damaging than an open surrender to the Dominicans. Thomas was sent first to Naples and then to Rome to meet Johannes von Wildeshausen , the Master General of the Dominican Order . In 1245, Thomas was sent to study at the Faculty of the Arts at the University of Paris , where he most likely met Dominican scholar Albertus Magnus , then the holder of the Chair of Theology at

2646-548: A series of important disputations on the power of God, which he compiled into his De potentia . Nicholas Brunacci [1240–1322] was among Thomas's students at the Santa Sabina studium provinciale and later at the Paris studium generale . In November 1268, he was with Thomas and his associate and secretary Reginald of Piperno as they left Viterbo on their way to Paris to begin the academic year. Another student of Thomas's at

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2772-655: A territorial institution that would remain in force until the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD. At the end of the 5th century the Valley, along with the rest of the Peninsula, became part of the Ostrogothic Kingdom . Around the year 529, St. Benedict of Norcia founded the Abbey of Monte Cassino on the summit of Montecassino, on the southern edge of the Latin Valley, which represented

2898-467: A way that is fitting to the instruction of beginners." While there he also wrote a variety of other works like his unfinished Compendium Theologiae and Responsio ad fr. Ioannem Vercellensem de articulis 108 sumptis ex opere Petri de Tarentasia ( Reply to Brother John of Vercelli Regarding 108 Articles Drawn from the Work of Peter of Tarentaise ). In his position as head of the studium , Thomas conducted

3024-500: Is Aeterni Patris , the 1879 encyclical by Pope Leo XIII stating that Thomas's theology was a definitive exposition of Catholic doctrine. Leo XIII directed the clergy to take the teachings of Thomas as the basis of their theological positions. Leo also decreed that all Catholic seminaries and universities must teach Thomas's doctrines, and where Thomas did not speak on a topic, the teachers were "urged to teach conclusions that were reconcilable with his thinking." In 1880, Thomas Aquinas

3150-740: Is believed by some to have been some kind of supernatural experience of God. After taking to his bed, however, he did recover some strength. In 1274, Pope Gregory X summoned Thomas to attend the Second Council of Lyon . The council was to open 1 May 1274, and it was Gregory's attempt to try to heal the Great Schism of 1054, which had divided the Catholic Church in the West from the Eastern Orthodox Church . At

3276-619: Is in Latium and is the main city of the Valle Latina ("Latin Valley"). The town is surrounded by the Ernici and Lepini mountain ranges. The Cathedral of Santa Maria Assunta is the most important church in Frosinone and is located on the highest point of the hill on which the historic center of the city stands (Upper Frosinone). It was extensively remodeled in the 18th century, referring to Sant'Andrea della Valle in Rome. It features

3402-603: Is known in Catholic theology as the Doctor Angelicus ("Angelic Doctor", with the title "doctor" meaning "teacher"), and the Doctor Communis ("Universal Doctor"). In 1999, John Paul II added a new title to these traditional ones: Doctor Humanitatis ("Doctor of Humanity/Humaneness"). Thomas Aquinas was most likely born in the family castle of Roccasecca , near Aquino , controlled at that time by

3528-409: Is more rational than the mother, (b) because, being stronger, he is better able to inflict physical punishment." Even though modern approaches to education do not support these views, "No follower of Saint Thomas would, on that account, cease to believe in lifelong monogamy, because the real grounds of belief are not those which are alleged". Thomas Aquinas viewed theology, "the sacred doctrine ", as

3654-526: Is now bestowed upon thee as a celestial gift." From then onwards, Thomas was given the grace of perfect chastity by Christ, a girdle he wore till the end of his life. The girdle was given to the ancient monastery of Vercelli in Piedmont, and is now at Chieri , near Turin . By 1244, seeing that all her attempts to dissuade Thomas had failed, Theodora sought to save the family's dignity, arranging for Thomas to escape at night through his window. In her mind,

3780-458: Is preserved in excellent condition. The city of Arpino is particularly known for being the birthplace of Marcus Tullius Cicero and Gaius Marius , in the sixteenth century, Giuseppe Cesari , known as the Cavalier d'Arpino. The city retains a perfectly preserved historic center, as well as megalithic walls that rise in the acropolis. It is also an important center for contemporary art thanks to

3906-508: Is to study God. The ultimate goals of theology, in Thomas's mind, are to use reason to grasp the truth about God and to experience salvation through that truth. The central thought is " gratia non tollit naturam, sed perficit " (' grace does not destroy nature, but perfects it'). Thomas believed that truth is known through reason, rationality ( natural revelation ) and faith ( supernatural revelation ). Supernatural revelation has its origin in

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4032-543: The Disputed Questions on Truth (1256–1259) and the Summa contra Gentiles (1259–1265). His commentaries on Christian Scripture and on Aristotle also form an important part of his body of work. He is also notable for his Eucharistic hymns, which form a part of the Church's liturgy. As a Doctor of the Church , Thomas Aquinas is considered one of the Catholic Church's greatest theologians and philosophers. He

4158-595: The Summa Theologiae , which he conceived specifically suited to beginner students: "Because a doctor of Catholic truth ought not only to teach the proficient, but to him pertains also to instruct beginners. As the Apostle says in 1 Corinthians 3:1–2, as to infants in Christ, I gave you milk to drink, not meat , our proposed intention in this work is to convey those things that pertain to the Christian religion in

4284-562: The Cistercian Fossanova Abbey after again falling ill. The monks nursed him for several days, and as he received his last rites he prayed: "I have written and taught much about this very holy Body, and about the other sacraments in the faith of Christ, and about the Holy Roman Church, to whose correction I expose and submit everything I have written." He died on 7 March 1274 while giving commentary on

4410-719: The Collegium Divi Thomae de Urbe . For example, Mancini's Elementa is referred to in Joyce's Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man . The influence of Thomas's aesthetics also can be found in the works of the Italian semiotician Umberto Eco , who wrote an essay on aesthetic ideas in Thomas (published in 1956 and republished in 1988 in a revised edition). Twentieth-century philosopher Bertrand Russell criticized Thomas's philosophy, stating that: He does not, like

4536-536: The Complutenses and others. During the 19th century, a movement that came to be known as neo-scholasticism revived Catholic scholarly interest in scholasticism generally and Thomas in particular, as well as the work of the Thomists of second scholasticism. The systematic work of Thomas was valued in part as a foundation for arguing against early modern philosophers and "modernist" theologians. A good example

4662-620: The Duchy of Rome . In the 13th century, it became the capital of a duchy assigned to the Gaetani , and from that century it was occasionally the seat of the rector of Campagna and Marittima , together with other cities of the papal province such as Ferentino, Anagni and Priverno. In 1350, it was damaged by an earthquake. At the beginning of the 14th century, the city was dominated by the nearby and powerful Alatri, in turn, conquered by Francesco de Ceccano and his Ceccanesi troops for thirty years. In

4788-588: The Kingdom of Sicily (in present-day Lazio , Italy), c.  1225 . He was born to the most powerful branch of the family, and his father, Landulf of Aquino, was a man of means. As a knight in the service of Emperor Frederick II , Landulf of Aquino held the title miles . Thomas's mother, Theodora, belonged to the Rossi branch of the Neapolitan Caracciolo family. Landulf's brother Sinibald

4914-523: The Lower Paleolithic (around 250,000 years ago). The earliest settlements in the area are from around 4,000 years ago, including late Bronze Age remains in what is now the upper part of the city (12th–10th century BC) and 7th–6th century BC sepultures. 21 tombs from a Volscan necropolis were found in the Frosinone centre. The city was founded in the territory of Hernicians by the Volsci in

5040-679: The Roman Duchy and therefore the subsequent Church State . Anyway, in the southern area of the Latin Valley, autonomous feudal territories were formed that were able to shape their own and separate identity. Particular attention should therefore be paid, in this regard, to the Terra Sancti Benedicti and the Duchy of Sora . The hopes of municipal autonomy of the main cities of the Middle Latin Valley, including for example Ferentino and Alatri, as well as others in

5166-491: The Rome-Naples A1 Motorway . The city is the main city of the Valle Latina ("Latin Valley"), an Italian geographical and historical region that extends from south of Rome to Cassino. Until the 19th century, it was a village with a rural vocation, while from the 20th century, it became an important industrial and commercial centre. Traditionally considered a Volscian city, with the name of Frusna and then

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5292-703: The Sacco Valley was established and the Rome-Naples motorway section was constructed. The motorway artery, which crosses the entire valley longitudinally, was hugely important in ending the isolation of the capital and of the entire province. Previously the region had only the ancient Via Casilina and less functional roadways for inter-regional connections, and the Rome-Naples railway had not yet been electrified. The following decades saw economic development, but also periods of crisis. This led, especially in

5418-474: The Song of Songs . In 1277, Étienne Tempier , the same bishop of Paris who had issued the condemnation of 1270, issued another more extensive condemnation. One aim of this condemnation was to clarify that God's absolute power transcended any principles of logic that Aristotle or Averroes might place on it. More specifically, it contained a list of 219 propositions, including twenty Thomistic propositions, that

5544-430: The lower Frosinone, to the development of an industrial and commercial centre that was predominantly modern, but suffered from a disordered and irrational approach to urban development, caused by a failure to implement the zoning plan and a tendency to engage in building speculation – this tendency has been increasing since the 1960s and continues today, even though the population stopped growing many years ago. Frosinone

5670-466: The mendicant orders , which had come under attack by William of Saint-Amour . During his tenure from 1256 to 1259, Thomas wrote numerous works, including: Quaestiones Disputatae de Veritate ( Disputed Questions on Truth ), a collection of twenty-nine disputed questions on aspects of faith and the human condition prepared for the public university debates he presided over during Lent and Advent ; Quaestiones quodlibetales ( Quodlibetal Questions ),

5796-523: The "Berardi palace", intended to meet the housing needs of the newborn State for employees and soldiers. At the centre of the structure rose the Isabella Theater, which was later called Politeama and then Cinema-Teatro Excelsior, still present today although inactive. In June 1873 Urbano Rattazzi , then President of the Council of Ministers, died suddenly in Frosinone while he was staying with

5922-495: The "Sweating of the Madonna" which would have occurred in the already existing church dating back to 1586. In just over a year the church was completed in all its parts, including the sacristy and bell tower, and all the sacred furnishings were provided. St. Thomas Aquinas Thomas Aquinas OP ( / ə ˈ k w aɪ n ə s / ə- KWY -nəs ; Italian : Tommaso d'Aquino , lit.   'Thomas of Aquino '; c.  1225 – 7 March 1274)

6048-572: The 16th century it was devastated by the Landsknecht , who brought the plague there, immediately followed by French and Florentine troops, at the same time as the Sack of Rome. The fortress, destroyed, was rebuilt; whose main entrance portal would have been designed by Michelangelo. New destruction occurred with the occupation by the Spanish troops at war against Pope Paul IV in 1556: its fortress

6174-483: The 20th century, as seen in the praise offered by Pope John Paul II in the 1998 encyclical Fides et ratio , and similarly in Pope Benedict XV 's 1921 encyclical Fausto Appetente Die. Some modern ethicists within the Catholic Church (notably Alasdair MacIntyre ) and outside it (notably Philippa Foot ) have recently commented on the possible use of Thomas's virtue ethics as a way of avoiding utilitarianism or Kantian "sense of duty" (called deontology ). Through

6300-408: The 6th century BC with the name of Fruscìno or Frusna , as a strategic outpost in front of the impregnable fortress of Aletrium (today known as Alatri). It was subjugated by the Romans in 386 BC during their advance against the Volsci in Valle del Sacco , then transformed into a municipium under the Roman garrison. The taking of the urban centre of Frosinone, which then as today is located in

6426-399: The Apostolic Palace, now the seat of the Prefecture, at the Cathedral of Santa Maria Assunta, at the seat of the "N.Turriziani" Liceo Classico and at the Church of Santa Lucia. Downstream, the railway station and the Sanctuary of the Madonna delle Nevi were destroyed. The bell tower, a symbol of the city and on which a siren had been placed to warn citizens in case of enemy air raids, reported

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6552-515: The Averroists ) in which he reprimands Averroism as incompatible with Christian doctrine. During his second regency, he finished the second part of the Summa and wrote De virtutibus and De aeternitate mundi, contra murmurantes ( On the Eternity of the World, against Grumblers ), the latter of which dealt with controversial Averroist and Aristotelian beginninglessness of the world. Disputes with some important Franciscans conspired to make his second regency much more difficult and troubled than

6678-399: The Casilina, in the territory of Ripi , in waiting to resume the march towards Frosinone. In the second half of the nineteenth century, the inhabited area of the city was almost entirely enclosed within the ancient walls of the medieval "citadel", as it had been rebuilt several times after the various devastations suffered by German and Spanish armies in the 16th century and by the French at

6804-408: The College of St. James in Paris. When Albertus was sent by his superiors to teach at the new studium generale at Cologne , in 1248, Thomas followed him, declining Pope Innocent IV 's offer to appoint him abbot of Monte Cassino as a Dominican. Albertus then appointed the reluctant Thomas magister studentium . Because Thomas was quiet and did not speak much, some of his fellow students thought he

6930-407: The Festa della Radeca, the Frosinone Carnival). On the occasion of the journey of Pius IX in the province of Campagna and Marittima (13–20 May 1863) by train, solemn celebrations were organized, which ended with the blessing of the pope from the balcony of the Prefecture. During this visit, the pope promised extraordinary funding for the construction of an aqueduct intended to bring running water to

7056-409: The National Museum of Mentana. Frosinone was removed from the Papal State and officially annexed to the Kingdom of Italy on September 17, 1870, three days before Porta Pia . In reality, the secular papal dominion over the city had in fact already ended on the evening of 12 September with the escape of the last apostolic delegate, Monsignor Pietro Lasagni , while the Italian troops were still along

7182-416: The Order at the Church of Santa Maria sopra Minerva began in 1255 as a community for women converts but grew rapidly in size and importance after being given over to the Dominicans friars in 1275. In 1288, the theology component of the provincial curriculum for the education of the friars was relocated from the Santa Sabina studium provinciale to the studium conventuale at Santa Maria sopra Minerva, which

7308-436: The Oscan city of Casinum ( Cassino ) had been conquered by Volsci, Samnites and finally Romans. Within its territory ( ager casinas ) the Romans founded the colony of Interamna Lirenas . Other important Latin colonies in the region were Sora and Fregellae . The Latin-Roman colonization coincided with the creation of the Latium adiectum and the Via Latina . The Via Latina started from Porta Capena in Rome, passing through

7434-437: The Platonic Socrates, set out to follow wherever the argument may lead. He is not engaged in an inquiry, the result of which it is impossible to know in advance. Before he begins to philosophize, he already knows the truth; it is declared in the Catholic faith. If he can find apparently rational arguments for some parts of the faith, so much the better; if he cannot, he need only fall back on revelation. The finding of arguments for

7560-422: The Porta Latina, then continued south-east, crossing the Alban Hills (High Valle Latina), the Valle del Sacco (Middle Valle Latina) and the Valle del Liri up to Cassino (Lower Latin Valley), the last city of the Latins and the current Latin Valley, to then enter Campania and end in Capua. With the territorial reorganization of Italy under Augustus, the area was incorporated into the Regio I Latium et Campania ,

7686-409: The Roman of Latium adiectum as Frùsino , over the course of its millenary history it has been subjected to multiple devastations and plunders caused by its geostrategic position; as a consequence of this, as well as of destruction due to seismic events (the most ruinous of which occurred in September 1349), it retains only rare, albeit significant, traces of its past. Frusĭno (this is the Latin name)

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7812-413: The Romans, later, Decimo Giunio Giovenale highlighted the tranquillity of the city. Many ancient writers, including Tito Livio , Cassio Dione, Silio Italico, Festo Pomponio, Floro , the aforementioned Juvenal, and Marco Tullio Cicerone (Cicero) note the city of Frusino not only for mere historical facts, but also for the virtues of its inhabitants. Cicero himself in the territory of Frosinone owned

7938-399: The Santa Sabina studium provinciale was Blessed Tommasello da Perugia. Thomas remained at the studium at Santa Sabina from 1265 until he was called back to Paris in 1268 for a second teaching regency. With his departure for Paris in 1268 and the passage of time, the pedagogical activities of the studium provinciale at Santa Sabina were divided between two campuses. A new convent of

8064-399: The Sentences ). Aside from his master's writings, he wrote De ente et essentia ( On Being and Essence ) for his fellow Dominicans in Paris. In the spring of 1256, Thomas was appointed regent master in theology at Paris and one of his first works upon assuming this office was Contra impugnantes Dei cultum et religionem ( Against Those Who Assail the Worship of God and Religion ), defending

8190-458: The Umberto Mastroianni Foundation. Further north, in the High Latin Valley, in Grottaferrata , there is the Abbey of Santa Maria di Grottaferrata . Frosinone Frosinone ( Italian: [froziˈnoːne] ; local dialect: Frusenone ) is a comune (municipality) in the Italian region of Lazio , administrative seat of the province of Frosinone . It is about 75 kilometres (47 mi) southeast of Rome , close to

8316-404: The University of Paris for a second time, a position he held until the spring of 1272. Part of the reason for this sudden reassignment appears to have arisen from the rise of " Averroism " or "radical Aristotelianism " in the universities. In response to these perceived errors, Thomas wrote two works, one of them being De unitate intellectus, contra Averroistas ( On the Unity of Intellect, against

8442-401: The University of Paris when the Dominicans from his home province called upon him to establish a studium generale wherever he liked and staff it as he pleased. He chose to establish the institution in Naples and moved there to take his post as regent master. He took his time at Naples to work on the third part of the Summa while giving lectures on various religious topics. He also preached to

8568-455: The abbey church of San Benedetto which is also the oldest art gallery in the city, was rebuilt between 1750 and 1797 in late Baroque style, with an octagonal lantern and a facade with two superimposed orders. remained unscathed from war destruction, it preserves inside valuable canvases dated between the seventeenth century and the nineteenth century. The interior of the church has a single nave, with intercommunicating side chapels, covered with

8694-455: The abbey in early 1239, Landulf and Theodora had Thomas enrolled at the studium generale ( university ) established by Frederick in Naples . There, his teacher in arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music was Petrus de Ibernia . It was at this university that Thomas was presumably introduced to Aristotle , Averroes and Maimonides , all of whom would influence his theological philosophy. During his study at Naples, Thomas also came under

8820-674: The altar alongside the Bible and the Decretals . This happened within the historical timeframe of the " second scholasticism ", a trend during the 16th and 17th centuries that saw renewed interest in the works of scholars of the 12th, 13th, and 14th centuries, in spite of humanism as a contrary trend. Second scholasticism gave special emphasis to the works of Thomas Aquinas and John Duns Scotus , with more Franciscans following Duns Scotus, and more Dominicans and Carmelites following Thomas. "Thomists", or those following Thomas, included Francisco de Vitoria , Thomas Cajetan , Franciscus Ferrariensis , Domingo de Soto , Domingo Báñez , João Poinsot ,

8946-416: The ancient Casinum and in particular an amphitheater dating back to the 1st century AD, a Roman theater (still in use) and a section of the Via Latina. A little further north, in Roccasecca , there are the remains of the castle of the Counts of Aquino where St. Thomas Aquinas was born. In Monte San Giovanni Campano , on the right bank of the Liri, the castle where the saint was imprisoned by his family

9072-666: The bishop had determined to violate the omnipotence of God. The inclusion of the Thomistic propositions badly damaged Thomas's reputation for many years. By the 1300s, however, Thomas's theology had begun its rise to prestige. In the Divine Comedy (completed c. 1321), Dante sees the glorified soul of Thomas in the Heaven of the Sun with the other great exemplars of religious wisdom. Dante asserts that Thomas died by poisoning, on

9198-595: The centre of the Sacco Valley, determined an important strategic victory for the Romans, who with this city could easily control all transits and commercial traffic between the north and the south of the peninsula. In 306 BC, the city took part in the Hernic League against Rome; defeated and sacked, it lost much of its territories to the nearby Ferentino . Later, during the Second Punic War , it

9324-747: The city by means of a hydraulic pump, an aqueduct completed and inaugurated on December 8, 1869. Frosinone witnessed in 1867 the Agro Romano Campaign for the liberation of Rome with the Nicotera Column. The clash with the Garibaldini in Monte San Giovanni Campano , on the border with the Kingdom of Italy, is noteworthy. The relics of the "Nicola Ricciotti" Carbonara Sale , a patriot of Frosinone, are kept in

9450-564: The city during the Second World War , with 56 Anglo-American bombings which lasted from 11 September 1943 to the end of May 1944. During that unfortunate period, all public offices were temporarily moved a little further up north, to Fiuggi , which enjoyed relative tranquillity. It was 31 May 1944 when the first Allied soldiers entered Frosinone (Canadian soldiers belonging to the Loyal Edmonton Regiment ), who sent

9576-585: The early 20th century in the nouvelle théologie movement (meaning "new theology"). It was closely associated with a movement of ressourcement , meaning "back to sources", echoing the phrase " ad fontes " used by Renaissance humanists. Although nouvelle théologie disagreed with neo-scholasticism about modernity, arguing that theology could learn much from modern philosophy and science, their interest in also studying "old" sources meant that they found common ground in their appreciation of scholastics like Thomas Aquinas. The Second Vatican Council generally adopted

9702-413: The effect of extending Thomas's detention. Thomas passed this time of trial tutoring his sisters and communicating with members of the Dominican Order. Family members became desperate to dissuade Thomas, who remained determined to join the Dominicans. At one point, two of his brothers resorted to the measure of hiring a prostitute to seduce him, presumably because sexual temptation might dissuade him from

9828-626: The end of the 18th century. According to the description of the local historian Vittorio Valle, the citadel "was bounded by a wall that had three cornerstones, the Porta Romana or della Valle, the Porta di Campania or Napoletana (today Porta Campagiorni) and the Rocca, now the venue of the Prefecture." After national unification, the city, which became the capital of the district of Frosinone in

9954-413: The end of the war, Frosinone was the most devastated provincial capital in relation to the number of inhabitants and the building stock. A census of the following year recorded 3,050 rooms completely destroyed, 4,880 badly damaged, 8,500 people were left homeless, practically all the inhabitants of the upper part of Frosinone. Hundreds were dead and wounded. But despite the extreme suffering and devastation,

10080-540: The existence of God and his Attributes (Unity, Truth, Goodness, Power, Knowledge) through reason, certain specifics may be known only through the special revelation of God through Jesus Christ . The major theological components of Christianity, such as the Trinity , the Incarnation , and charity are revealed in the teachings of the church and the scriptures and may not otherwise be deduced. However, Thomas also makes

10206-456: The feast of Corpus Christi are still sung today, such as the Pange lingua (whose final two verses are the famous Tantum ergo ), and Panis angelicus . Modern scholarship has confirmed that Thomas was indeed the author of these texts, a point that some had contested. In February 1265, the newly elected Pope Clement IV summoned Thomas to Rome to serve as papal theologian. This same year, he

10332-443: The first. A year before Thomas re-assumed the regency at the 1266–67 Paris disputations, Franciscan master William of Baglione accused Thomas of encouraging Averroists, most likely counting him as one of the "blind leaders of the blind". Eleonore Stump says, "It has also been persuasively argued that Thomas Aquinas's De aeternitate mundi was directed in particular against his Franciscan colleague in theology, John Pecham ." Thomas

10458-658: The halls of Justice, the Chamber of Commerce and the Post and Telecommunications); new construction (such as the Civil Hospital, public housing and the Edera skyscraper); the expansion of the urban and extra-urban road network; and providing public water connections to nearby rural settlements. It was within this general framework that the industrialization process began. In 1962, the Industrialization Unit of

10584-644: The influence of John of St. Julian, a Dominican preacher in Naples, who was part of the active effort by the Dominican Order to recruit devout followers. At the age of nineteen, Thomas resolved to join the Dominican Order. His change of heart, however, did not please his family. In an attempt to prevent Theodora's interference in Thomas's choice, the Dominicans arranged to move Thomas to Rome, and from Rome, to Paris. However, while on his journey to Rome, per Theodora's instructions, his brothers seized him as he

10710-529: The inhabitants resided in the historic centre employed in the various offices of the sub-prefecture, the Municipality and other administrations including the Military District. There was also a fair amount of artisanal and commercial activity. On the other hand, industrial activity was more modest, with the presence of mills along the river Cosa, pasta factories and printers. Frosinone remained

10836-596: The inspiration of the Holy Spirit and is made available through the teaching of the prophets, summed up in Holy Scripture, and transmitted by the Magisterium , the sum of which is called "Tradition". Natural revelation is the truth available to all people through their human nature and powers of reason. For example, he felt this applied to rational ways to know the existence of God. Though one may deduce

10962-516: The left eye that looked at the Child was veiled with tears". Among the other canvases present, the one dedicated to San Gregorio Magno stands out, made by the local painter Mascetti in 1899, copying a fresco by the painter Filippo Gagliardi. The altar, adorned with Baroque stuccoes, is dedicated to the Kambo family. Under the altar the remains of a martyr of Christianity are kept and visible. Going up

11088-513: The meeting, Thomas's work for Pope Urban IV concerning the Greeks, Contra errores graecorum , was to be presented. However, on his way to the council, riding on a donkey along the Appian Way , he struck his head on the branch of a fallen tree and became seriously ill again. He was then quickly escorted to Monte Cassino to convalesce. After resting for a while, he set out again but stopped at

11214-443: The meridionale during the first several decades of the order's life. The new studium provinciale at Santa Sabina was to be a more advanced school for the province. Tolomeo da Lucca , an associate and early biographer of Thomas, tells us that at the Santa Sabina studium Thomas taught the full range of philosophical subjects, both moral and natural. While at the Santa Sabina studium provinciale , Thomas began his most famous work,

11340-532: The mid-17th century to the over 10,000 it had at the Unification of Italy (late 19th century). At the same time a new architectural and urban development began, with the construction or renovation of monuments and places of worship, and in the nineteenth century the construction of new important roads, on all the Via Nova (current Corso della Repubblica) and Viale Roma, new access to the city. Worthy of note

11466-399: The municipality would only receive a bronze medal for Civil Valor. The reconstruction provided an opportunity to transform the production system, which transitioned from mainly agricultural to mainly industrial, and then to a mainly tertiary economy (including activities such as trade, services and public administration). Specifically, between 1950 and 1960, Frosinone saw a continuation of

11592-453: The neighboring regions, but in any case subject to papal authority, pushed Innocent III to establish the Province of Campagna e Marittima in the XII century. In the Valley there are numerous small towns of great artistic and cultural importance. A quick and incomplete presentation is given here. In addition to the aforementioned Abbey of Monte Cassino, the city of Cassino preserves the remains of

11718-762: The order of Charles of Anjou ; Villani cites this belief, and the Anonimo Fiorentino describes the crime and its motive. But the historian Ludovico Antonio Muratori reproduces the account made by one of Thomas's friends, and this version of the story gives no hint of foul play. When the devil's advocate at his canonization process objected that there were no miracles , one of the cardinals answered, " Tot miraculis, quot articulis "—"there are as many miracles (in his life) as articles (in his Summa )". Fifty years after Thomas's death, on 18 July 1323, Pope John XXII , seated in Avignon , pronounced Thomas

11844-727: The people of Naples every day in Lent of 1273. These sermons on the Commandments, the Creed, the Our Father, and Hail Mary were very popular. Thomas has been traditionally ascribed with the ability to levitate and as having had various mystical experiences. For example, G. K. Chesterton wrote that "His experiences included well-attested cases of levitation in ecstasy; and the Blessed Virgin appeared to him, comforting him with

11970-420: The principles of Christianity. Aquinas' natural law theory has been influential in shaping ideas about human liberty and the moral limits of government authority . He has been described as "the most influential thinker of the medieval period " and "the greatest of the medieval philosopher -theologians". Thomas's best-known works are the unfinished Summa Theologica , or Summa Theologiae (1265–1274),

12096-503: The province of Rome, underwent a building renovation and architectural embellishment of the town, as evidenced by the late nineteenth-century and Umbertine buildings of the current historic centre. The city became the seat of the offices of the sub-prefecture and the military district; from 1863 it was served by the state railway station, to which the local railway station (the Rome-Fiuggi-Alatri-Frosinone railway )

12222-458: The sacred disciplines (philosophy, Catholic theology, church history, liturgy, and canon law ). Pope Pius V proclaimed St. Thomas Aquinas a Doctor of the Church on 15 April 1567, and ranked his feast with those of the four great Latin fathers: Ambrose , Augustine of Hippo , Jerome , and Gregory . At the Council of Trent , Thomas had the honour of having his Summa Theologiae placed on

12348-446: The seat of the sub-prefecture from 1871 to 1926. In 1927, as part of a general administrative reorganization, the province of Frosinone was established by the fascist regime, subtracting municipalities from the provinces of Rome and Terra di Lavoro . The existing offices were expanded and new ones were created and a large number of state employees were transferred to the city, especially from Caserta. Frosinone, therefore, experienced

12474-436: The small bell tower you can admire two bells of the ancient eighteenth-century Cacciavillani factory and the bell, also eighteenth-century, of the ancient municipal seat, now a post office with the ancient coat of arms of the city of Frosinone. The sanctuary of the Madonna della Neve was built as a rural chapel at the end of the seventeenth century in the place of a miraculous event, which took place on May 10, 1675, and known as

12600-552: The so-called Augustinians, were fearful that this introduction of Aristotelianism and the more extreme Averroism might somehow contaminate the purity of the Christian faith. In what appears to be an attempt to counteract the growing fear of Aristotelian thought, Thomas conducted a series of disputations between 1270 and 1272: De virtutibus in communi ( On Virtues in General ), De virtutibus cardinalibus ( On Cardinal Virtues ), and De spe ( On Hope ). In 1272, Thomas took leave from

12726-409: The spread of Christianity in Frosinone, but it is believed that an ancient diocese existed; the city was the birthplace of two popes, Pope Ormisda and Pope Silverio (the only case of two popes father and son), today patrons of the city. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire , Frosinone was destroyed several times by foreign invaders; in the early Middle Ages it was an agricultural centre of

12852-423: The stance of the theologians of nouvelle théologie, but the importance of Thomas was a point of agreement. The council's decree Optatam Totius (on the formation of priests, at No. 15), proposed an authentic interpretation of the popes' teaching on Thomism, requiring that the theological formation of priests be done with Thomas Aquinas as teacher. General Catholic appreciation for Thomas has remained strong in

12978-450: The trends it had seen in the immediate postwar period: a steady decline in the agricultural sector (to 9% of employed residents), a modest increase in industry (to 36%) and a significant rise in tertiary activities, in which 54% of the workforce is engaged. The reconstruction work continues, including: renovations to important buildings (such as the sites of the Prefecture, the Bank of Italy,

13104-460: The two primary tools for processing the data of theology. Thomas believed both were necessary—or, rather, that the confluence of both was necessary—for one to obtain true knowledge of God. Thomas blended Greek philosophy and Christian doctrine by suggesting that rational thinking and the study of nature, like revelation, were valid ways to understand truths pertaining to God. According to Thomas, God reveals himself through nature, so to study nature

13230-457: The walls were built to defend the city. It was embellished with buildings, monuments and statues, which wars, the passing of time, and the neglect or foolishness of men have ruined, although in recent decades numerous artefacts have been found preserved in various museums, for example, the famous statue of Mars located in Rome, at Villa Albani , which was found in 1744 in the area that is still called Colle Marte today. The sources are obscure on

13356-620: The welcome news that he would never be a Bishop." It is traditionally held that on one occasion, in 1273, at the Dominican convent of Naples in the chapel of Saint Nicholas , after Matins , Thomas lingered and was seen by the sacristan Domenic of Caserta to be levitating in prayer with tears before an icon of the crucified Christ. Christ said to Thomas, "You have written well of me, Thomas. What reward would you have for your labor?" Thomas responded, "Nothing but you, Lord." On 6 December 1273, another mystical experience took place. While Thomas

13482-466: The work of twentieth-century philosophers such as Elizabeth Anscombe (especially in her book Intention ), Thomas's principle of double effect specifically and his theory of intentional activity generally have been influential. The cognitive neuroscientist Walter Freeman has proposed that Thomism is the philosophical system explaining cognition that is most compatible with neurodynamics . Henry Adams 's Mont Saint Michel and Chartres ends with

13608-460: Was abbot of Monte Cassino , the oldest Benedictine monastery . While the rest of the family's sons pursued military careers, the family intended for Thomas to follow his uncle into the abbacy; this would have been a normal career path for a younger son of Southern Italian nobility. At the age of five Thomas began his early education at Monte Cassino, but after the military conflict between Emperor Frederick II and Pope Gregory IX spilt into

13734-468: Was added. In 1871 Domenico Diamanti became the first mayor of the city after the unification of Italy; he actively engaged in the modernization and rehabilitation of the city, then known as one of the most backward in Italy. He took care of the building renovation, the arrangement of the streets, the squares and the lighting of the urban centre. In 1874 a row of buildings of over 300 meters was built, known as

13860-467: Was an Italian Dominican friar and priest , the foremost Scholastic thinker, as well one of the most influential philosophers and theologians in the Western tradition. He was from the county of Aquino in the Kingdom of Sicily . Thomas was a proponent of natural theology and the father of a school of thought (encompassing both theology and philosophy) known as Thomism . Central to his thought

13986-557: Was at the time inhabited by the people of the Volsci , albeit included in the territory of the Hernici . The Volscian name of the city would be Frusna or Fruscìno , whose etymology is controversial; however, various hypotheses have been tried: the first would make the name derive from the Greek root ( portis : heifer); a second, observing the assonance with Etruscan roots, links the name to

14112-615: Was canonized, his feast day was inserted in the General Roman Calendar for celebration on 7 March, the day of his death. Since this date commonly falls within Lent , the 1969 revision of the calendar moved his memorial to 28 January, the date of the translation of his relics to Church of the Jacobins , Toulouse . Thomas Aquinas is honored with a feast day in some churches of the Anglican Communion with

14238-458: Was celebrating Mass, he experienced an unusually long ecstasy. Because of what he saw, he abandoned his routine and refused to dictate to his socius Reginald of Piperno . When Reginald begged him to get back to work, Thomas replied: "Reginald, I cannot, because all that I have written seems like straw to me" ( mihi videtur ut palea ). As a result, the Summa Theologica would remain uncompleted. What exactly triggered Thomas's change in behaviour

14364-666: Was declared the patron saint of all Catholic educational establishments. Similarly, in Pascendi Dominici gregis , the 1907 encyclical by Pope Pius X , the Pope said, "...let Professors remember that they cannot set St. Thomas aside, especially in metaphysical questions, without grave detriment." On 29 June 1923, on the sixth centenary of his canonisation, Pope Pius XI dedicated the encyclical Studiorum Ducem to him. In response to neo-scholasticism, Catholic scholars who were more sympathetic to modernity gained influence during

14490-476: Was deeply disturbed by the spread of Averroism and was angered when he discovered Siger of Brabant teaching Averroistic interpretations of Aristotle to Parisian students. On 10 December 1270, the Bishop of Paris, Étienne Tempier , issued an edict condemning thirteen Aristotelian and Averroistic propositions as heretical and excommunicating anyone who continued to support them. Many in the ecclesiastical community,

14616-567: Was devastated by Hannibal 's armies, to which it refused to surrender. This event earned it the appellative, given by Silio Italico , of Bellator Frusino , which still stands out in the city coat of arms: Fert concitus inde per iuga celsa gradum, duris qua rupibus haeret, bellator Frusino . Silio Italico also praises Frusino during the listing of the Roman allies in the Battle of Canne ("a duro Frusino haud imbellis aratro", VIII, p. 398). Even Greek writers cited it in their writings, while among

14742-409: Was drinking from a spring and took him back to his parents at the castle of Monte San Giovanni Campano . Thomas was held prisoner for almost one year in the family castles at Monte San Giovanni and Roccasecca in an attempt to prevent him from assuming the Dominican habit and to push him into renouncing his new aspiration. Political concerns prevented the Pope from ordering Thomas's release, which had

14868-821: Was ordered by the Dominican Chapter of Agnani to teach at the studium conventuale at the Roman convent of Santa Sabina , founded in 1222. The studium at Santa Sabina now became an experiment for the Dominicans, the Order's first studium provinciale , an intermediate school between the studium conventuale and the studium generale . Prior to this time, the Roman Province had offered no specialized education of any sort, no arts, no philosophy; only simple convent schools, with their basic courses in theology for resident friars, were functioning in Tuscany and

14994-625: Was redesignated as a studium particularis theologiae . This studium was transformed in the 16th century into the College of Saint Thomas ( Latin : Collegium Divi Thomæ ). In the 20th century, the college was relocated to the convent of Saints Dominic and Sixtus and was transformed into the Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas , (aka the Angelicum ). In 1268, the Dominican Order assigned Thomas to be regent master at

15120-583: Was responsible for the pastoral formation of the friars unable to attend a studium generale . In Orvieto, Thomas completed his Summa contra Gentiles , wrote the Catena aurea ( The Golden Chain ), and produced works for Pope Urban IV such as the liturgy for the newly created feast of Corpus Christi and the Contra errores graecorum ( Against the Errors of the Greeks ). Some of the hymns that Thomas wrote for

15246-692: Was slow. But Albertus prophetically exclaimed: "You call him the dumb ox [ bos mutus ], but in his teaching he will one day produce such a bellowing that it will be heard throughout the world". Thomas taught in Cologne as an apprentice professor ( baccalaureus biblicus ), instructing students on the books of the Old Testament and writing Expositio super Isaiam ad litteram ( Literal Commentary on Isaiah ), Postilla super Ieremiam ( Commentary on Jeremiah ), and Postilla super Threnos ( Commentary on Lamentations ). In 1252, he returned to Paris to study for

15372-573: Was strategically important for the control of the whole Sacco valley and for the defence of Rome. Following the treaty of Cave (1557) the residence of the pontifical governors of the province of Campagna and Marittima was definitively fixed in Frosinone; the Campagna e Marittima will then take the name of the Apostolic Delegation of Frosinone . Frosinone steadily expanded its population in modern times, passing from around 2,000 people in

15498-571: Was the attitude of the Frosinone population during the French occupation and the Roman Republic , to which two Frosinone people, Giuseppe De Matthaeis and Luigi Angeloni, who became Tribunes of the Republic adhered: the population, around 1798, rebelled against the French troops and for this reason, the city was put to fire and sword and sacked (the anti-French revolt still echoes today through

15624-411: Was the doctrine of natural law , which he argued was accessible to human reason and grounded in the very nature of human beings, providing a basis for understanding individual rights and moral duties . He argued that God is the source of the light of natural reason and the light of faith. He embraced several ideas put forward by Aristotle and attempted to synthesize Aristotelian philosophy with

15750-533: Was the heart of Latin colonization in Roman times. Unlike the coastal areas where small Roman colonies were founded, the inland areas saw the creation of diverse and densely populated Latin colonies. The Latins and Romans mixed with the pre-existing Osco-Umbrian -speaking populations, in particular the Hernici , with their capital Anagni , and the Volsci in Frosinone and in the Liri Valley . Further south,

15876-415: Was working on one of his most famous works, Summa contra Gentiles . In 1259, Thomas completed his first regency at the studium generale and left Paris so that others in his order could gain this teaching experience. He returned to Naples where he was appointed as general preacher by the provincial chapter of 29 September 1260. In September 1261 he was called to Orvieto as conventual lector, where he

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