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174-578: The exercise of the Catholic Church's magisterium is sometimes, but only rarely, expressed in the solemn form of an ex cathedra papal declaration, "when, in the exercise of his office as shepherd and teacher of all Christians, in virtue of his supreme apostolic authority, [the Bishop of Rome] defines a doctrine concerning faith or morals to be held by the whole Church," or of a similar declaration by an ecumenical council . Such solemn declarations of

348-504: A Baden Concordat which continued until the spring and summer of 1932. Papal fiat appointed a supporter of Pacelli and his concordat policy, Conrad Gröber , the new Archbishop of Freiburg , and the treaty was signed in August 1932. Others followed: Austria (1933), Germany (1933), Yugoslavia (1935) and Portugal (1940). The Lateran treaties with Italy (1929) were concluded before Pacelli became Secretary of State. Catholicism had become

522-655: A curate at Chiesa Nuova . In 1901, he entered the Congregation for Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs , a sub-office of the Vatican Secretariat of State . Pietro Gasparri , the recently appointed undersecretary at the Department of Extraordinary Affairs, had underscored his proposal to Pacelli to work in the "Vatican's equivalent of the Foreign office" by highlighting the "necessity of defending

696-591: A bridge between the magisterium and the faithful, explaining the reasons behind the teaching of the magisterium. The debate concerning the Magisterium, papal primacy and infallibility, and the authority to teach in general has not lessened since the official declaration of the doctrines. Instead, the Church has faced contrary arguments; at one end there are those with the tendency to regard even technically non-binding papal encyclicals as infallible statements and, at

870-716: A doctoral degree awarded on the basis of a short dissertation and an oral examination in Latin . While all other candidates from the Rome diocese were ordained in the Basilica of Saint John Lateran , Pacelli was ordained a priest on Easter Sunday , 2 April 1899, alone in the private chapel of a family friend the Vicegerent of Rome, Francesco di Paola Cassetta . Shortly after ordination he began postgraduate studies in canon law at Sant'Apollinaire. He received his first assignment as

1044-477: A doctrine concerning faith or morals to be held by the whole Church." The response demanded from believers has been characterized as "assent" in the case of ex cathedra declarations of the popes and "due respect" with regard to their other declarations. On the basis of Mark 3:16 , 9:2 , Luke 24:34 and 1 Corinthians 15:5 , the Catechism of the Catholic Church describes Peter as holding first place among

1218-493: A few months, on 7 February 1930, Pius XI appointed him Cardinal Secretary of State , responsible for foreign policy and state relations throughout the world. In 1935, Pacelli was named Camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church . As Cardinal Secretary of State, Pacelli signed concordats with a number of countries and states. Immediately on becoming Cardinal Secretary of State, Pacelli and Ludwig Kaas took up negotiations on

1392-576: A keener understanding and acceptance of papal primacy (at least after the Great Schism ), there was also an increased emphasis placed on the theologian, and there were numerous dissenters from both views. As part of the flourishing of culture and renewal under his reign, the Emperor Charlemagne commissioned one of the first major church-wide studies of the patristic era. This "golden age" or Carolingian Renaissance greatly influenced

1566-467: A long time, by the entire body of bishops. Examples given are the teaching on the reservation of ordination to males and on the immorality of procured abortion. Even public statements by popes or bishops on questions of faith or morals that do not qualify as "ordinary and universal magisterium" have an authority that Catholics are not free to merely dismiss. They are required to give that teaching religious submission : Bishops, teaching in communion with

1740-493: A more general meaning, and could designate president, chief, director, superintendent, etc., and was only rarely a tutor or instructor of youth.) The noun magisterium refers to the office of a magister . Thus the relationship between magister and magisterium is the same as the relationship in English between "president" and "presidency". Since the time of Pope Pius XII , the word "magisterium" has also been used to refer to

1914-785: A personal envoy—who did not require Senate confirmation—to the Holy See in December 1939, re-establishing a diplomatic tradition that had been broken since 1870 when the Pope lost temporal power . Pacelli presided as Papal Legate over the International Eucharistic Congress in Buenos Aires , Argentina on 10–14 October 1934, and in Budapest on 25–30 May 1938. At this time, anti-semitic laws were in

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2088-428: A personal opinion on a matter of faith and morals that was taught by a pope but rejected by the Church is the view that Pope John XXII expressed on when the dead can reach the beatific vision . The limitation on the pope's infallibility "on other matters" is frequently illustrated by Cardinal James Gibbons 's recounting how the pope mistakenly called him "Jibbons". Cathedra and sedes are Latin words for "chair",

2262-571: A pleasing and acceptable sacrifice. This way, the church re-establishes the unity between the Creator and His creatures. The Sacrifice of the Altar, being Christ's own actions, conveys and dispenses divine grace from Christ to the members of the Mystical Body. Bishop Carlos Duarte Costa , a long-time critic of Pius XII's policies during World War II and an opponent of clerical celibacy and

2436-458: A pope says is infallible or not is to discern if they are ex cathedra teachings. Also considered infallible are the teachings of the whole body of bishops of the Church, especially but not only in an ecumenical council (see Infallibility of the Church ). Pastor aeternus does not allow any infallibility for the Church or Pope for new doctrines. Any doctrines defined must be "conformable with Sacred Scripture and Apostolic Traditions": For

2610-503: A seasoned Vatican diplomat, had reestablished diplomatic relations with Switzerland and was for twelve years nuncio in Paris . Yet, Maglione did not exercise the influence of his predecessor Pacelli, who as Pope continued his close relation with Giovanni Battista Montini (later Pope Paul VI ) and Domenico Tardini . After the death of Maglione in 1944, Pius left the position open and named Tardini head of its foreign section and Montini head of

2784-536: A subject matter is within the limits of infallibility is the canonization of a saint by a pope. If they are, then they would represent a very common occurrence during a papacy. However, those are usually regarded as not of divine faith, as they depend on facts that post-date New Testament revelation. The status of individuals as saints in heaven is not taught in the Catholic Catechism or Creeds as required for belief. However, some Catholic theologians have in

2958-416: A symbol of the teacher in the ancient world. Thus is the position of a university professor referred to as a "chair", and the position of a bishop as a "see" (from sedes ). Believed by Catholics to be the successor of Peter, the pope is said to occupy the " Chair of Saint Peter " and his jurisdiction as the bishop of Rome is often referred to as the " Holy See ". Because Catholics believe that their bishops are

3132-415: A title used exclusively by Italian Popes . He was quoted as saying "I call myself Pius; my whole life was under Popes with this name, but especially as a sign of gratitude towards Pius XI ." On 15 December 1937, during his last consistory, Pius XI strongly hinted to the cardinals that he expected Pacelli to be his successor, saying "He is in your midst." He had previously been quoted as saying: "When today

3306-457: A way that his supreme magisterium is acknowledged with reverence, the judgments made by him are sincerely adhered to, according to his manifest mind and will. His mind and will in the matter may be known either from the character of the documents, from his frequent repetition of the same doctrine, or from his manner of speaking. The word "magisterium" is derived from Latin magister , which means "teacher" in ecclesiastical Latin. (It originally had

3480-665: A worrying impression of anti-Semitism is discernible in the "catalogue of epithets describing their physical and moral repulsiveness" and Pacelli's "constant harping on the Jewishness of this party of power usurpers" chimed with the "growing and widespread belief among Germans that the Jews were the instigators of the Bolshevik revolution , their principal aim being the destruction of Christian civilization". Also according to Cornwell, Pacelli informed Gasparri that "the capital of Bavaria,

3654-571: Is a dogma Divinely revealed that the Roman pontiff when he speaks ex cathedra , that is when in discharge of the office of pastor and doctor of all Christians, by virtue of his supreme Apostolic authority, he defines a doctrine regarding faith or morals to be held by the universal Church, by the Divine assistance promised to him in Blessed Peter , is possessed of that infallibility with which

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3828-591: Is fulfilled, as through a formula such as "By the authority of Our Lord Jesus Christ and of the Blessed Apostles Peter and Paul, and by Our own authority, We declare, pronounce and define the doctrine … to be revealed by God and as such to be firmly and immutably held by all the faithful," or through an accompanying anathema stating that anyone who deliberately dissents is outside the Catholic Church. For example, in 1950, with Munificentissimus Deus , Pope Pius XII's infallible definition regarding

4002-456: Is meritorious and holy; Christ, also, showing the way of perfection, taught it by word and confirmed it by example, and the first founders of the Church militant, as they had drawn it from the fountainhead itself, distributed it through the channels of their teaching and life to those wishing to live perfectly." By the bull Ad conditorem canonum of 8 December 1322, John XXII, declaring it ridiculous to pretend that every scrap of food given to

4176-461: Is not an oracle; he is infallible in very rare situations, as we know." Pope John XXIII once remarked: "I am only infallible if I speak infallibly but I shall never do that, so I am not infallible." A doctrine proposed by a pope as his own opinion, not solemnly proclaimed as a doctrine of the Church, may be rejected as false, even if it is on a matter of faith and morals, and even more any view he expresses on other matters. A well-known example of

4350-514: Is one, therefore he alone has infallibility." Vincenzo Maria Gatti, also a professor of theology at the College of St. Thomas, defending papal infallibility, says of Christ's words "I have prayed for thee," etc., that "indefectibility is promised to Peter apart from (seorsum) the Church, or from the Apostles; but it is not promised to the Apostles, or to the Church apart (seorsum) the head, or with

4524-685: Is suffering under a harsh Jewish-Russian revolutionary tyranny". According to Sister Pascalina Lehnert, the Nuncio was repeatedly threatened by emissaries of the Bavarian Soviet Republic . Once, in a violation of international law, the Bavarian Revolutionary Government attempted to confiscate the Nunciature's car at gunpoint. Despite their demands, however, Pacelli refused to leave his post. After

4698-649: The Reichskonkordat treaty with the German Reich . While the Vatican was officially neutral during World War II , the Reichskonkordat and his leadership of the Catholic Church during the war remain the subject of controversy—including allegations of public silence and inaction concerning the fate of the Jews. Pius employed diplomacy to aid the victims of the Nazis during the war and, through directing

4872-608: The Assumption of Mary , since the documents defining these doctrines state clearly that they are part of the divinely revealed truths. Examples of doctrines to be held definitively include Transubstantiation , the Sacramental Seal , women not being allowed to be ordained as priests , and papal infallibility itself. In July 2005 Pope Benedict XVI stated during an impromptu address to priests in Aosta that: "The Pope

5046-439: The Assumption of Mary , there are attached these words: Hence if anyone, which God forbid, should dare willfully to deny or to call into doubt that which We have defined, let him know that he has fallen away completely from the divine and Catholic Faith. As with all charisms, the church teaches that the charism of papal infallibility must be properly discerned, though only by the Church's leaders. The way to know if something

5220-757: The Bishop of Passau , in Bavaria: "The history of the Reichskonkordat shows, that the other side lacked the most basic prerequisites to accept minimal freedoms and rights of the Church, without which the Church simply cannot live and operate, formal agreements notwithstanding". Cardinal Pacelli gave a lecture entitled "La Presse et L'Apostolat" at the Pontifical University of St. Thomas Aquinas, Angelicum on 17 April 1936. Pope Pius XI died on 10 February 1939. Several historians have interpreted

5394-591: The Decree against Communism , declaring that Catholics who profess the atheistic and materialist doctrines of communism are to be excommunicated as apostates from the Christian faith. The church experienced severe persecution and mass deportations of Catholic clergy in the Eastern Bloc . Despite all this, Stalin himself was still open to coordinating with Pius XII on the struggle against persecution of

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5568-536: The Divine Redeemer willed that his Church should be endowed in defining doctrine regarding faith or morals, and that therefore such definitions of the Roman pontiff are of themselves and not from the consent of the Church irreformable. So then, should anyone, which God forbid, have the temerity to reject this definition of ours: let him be anathema . The fourth chapter was subject to two votes in July 1870. In

5742-913: The Ennio Quirino Visconti Liceo Ginnasio , a state school situated in what had been the Collegio Romano , the premier Jesuit university in Rome. In 1894, aged 18, Pacelli began his theology studies at Rome's oldest seminary, the Almo Collegio Capranica , and in November of the same year, registered to take a philosophy course at the Jesuit Pontifical Gregorian University and theology at the Pontifical Roman Athenaeum S. Apollinare . He

5916-476: The First Vatican Council 's definition of papal infallibility . The Catholic Church's magisterium is exercised without this solemnity in statements by popes and bishops, whether collectively (as by an episcopal conference ) or singly, in written documents such as catechisms, encyclicals, and pastoral letters, or orally, as in homilies . These statements are part of the ordinary magisterium of

6090-581: The Middle East and increased the number of Cardinals from the Americas, proportionally lessening the Italian influence. In his second consistory on 12 January 1953, it was expected that his closest co-workers, Msgrs. Domenico Tardini and Giovanni Montini would be elevated and Pius XII informed the assembled cardinals that both of them were originally on the top of his list, but they had turned down

6264-871: The Sistine Chapel on 13 May 1917, the same day as the first apparition of the Blessed Virgin Mary in Fatima, Portugal . After his consecration, Eugenio Pacelli left for Bavaria . As there was no nuncio to Prussia or Germany at the time, Pacelli was, for all practical purposes, the nuncio to all of the German Empire . Once in Munich , he conveyed the papal initiative to end the war to German authorities. He met with King Ludwig III on 29 May, and later with Kaiser Wilhelm II and Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg , who replied positively to

6438-529: The Sorbonne rose in prominence to be the most important in the Christian world. A common act of kings, bishops, and popes in matters of church or state with regard to religion was to poll the universities, especially the Sorbonne, on theological questions so as to obtain opinions from the masters before making their own judgment. In the Catholic Church today, this custom is still observed (at least pro forma) in

6612-682: The Synod of Bishops was granted Magisterium over documents which are approved at their Synods. Ex cathedra Papal infallibility is a dogma of the Catholic Church which states that, in virtue of the promise of Jesus to Peter , the Pope when he speaks ex cathedra is preserved from the possibility of error on doctrine "initially given to the apostolic Church and handed down in Scripture and tradition ". It does not mean that

6786-591: The nunciature in Belgrade , Gerald P. O'Hara as nuncio to Romania , and Aloisius Joseph Muench as nuncio to Germany. For the first time, numerous young Europeans, Asians and "Americans were trained in various congregations and secretariats within the Vatican for eventual service throughout the world". Only twice in his pontificate did Pius XII hold a consistory to create new cardinals , in contrast to Pius XI, who had done so 17 times in as many years. Pius XII chose not to name new cardinals during World War II, and

6960-555: The ordination of women into the Catholic priesthood in his apostolic letter Ordinatio sacerdotalis was part of the "ordinary and infallible" magisterial teaching of the Catholic Church. This was restated three years later in a commentary by the same Congregation. The opinion it was infallible was also stated in private commentaries by Cardinals Joseph Ratzinger , Tarcisio Bertone , and Luis Ladaria Ferrer . Nicholas Lash , an ex-priest and emeritus Professor of Divinity at

7134-856: The use of Latin as language of the liturgy , was excommunicated by Pius XII on 2 July 1945. He later established a schismatic group called the " Brazilian Catholic Apostolic Church ". Decentralized authority and increased independence of the Uniate Churches were aimed at in the Canon Law /Codex Iuris Canonici (CIC) reform. In its new constitutions, Eastern Patriarchs were made almost independent from Rome (CIC Orientalis, 1957) Eastern marriage law (CIC Orientalis, 1949), civil law (CIC Orientalis, 1950), laws governing religious associations (CIC Orientalis, 1952) property law (CIC Orientalis, 1952) and other laws. These reforms and writings of Pius XII were intended to establish Eastern Orientals as equal parts of

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7308-472: The 1500s or universally acknowledged to be forgeries until the 1800s. Many concepts of teaching authority gained prominence in the Middle Ages, including the concept of the authority of the learned expert, an idea which began with Origen (or even earlier) and still today has proponents. Some allowed for the participation of theologians in the teaching life of the church, but still drew distinctions between

7482-580: The 19th century, with Pope Pius IX and the First Vatican Council (1869–1870). Pius IX was the first pope to use the term “Magisterium” in the sense that it is understood today, and the concept of the “ordinary and universal Magisterium” was officially established during Vatican I. In addition, this council defined the doctrine of papal infallibility, the ability of the pope to speak without error “when, acting in his capacity as pastor and teacher of all Christians, he commits his supreme authority in

7656-403: The 1st century. Brian Tierney argued that the 13th-century Franciscan priest Peter Olivi was the first person to attribute infallibility to the pope. Tierney's idea was accepted by August Bernhard Hasler, and by Gregory Lee Jackson, It was rejected by James Heft and by John V. Kruse. Klaus Schatz says Olivi by no means played the key role assigned to him by Tierney, who failed to acknowledge

7830-469: The Apostles, is called the Deposit of Faith, and consists of both Sacred Scripture and Sacred Tradition. The infallible teachings of the ecumenical councils consist of the solemn dogmatic, theological or moral definitions as contained in declarations, decrees, doctrines and condemnations (traditionally expressed in conciliar canons and decrees) of councils consisting of the pope and the bishops from all over

8004-545: The Bavarian Soviet Republic was defeated and toppled by Freikorps and Reichswehr troops, the Nuncio focused on, according to Lehnert, "alleviating the distress of the postwar period, consoling, supporting all in word and deed". Pacelli was appointed Apostolic Nuncio to Germany on 23 June 1920, and – after the completion of a Bavarian Concordat (1924) – his nunciature was moved to Berlin in August 1925. Many of Pacelli's Munich staff stayed with him for

8178-589: The Bavarian concordat. However, Pacelli obtained less favorable conditions for the church in the Prussian Concordat of 1929, which excluded educational issues. A concordat with the German state of Baden was completed by Pacelli in 1932, after he had moved to Rome. There he also negotiated a concordat with Austria in 1933. A total of 16 concordats and treaties with European states had been concluded in

8352-633: The Cabinet were regular guests. In post-war Germany, in the absence of a nuncio in Moscow, Pacelli worked also on diplomatic arrangements between the Vatican and the Soviet Union . He negotiated food shipments for Russia, where the Catholic Church was persecuted. He met with Soviet representatives including Foreign Minister Georgi Chicherin , who rejected any kind of religious education, the ordination of priests and bishops, but offered agreements without

8526-652: The Cardinal Secretary of State officiated at the baptism of the Infante Juan Carlos ( King of Spain from 1975 to 2014), in a ceremony held at the Palazzo Malta in Rome . The Reichskonkordat was an integral part of four concordats Pacelli concluded on behalf of the Vatican with German States. The state concordats were necessary because the German federalist Weimar constitution gave

8700-687: The Catholic Centre Party , a party he led following Wilhelm Marx 's resignation in October 1928. While in Germany, he travelled to all regions, attended Katholikentag (national gatherings of the faithful), and delivered some 50 sermons and speeches to the German people. In Berlin he lived in the Tiergarten quarter and threw parties for the official and diplomatic elite. Paul von Hindenburg , Gustav Stresemann , and other members of

8874-528: The Catholic Church to organize youth groups, make ecclesiastical appointments, run schools, hospitals, and charities, or even conduct religious services. They also ensured that canon law would be recognized within some spheres (e.g., church decrees of nullity in the area of marriage). As the decade began Pacelli wanted the Centre Party in Germany to turn away from the socialists. In the summer of 1931 he clashed with Catholic Chancellor Heinrich Brüning , who frankly told Pacelli he believed that he "misunderstood

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9048-452: The Catholic church. He explicitly invoked ex cathedra papal infallibility with the dogma of the Assumption of Mary in his Apostolic constitution Munificentissimus Deus . His forty-one encyclicals include Mystici Corporis Christi , on the Church as the Mystical Body of Christ ; Mediator Dei on liturgy reform ; and Humani generis , in which he instructed theologians to adhere to episcopal teaching and allowed that

9222-404: The Church 4)." The church teaches that infallibility is a charism entrusted by Christ to the whole church, whereby the Pope, as "head of the college of bishops", enjoys papal infallibility. This charism is the supreme degree of participating in Christ's divine authority, which, in the New Covenant , so as to safeguard the faithful from defection and guarantee the profession of faith, ensures

9396-412: The Church as matters to be believed as divinely revealed, whether by her solemn judgment or in her ordinary and universal Magisterium." ( First Vatican Council , Dei Filius , 8.) However, the criteria for the infallibility of these two functions of the sacred Magisterium are different. The sacred magisterium consists of both the extraordinary and dogmatic decrees of the Pope and ecumenical councils , and

9570-445: The Church from the onslaughts of secularism and liberalism throughout Europe". Pacelli became an apprendista , an apprentice, in Gasparri's department. In January 1901 he was also chosen, by Pope Leo XIII himself, according to an official account, to deliver condolences on behalf of the Vatican to King Edward VII of the United Kingdom after the death of Queen Victoria . By 1904 Pacelli received his doctorate. The theme of his thesis

9744-491: The Church, and that new prophecies had the same authority as apostolic teaching. The Church, however, ruled that these new prophecies were not authoritative, and condemned Montanism as a heresy. Other times, private revelations were recognized by the Church, but the Church continues to teach that private revelations are altogether separate from the deposit of faith, and that they are not required to be believed by all Catholics. The first seven ecumenical councils , presided over by

9918-443: The Council was truly an "ecumenical" council. Later, Pope Pius XII (reigned 1939–1958) authoritatively stated the scope of the Magisterium further, stating that the faithful must be obedient to even the ordinary Magisterium of the Pope, and that “there can no longer be any question of free discussion between theologians” once the Pope has spoken on a given issue. Pope Paul VI (reigned 1963–1978) agreed with this view. Theology and

10092-520: The Department of Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs. According to John Cornwell "the text, together with the Anti-Modernist Oath , became the means by which the Holy See was to establish and sustain the new, unequal, and unprecedented power relationship that had arisen between the papacy and the Church". In 1908, Pacelli served as a Vatican representative on the International Eucharistic Congress , accompanying Rafael Merry del Val to London, where he met Winston Churchill . In 1911, he represented

10266-466: The Faith listed "the canonizations of saints" as "those truths connected to revelation by historical necessity and which are to be held definitively, but are not able to be declared as divinely revealed ". Prof. Frank K. Flinn states the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception proclaimed by Ineffabilis Deus in 1854 is "generally accepted" as being an ex cathedra statement. Since the declaration of papal infallibility by Vatican I (1870), Flinn states,

10440-423: The Father". He aids us likewise through His Church, where He is present indefectibly as the ages run their course: through the Church which He constituted "the pillar of truth" and dispenser of grace, and which by His sacrifice on the cross, He founded, consecrated and confirmed forever. The church has, therefore, according to Pius XII, a common aim with Christ himself, teaching all men the truth, and offering to God

10614-404: The Father; and He willed that their successors, namely the bishops, should be shepherds in His Church even to the consummation of the world. And in order that the episcopate itself might be one and undivided, He placed Blessed Peter over the other apostles, and instituted in him a permanent and visible source and foundation of unity of faith and communion. And all this teaching about the institution,

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10788-419: The First Vatican Council, August Hasler wrote, "John XXII didn't want to hear about his own infallibility. He viewed it as an improper restriction of his rights as a sovereign, and in the bull Qui quorundam (1324) condemned the Franciscan doctrine of papal infallibility as the work of the devil." Brian Tierney has summed up his view of the part played by John XXII as follows: Pope John XXII strongly resented

10962-607: The Franciscan position left a way open for later theologians to re-formulate the doctrine of infallibility in different language. In the period following the Counter-Reformation the Dominican school of theology at the Roman College of Saint Thomas in Rome, the future Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, Angelicum was active in defending the doctrine of papal infallibility. Vincentius Ferre (+1682), Regent of College of St. Thomas from 1654 to 1672, writes in his De Fide in defense of papal Infallibility that Christ said "I have prayed for thee, Peter; sufficiently showing that

11136-421: The German bishops in their anti-Nazi stand'. This was matched with the discovery of Pacelli's anti-Nazi report, written the following year for President Roosevelt and filed with Ambassador Joseph Kennedy , which declared that the church regarded compromise with the Third Reich as 'out of the question'." Historian Walter Bussmann argued that Pacelli, as Cardinal Secretary of State, dissuaded Pope Pius XI – who

11310-441: The German states authority in the area of education and culture and thus diminished the authority of the churches in these areas; this diminution of church authority was a primary concern of the Vatican. As Bavarian nuncio, Pacelli negotiated successfully with the Bavarian authorities in 1924 . He expected the concordat with Catholic Bavaria to be the model for the rest of Germany. Prussia showed interest in negotiations only after

11484-468: The Holy See at the coronation of George V and Mary . Pacelli became the under-secretary in 1911, adjunct-secretary in 1912 (a position he received under Pope Pius X and retained under Pope Benedict XV ), and secretary of the Department of Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs in February 1914. On 24 June 1914, just four days before Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria was assassinated in Sarajevo , Pacelli, together with Cardinal Merry del Val, represented

11658-419: The Holy Spirit was not promised to the successors of Peter that by His revelation they might make known new doctrine, but that by His assistance they might inviolably keep and faithfully expound the Revelation, the Deposit of Faith, delivered through the Apostles. It gives examples of the kinds of consultations that are appropriate: assembling Ecumenical Councils, asking for the mind of the Church scattered around

11832-537: The Hormisdas formula does not exclude the possibility that individual popes become heretics because the formula refers "... primarily to the Roman tradition as such and not exclusively to the person of the pope." The 12th-century Decretum Gratiani contained the declaration by Pope Gregory I (590–604) that the first four ecumenical councils were to be revered "... like the four gospels" because they had been "established by universal consent", and also Gratian's assertion that, "The holy Roman Church imparts authority to

12006-415: The Italian monopoly on the Roman Curia ; he employed German and Dutch Jesuit advisors, Robert Leiber, Augustin Bea , and Sebastian Tromp . He also supported the elevation of Americans such as Cardinal Francis Spellman from a minor to a major role in the church. After World War II, Pius XII appointed more non-Italians than any Pope before him. American appointees included Joseph P. Hurley as regent of

12180-512: The Nuncio was deeply sorry that the chance had been missed to save what there was to save, it occurs to me over and over again how clearly he foresaw what was to come. Once as he traced the course of the Rhine with his finger on a map, he said sadly, 'No doubt this will be lost as well'. I did not want to believe it, but here, too, he was to be proved right." For the remainder of the Great War, Pacelli concentrated on Benedict's humanitarian efforts especially among Allied POWs in German custody. In

12354-472: The Ordinary and Universal Magisterium. The Second Vatican Council states, "For this reason Jesus perfected revelation by fulfilling it through His whole work of making Himself present and manifesting Himself: through His words and deeds, His signs and wonders, but especially through His death and glorious resurrection from the dead and final sending of the Spirit of truth." ( Dei verbum , 4). The content of Christ's divine revelation, as faithfully passed on by

12528-603: The Papal Ministry of Finances and then Secretary of the Interior under Pope Pius IX from 1851 to 1870 and helped found the Vatican's newspaper, L'Osservatore Romano in 1861. His cousin, Ernesto Pacelli , was a key financial advisor to Pope Leo XIII ; his father, Filippo Pacelli, a Franciscan tertiary , was the dean of the Roman Rota ; and his brother, Francesco Pacelli , became a lay canon lawyer and

12702-612: The Papal initiative. However, Bethmann Hollweg was forced to resign and the German High Command , hoping for a military victory, delayed the German reply until 20 September. Sister Pascalina Lehnert later recalled that the Nuncio was heartbroken that the Kaiser turned a "deaf ear to all his proposals". She later wrote, "Thinking back today on that time, when we Germans still all believed that our weapons would be victorious and

12876-400: The Pope dies, you'll get another one tomorrow, because the Church continues. It would be a much bigger tragedy, if Cardinal Pacelli dies, because there is only one. I pray every day, God may send another one into one of our seminaries, but as of today, there is only one in this world." After his election, he made Luigi Maglione his successor as Cardinal Secretary of State. Cardinal Maglione,

13050-581: The Primacy of the Roman Bishops, like other Church teachings and institutions, has gone through a development . Thus the establishment of the Primacy recorded in the Gospels has gradually been more clearly recognised and its implications developed. Clear indications of the consciousness of the Primacy of the Roman bishops, and of the recognition of the Primacy by the other churches, appear at the end of

13224-624: The Reformation, leading to a formal statement of the doctrine by St. Robert Bellarmine in the early 17th century, but it did not come into widespread acceptance until the 19th century and the First Vatican Council. A significant development in the teaching authority of the Church occurred from 1414 to 1418 with the Council of Constance, which effectively ran the Church during the Great Schism, during which there were three men claiming to be

13398-512: The Roman Pontiff, are to be respected by all as witnesses to divine and Catholic truth. In matters of faith and morals, the bishops speak in the name of Christ and the faithful are to accept their teaching and adhere to it with a religious assent. This religious submission of mind and will must be shown in a special way to the authentic magisterium of the Roman Pontiff, even when he is not speaking ex cathedra; that is, it must be shown in such

13572-547: The Secretariat of State, making him undersecretary. During World War I, Pacelli maintained the Vatican's registry of prisoners of war and worked to implement papal relief initiatives. In 1915, he travelled to Vienna to assist Raffaele Scapinelli , nuncio to Vienna, in his negotiations with Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria regarding Italy. Pope Benedict XV appointed Pacelli as nuncio to Bavaria on 23 April 1917, consecrating him as titular Archbishop of Sardis in

13746-575: The Spirituals, who contended that Christ and his apostles had possessed absolutely nothing, either separately or jointly. The "Spirituals" argued that John XXII's predecessors had declared the absolute poverty of Christ to be an article of faith and that therefore no pope could declare the contrary. Appeal was made in particular to the 14 August 1279 bull Exiit qui seminat , in which Pope Nicholas III stated that renunciation of ownership of all things "both individually but also in common, for God's sake,

13920-573: The University of Cambridge, disputes that this doctrine be truly infallible. The Catholic Theological Society of America in a report titled "Tradition and the Ordination of Women " concluded that Ordinatio sacerdotalis is mistaken with regard to its claims on the authority of this teaching and its grounds in Tradition . Prof. Frank K. Flinn claims that Pope John Paul II 's statement on

14094-630: The Vatican when the Serbian Concordat was signed. Serbia 's success in the First Balkan War against Turkey in 1912 had increased the number of Catholics within greater Serbia. At this time Serbia, encouraged by Russia , was challenging Austria-Hungary 's sphere of influence throughout the Balkans . Pius X died on 20 August 1914. His successor Benedict XV named Gasparri as secretary of state and Gasparri took Pacelli with him into

14268-539: The apostles. It speaks of Peter as the rock on which, because of Peter's faith, Christ said in Matthew 16:18 he would build his Church, which he declared would be victorious over the powers of death. In Luke 22:32 , Jesus gave Peter the mission to keep his faith after every lapse and to strengthen his brothers in it. The Catechism of the Catholic Church sees the power of the keys that Jesus promised in Matthew 16:19 to be for Peter alone and as signifying authority to govern

14442-482: The apostolic succession of bishops and their authority as protectors of the faith, was one of the few points that was rarely debated by the Church Fathers. The doctrine was elaborated by Ignatius of Antioch (and others) in the face of Gnosticism, expounded by others such as Irenaeus, Tertullian, Cyprian, Ambrose, and Augustine, and by the end of the 2nd century AD was universally accepted by the bishops. Some of

14616-536: The appointment of a papal administrator for Danzig and aided the reintegration of German priests expelled from Poland . A Prussian Concordat was signed on 14 June 1929. Following the Wall Street Crash of 1929 , the beginnings of a world economic slump appeared, and the days of the Weimar Republic were numbered. Pacelli was summoned back to Rome at this time—the call coming by telegram when he

14790-400: The cases of Peter Abelard and Beranger) and commissions (as with Nicolas of Autrecourt , Ockham, and Eckhart). With the coming of the Reformation in 1517, this assertion of papal power came to a head and the primacy and authority of the papacy over theologians was vigorously re-established. However, the Council of Trent re-introduced the collaboration between theologians and council Fathers, and

14964-569: The church and the Catholic Centre Party . He sent his vice chancellor Franz von Papen , a Catholic nobleman, to Rome to offer negotiations about a Reichskonkordat. On behalf of Pacelli, Prelate Ludwig Kaas , the outgoing chairman of the Centre Party, negotiated first drafts of the terms with von Papen. The concordat was finally signed, by Pacelli for the Vatican and von Papen for Germany, on 20 July and ratified on 10 September 1933. Bishop Konrad von Preysing cautioned against compromise with

15138-657: The church running against the doctrine of papal primacy, likely influenced by the corruption seen in the papacy during this time period. The theologian continued to play a more prominent role in the teaching life of the church, as “doctors” were called upon more and more to help bishops form doctrinal opinions. Illustrating this, at the Council of Basle in 1439, bishops and other clergy were greatly outnumbered by doctors of theology. Despite this growth in influence, popes still asserted their power to crack down on those perceived as “rogue” theologians, through councils (for example, in

15312-591: The church to provide discreet aid to Jews and others, saved thousands of lives. Pius maintained links to the German resistance , and shared intelligence with the Allies. His strongest public condemnation of genocide was considered inadequate by the Allied Powers , while the Nazis viewed him as an Allied sympathizer who had dishonoured his policy of Vatican neutrality. During his papacy, the Catholic Church issued

15486-486: The church's teaching involve the infallibility of the Church . Pope Pius IX 's definition of the Immaculate Conception of Mary and Pope Pius XII 's definition of the Assumption of Mary are examples of such solemn papal pronouncements. Most dogmas have been promulgated at ecumenical councils. Examples of solemn declarations by ecumenical councils are the Council of Trent 's decree on justification and

15660-478: The church. The First Vatican Council declared that, "all those things are to be believed with divine and Catholic faith which are contained in the Word of God, written or handed down, and which the Church, either by a solemn judgment or by her ordinary and universal teaching magisterium, proposes for belief as having been divinely revealed." The Second Vatican Council declared further that not everything contained in

15834-409: The conclave to choose his successor as facing a choice between a diplomatic or a spiritual candidate, and they view Pacelli's diplomatic experience, especially with Germany, as one of the deciding factors in his election on 2 March 1939, his 63rd birthday, after only one day of deliberation and three ballots. He was the first cardinal Secretary of State to be elected pope since Clement IX in 1667. He

16008-596: The convent of the French Sisters of Divine Providence in the Piazza Fiammetta. The family worshipped at Chiesa Nuova . Eugenio and the other children made their First Communion at this church and Eugenio served there as an altar boy from 1886. In 1886, he also was sent to the private school of Professor Giuseppe Marchi, close to the Piazza Venezia . In 1891 Pacelli's father sent Eugenio to

16182-448: The cultural renaissance of the time and eagerness to discover new texts. The Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals asserted Roman papal power to depose and appoint bishops for the first time by deriving this power from forgeries of texts of the fathers of early church, interlaced with texts already known to be legitimate. These decretals had an enormous influence on concentrating the teaching power of the pope, and were not uncovered as forgeries until

16356-432: The doctrine of papal infallibility defined at Vatican I had its origins in the 14th century – he refers in particular to Bishop Guido Terreni – and was itself part of a long development of papal claims. Schatz points to "... the special esteem given to the Roman church community [that] was always associated with fidelity in the faith and preservation of the paradosis (the faith as handed down)." Schatz differentiates between

16530-432: The doctrine that Christ and his apostles had no possessions whatever. The next year, the Pope responded to continued criticisms with the bull Quia quorundam of 10 November 1324. He denied the major premise of an argument of his adversaries, "What the Roman pontiffs have once defined in faith and morals with the key of knowledge stands so immutably that it is not permitted to a successor to revoke it." In his book on

16704-550: The early years of the 14th century, the Franciscan Order found itself in open conflict between the "Spirituals" and the Conventual Franciscans over the form of poverty to observe. The Spirituals adopted extremist positions that eventually discredited the notion of apostolic poverty and led to condemnation by Pope John XXII . This pope determined to suppress what he considered to be the excesses of

16878-516: The emperor with representatives from all important metropolitan sees including Jerusalem, Constantinople, and Rome among others, exercised an important authority to define doctrine seen as essential to most contemporary Christians, including the divinity of Christ and the two natures of Christ. These councils also produced various creeds, including the Nicene Creed . The official language of these councils, including all authoritative texts produced,

17052-677: The existence of the draft only after the death of Pius XI and did not promulgate it as Pope. He did use parts of it in his inaugural encyclical Summi Pontificatus , which he titled "On the Unity of Human Society". His various positions on church and policy issues during his tenure as Cardinal Secretary of State were made public by the Holy See in 1939. Most noteworthy among the 50 speeches is his review of Church-State issues in Budapest in 1938. A year before his papal election, on 26 January 1938,

17226-399: The faithful abide in the truth. The church further teaches that divine assistance is also given to the Pope when he exercises his ordinary Magisterium . According to the teaching of the First Vatican Council and Catholic tradition, the conditions required for ex cathedra papal teaching are as follows: The terminology of a definitive decree usually makes clear that this last condition

17400-473: The first official denunciation of Nazism made by any major organization and resulted in persecution of the church by the infuriated Nazis who closed all the participating presses and "took numerous vindictive measures against the Church, including staging a long series of immorality trials of the Catholic clergy". On 10 June 1941, the Pope commented on the problems of the Reichskonkordat in a letter to

17574-502: The first on 13 July there were 601 voters: 451 affirmative, 62 conditional affirmative, and 88 negative. The latter groups were then permitted to leave; others left because of the imminent Franco-Prussian War . The final vote on 18 July saw 433 affirmative and only two negative votes, from bishops Aloisio Riccio and Edward Fitzgerald . The dogmatic constitution Lumen gentium of the Second Vatican Council , which

17748-402: The first problems began to arise, however, with the increasing worldliness of the clergy. Criticism arose against the bishops, and an attempt was made to have all bishops drawn from the ranks of monastic communities, whose men were seen as the holiest possible leaders. However, there had also developed in the Church a Roman sense of government, which insisted upon order at any cost, and this led to

17922-523: The following list of documents to be ex cathedra : There is no complete list of papal statements considered infallible. A 1998 commentary on Ad Tuendam Fidem issued by the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith published on L'Osservatore Romano in July 1998 listed a number of instances of infallible pronouncements by popes and by ecumenical councils, but explicitly stated (at no. 11) that this

18096-535: The friars and eaten by them belonged to the pope, forced them to accept ownership by ending the arrangement according to which all property given to the Franciscans was vested in the Holy See , which granted the friars the mere use of it. He thus demolished the fictitious structure that gave the appearance of absolute poverty to the life of the Franciscan friars, a structure that "absolved the Franciscans from

18270-468: The head," adding: "Therefore Peter, even apart from (seorsum) the Church, is infallible." The infallibility of the pope was formally defined in 1870, although the tradition behind this view goes back much further. In the conclusion of the fourth chapter of its Dogmatic Constitution on the Church Pastor aeternus , the First Vatican Council declared the following: We teach and define that it

18444-401: The highest level". When he returned to Munich, following Eisner's assassination by Bavarian nationalist Count Anton von Arco auf Valley , he informed Gasparri-using Schioppa's eye-witness testimony of the chaotic scene at the former royal palace as the trio of Max Levien , Eugen Levine , and Tobias Akselrod sought power: "the scene was indescribable [-] the confusion totally chaotic [-] in

18618-563: The house of God, that is, the Church, an authority that Jesus after his resurrection confirmed for Peter by instructing him in John 21:15–17 to feed Christ's sheep . The power to bind and loose, conferred on all the apostles jointly and to Peter in particular (Matthew 16:19), is seen in the Catechism of the Catholic Church as authority to absolve sins, to pronounce judgments on doctrine and to make decisions on Church discipline. The doctrine of

18792-561: The human body might have evolved from earlier forms. He eliminated the Italian majority in the College of Cardinals in 1946. After he died in 1958, Pope Pius XII was succeeded by John XXIII . In the process toward sainthood, his cause for canonization was opened on 18 November 1965 by Paul VI during the final session of the Second Vatican Council . He was made a Servant of God by John Paul II in 1990 and Benedict XVI declared Pius XII Venerable on 19 December 2009. Pacelli remains

18966-532: The idea of a teaching authority based on theological expertise alone rather than, or at least along with, apostolic succession. Another early disagreement in the Church surrounding the issue of authority manifested itself in Montanism , which began as a movement promoting the charism of prophecy. Montanism claimed, among other things, that prophecies like those found in the Old Testament were continuing in

19140-430: The identity of the Church. New texts were being discovered and disseminated at rapid pace in the late 700s and early 800s and patristic authorship became important for establishing a text's authority in Catholic theology. Unfortunately also at this time, a series of power struggles emerged between diocesan bishops and their metropolitans. As part of this struggle, a series of elaborate forgeries were produced, capitalizing on

19314-410: The imputation of infallibility to his office – or at any rate to his predecessors. The theory of irreformability proposed by his adversaries was a "pestiferous doctrine", he declared; and at first he seemed inclined to dismiss the whole idea as "pernicious audacity". However, through some uncharacteristic streak of caution or through sheer good luck (or bad luck) the actual terms he used in condemning

19488-651: The inadmissibility of women to the priesthood was not infallible; Flinn considers that Cardinal Ratzinger 's later responsa to the dubium on the subject was therefore erroneous. Pope Francis stated in two interviews (2013 and 2016) that John Paul II's decision was the definitive position on women's ordination. Before 1870, belief in papal infallibility was not a defined requirement of Catholic faith. Pope Pius XII Pope Pius XII (born Eugenio Maria Giuseppe Giovanni Pacelli , Italian pronunciation: [euˈdʒɛːnjo maˈriːa dʒuˈzɛppe dʒoˈvanni paˈtʃɛlli] ; 2 March 1876 – 9 October 1958)

19662-454: The infallibility was not promised to the Church as apart from (seorsum) the head, but promised to the head, that from him it should be derived to the Church." Dominic Gravina , professor of theology at the College of St. Thomas in Rome wrote concerning papal infallibility: "To the Pontiff, as one (person) and alone, it was given to be the head," and again, "The Roman Pontiff for the time being

19836-462: The internal section. Tardini and Montini continued serving there until 1953, when Pius XII decided to appoint them cardinals, an honor which both turned down. They were then later appointed to be Pro-Secretary with the privilege to wear Episcopal Insignia. Tardini continued to be a close co-worker of the Pope until the death of Pius XII, while Montini became archbishop of Milan , after the death of Alfredo Ildefonso Schuster . Pius XII slowly eroded

20010-489: The last pope to take the regnal name of Pius to the present day. Eugenio Maria Giuseppe Giovanni Pacelli was born on the second day of Lent, 2 March 1876, in Rome into an upper class family of intense Catholic piety with a history of ties to the papacy (the " Black Nobility "). His parents were Filippo Pacelli  [ it ] (1837–1916) and Virginia (née Graziosi) Pacelli (1844–1920). His grandfather Marcantonio Pacelli  [ it ] had been Under-Secretary in

20184-544: The later doctrine of "infallibility of the papal magisterium" and the Hormisdas formula in 519, which asserted that, "The Roman church has never erred (and will never err)." He emphasizes that Hormisdas formula was not meant to apply so much to "... individual dogmatic definitions but to the whole of the faith as handed down and the tradition of Peter preserved intact by the Roman Church." Specifically, Schatz argues that

20358-597: The legal advisor to Pope Pius XI , in which role he negotiated the Lateran Treaty in 1929 with Benito Mussolini , bringing an end to the Roman Question . Together with his brother Francesco (1872–1935) and his two sisters, Giuseppina (1874–1955) and Elisabetta (1880–1970), he grew up in the Parione district in the centre of Rome. Soon after the family had moved to Via Vetrina in 1880, he began school at

20532-454: The legal position of the church. Pacelli, who knew German conditions well, emphasized in particular protection for Catholic associations (§31), freedom for education and Catholic schools, and freedom for publications. As nuncio during the 1920s, he had made unsuccessful attempts to obtain German agreement for such a treaty, and between 1930 and 1933 he attempted to initiate negotiations with representatives of successive German governments, but

20706-428: The magisterium have the same source, revelation, and closely cooperate: the Magisterium does not receive a revelation to resolve disputed questions. The theologian, in obedience to the magisterium, tries to develop answers to new questions. The magisterium in turn needs this work in order to authoritatively give solutions to modern problems in the area of faith and morals. Theology again, accepts these answers and serves as

20880-478: The majority opinion at the time of the Counter-Reformation . The doctrine of infallibility relies on one of the cornerstones of Catholic dogma, that of papal supremacy , whereby the authority of the pope is the ruling agent as to what are accepted as formal beliefs in the Catholic Church. The use of this power is referred to as speaking ex cathedra . "Any doctrine 'of faith or morals' issued by

21054-433: The midst of all this, a gang of young women, of dubious appearance, Jews like the rest of them hanging around [-] the boss of this female rabble was Levien's mistress, a young Russian woman, a Jew and a divorcée [-] and it was to her that the nunciature was obliged to pay homage in order to proceed [-] Levien is a young man, also Russian and a Jew. Pale, dirty, with drugged eyes, vulgar, repulsive ..." John Cornwell alleges that

21228-476: The moral burden of legal ownership, and enabled them to practise apostolic poverty without the inconvenience of actual poverty." This document was concerned with disciplinary rather than doctrinal matters, but leaders of the Franciscans reacted with insistence on the irreformability of doctrinal papal decrees, with special reference to Exiit . A year later, John XXII issued the short 12 November 1323 bull Cum inter nonnullos , which declared "erroneous and heretical"

21402-423: The new importance placed on academic freedom, and new means of knowledge and communication. In addition, the authority of theologians is being revisited, with theologians pushing past the structures laid out by Pius XII to claim authority in theology in their own right such as was the case in the middle ages. Others simply regard themselves purely as academics not in the service of any institution. In September 2018,

21576-451: The new regime, against those who saw the Nazi persecution of the church as an aberration that Hitler would correct. Between 1933 and 1939, Pacelli issued 55 protests of violations of the Reichskonkordat . Most notably, early in 1937, Pacelli asked several German cardinals, including Cardinal Michael von Faulhaber , to help him write a protest of Nazi violations of the Reichskonkordat ; this

21750-478: The next centuries leading up to the First and Second Vatican Councils were generally accepting of a broader role for the learned in the Church, although the popes still kept a close eye on theologians and intervened occasionally. In the late medieval period, statements of this papal power were common in the works of theologians as well. For example, Domingo Bañez attributed to the Pope the “definitive power to declare

21924-450: The number of cardinals shrank to 38, with Dennis Joseph Dougherty of Philadelphia being the only living U.S. cardinal. The first occasion on 18 February 1946 yielded the elevation of a record 32 new cardinals, almost half of the College of Cardinals and reaching the canonical limit of 70 cardinals. In the 1946 consistory, Pius XII, while maintaining the maximum size of the College of Cardinals at 70, named cardinals from China , India ,

22098-399: The offer, and were rewarded instead with other promotions. Both Montini and Tardini would become Cardinals shortly after Pius' death; Montini later became Pope Paul VI . The two consistories of 1946 and 1953 brought an end to over five hundred years of Italians constituting a majority of the College of Cardinals . With few exceptions, Italian prelates accepted the changes positively; there

22272-428: The only example of an ex cathedra statement thereafter took place in 1950, when Pope Pius XII defined the Assumption of Mary as an article of faith . In Ineffabilis Deus and Pius XII's cases, the popes consulted with Catholic bishops before making their declaration. Regarding historical papal documents, Catholic theologian and church historian Klaus Schatz made a thorough study, published in 1985, that claims

22446-516: The opposition of Protestant and Socialist parties, the instability of national governments and the care of the individual states to guard their autonomy thwarted this aim. In particular, the questions of denominational schools and pastoral work in the armed forces prevented any agreement on the national level, despite talks in the winter of 1932. Adolf Hitler was appointed Chancellor on 30 January 1933 and sought to gain international respectability and to remove internal opposition by representatives of

22620-460: The other, are those who refuse to accept in any sense controversial encyclicals such as Humanae Vitae . There are also those who, like John Henry Newman, question whether the First Vatican Council was itself an ecumenical council, and as a result whether the dogma of papal infallibility itself as defined at that council was a fallible pronouncement. The situation is complicated by changing attitudes toward authority in an increasingly democratic world,

22794-540: The past held that the canonization of a saint by a pope is infallible teaching that the person canonized is definitely in heaven with God, because it relates to Faith. A decree of canonization invites the whole Church to venerate the person as a saint, while beatification merely permits it. In its 1998 Commentary on the Concluding Formula of the 'Professio fidei' , the Congregation for the Doctrine of

22968-402: The perpetuity, the meaning and reason for the sacred primacy of the Roman Pontiff and of his infallible magisterium , this Sacred Council again proposes to be firmly believed by all the faithful. There is debate in the Church between those who believe that infallibility is exercised rarely and explicitly and those that believe that it is common. An example of where there is dispute over whether

23142-531: The persons who hold this office. The Catholic Church teaches that Jesus Christ is the source of divine revelation . The Catholic Church bases all of its teachings on sacred tradition and sacred scripture . The Magisterium consists in only all the infallible teachings of the Church , "Wherefore, by divine and Catholic faith all those things are to be believed which are contained in the word of God as found in Scripture and tradition, and which are proposed by

23316-464: The phenomenon of the “imperial bishops,” men who had to be obeyed by virtue of their position, regardless of their personal holiness, and the distinction between “man” and “office.” This understanding was not universally accepted. According to Robert B. Eno, Origen was one of the most famous critics of the episcopal corruption. He says that throughout Origen's life, many of his writings were considered to be questionably orthodox, and he seemed to espouse

23490-452: The points vital to the Vatican. Despite Vatican pessimism and a lack of visible progress, Pacelli continued the secret negotiations, until Pius XI ordered them to be discontinued in 1927. Pacelli supported German diplomatic activity aimed at rejection of punitive measures from victorious former enemies. He blocked French attempts for an ecclesiastical separation of the Saar region , supported

23664-648: The political situation in Germany and the real character of the Nazis". Following Brüning's resignation in May 1932 Pacelli, like the new Catholic chancellor Franz von Papen , wondered if the Centre Party should look to the Right for a coalition, "that would correspond to their principles". He made many diplomatic visits throughout Europe and the Americas, including an extensive visit to the United States in 1936 where he met President Franklin D. Roosevelt , who appointed

23838-475: The pope (Proposition 19) and that "the Roman church has never erred; nor will it err to all eternity, the Scripture bearing witness" (Proposition 22). This is seen as a further step in advancing the idea that papal infallibility "... had been part of church history and debate as far back as 519 when the notion of the Bishop of Rome as the preserver of apostolic truth was set forth in the Formula of Hormisdas." In

24012-470: The pope cannot sin or otherwise err in some capacity, though he is prevented by the assistance of the Holy Spirit from issuing heretical teaching even in his non-infallible Magisterium , as a corollary of indefectibility. This doctrine, defined dogmatically at the First Vatican Council of 1869–1870 in the document Pastor aeternus , is claimed to have existed in medieval theology and to have been

24186-493: The pope in his capacity as successor to St. Peter , speaking as pastor and teacher of the Church Universal [ Ecclesia Catholica ], from the seat of his episcopal authority in Rome, and meant to be believed 'by the universal church,' has the special status of an ex cathedra statement. Vatican Council I in 1870 declared that any such ex cathedra doctrines have the character of infallibility (session 4, Constitution on

24360-535: The pope to be saved. In the Decretum of Gratian, a 12th-century canon lawyer, the pope is attributed the legal right to pass judgment in theological disputes, but he was certainly not guaranteed freedom from error. The pope’s role was to establish limits within which theologians, who were often better suited for the full expression of truth, could work. Thus, the pope’s authority was as a judge, not as an infallible teacher. The doctrine began to visibly develop during

24534-422: The pope, and meant that the pope plus the other bishops was greater than a pope acting alone. Several medieval theologians discussed the infallibility of the pope when defining matters of faith and morals, including Thomas Aquinas . The Dictatus papae have been attributed to Pope Gregory VII (1073–1085) in the year 1075, but some have argued that they are later than 1087. They assert that no one can judge

24708-434: The pope. An early decree of this council, Haec Sancta , challenged the primacy of the pope, saying that councils represent the church, are imbued with their power directly by Christ, and are binding even for the pope in matters of faith. This declaration was later declared void by the Church because the early sessions of the council had not been confirmed by a pope, but it demonstrates that there were still conciliar currents in

24882-402: The power of the papacy. Innocent asserted that the pope's power was a right bestowed by God, and developed the idea of the pope not only as a teacher and spiritual leader but also a secular ruler. Boniface, in the papal bull Unam Sanctam , asserted that the spiritual world, headed on earth by the pope, has authority over the temporal world, and that all must submit themselves to the authority of

25056-685: The powers of the theologian and bishops; one example of this view is in the writing of St. Thomas Aquinas, who spoke of the “Magisterium cathedrae pastoralis” ( of the pastoral chair) and the “Magisterium cathedrae magistralis” (Magisterium of a master ’s chair). The highest order of the Magisterium cathedrae pastoralis mentioned is the episcopacy itself, and at the top the pope: "Magis est standum sententiae Papae, ad quem pertinet determinare de fide, quam in iudicio profert, quam quorumlibet sapientum hominum in Scripturis opinioni." Others held more extreme views, such as Godefroid of Fontaines, who insisted that

25230-524: The pride of Lucifer". and as "bearers of a new faith and a new Evangile" who were attempting to create "a mendacious antimony between faithfulness to the Church and the Fatherland". Two years later at Notre Dame de Paris he named Germany as "that noble and powerful nation whom bad shepherds would lead astray into an ideology of race". Pacelli was made a Cardinal-Priest of Santi Giovanni e Paolo al Celio on 16 December 1929 by Pope Pius XI, and within

25404-664: The process of being formulated in Hungary . Pacelli made reference to the Jews "whose lips curse [Christ] and whose hearts reject him even today". This traditional adversarial relationship with Judaism would be reversed in Nostra aetate issued during the Second Vatican Council . According to Joseph Bottum , Pacelli in 1937 "warned A. W. Klieforth, that Hitler was 'an untrustworthy scoundrel and fundamentally wicked person', to quote Klieforth, who also wrote that Pacelli 'did not believe Hitler capable of moderation, and ... fully supported

25578-537: The rest of his life, including his advisor Robert Leiber and Sister Pascalina Lehnert—housekeeper, cook, friend, and adviser for 41 years. In Berlin, Pacelli was Dean of the Diplomatic Corps and active in diplomatic and many social activities. He was aided by the German priest Ludwig Kaas , who was known for his expertise in Church-state relations and was a full-time politician, politically active in

25752-591: The retention of an official Theologian of the Pontifical Household , who often advises the pope on matters of controversy. Throughout the Middle Ages, support for the primacy of the pope (spiritually and temporally) and his ability to speak authoritatively on matters of doctrine grew significantly as the Decretals of Isadore became widely accepted. Two popes, Innocent III (1198–1216) and Boniface VIII (1294–1303), were especially influential in advancing

25926-599: The sacred canons but is not bound by them." Commentators on the Decretum, known as the Decretists , generally concluded that a pope could change the disciplinary decrees of the ecumenical councils but was bound by their pronouncements on articles of faith, in which field the authority of a general council was higher than that of an individual pope. Unlike those who propounded the 15th-century conciliarist theories, they understood an ecumenical council as necessarily involving

26100-409: The same way by the Congregation (i.e. infallible, although not taught ex cathedra ). Ordinatio sacerdotalis (see below) was also listed an infallible. When he was prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith , Cardinal Ratzinger (later Pope Benedict XVI), under John Paul II's authority, stated in a formal response ( responsum ) to an inquiry ( dubium) that John Paul II's decision on

26274-465: The sole recognized religion; the powerful democratic Catholic Popular Party , in many ways similar to the Centre Party in Germany, had been disbanded, and in place of political Catholicism the Holy See encouraged Catholic Action . It was permitted only so long as it developed "its activity outside every political party and in direct dependence upon the Church hierarchy for the dissemination and implementation of Catholic principles". Such concordats allowed

26448-415: The statements of the ordinary magisterium is infallible, but the Catholic Church holds that the Church's infallibility is invested in the statements of its universal ordinary magisterium: "Although the bishops, taken individually, do not enjoy the privilege of infallibility, they do, however, proclaim infallibly the doctrine of Christ on the following conditions: namely, when, even though dispersed throughout

26622-524: The successors of the apostles and that Peter had a special role among the apostles as the preserver of unity, the Pope is considered the spokesman for the whole Church. The doctrine of papal infallibility, the Latin phrase ex cathedra (literally, "from the chair"), was proclaimed by Pius IX in 1870 as meaning "when, in the exercise of his office as shepherd and teacher of all Christians, in virtue of his supreme apostolic authority, [the Bishop of Rome] defines

26796-484: The ten-year period 1922–1932. The Reichskonkordat , signed on 20 July 1933, between Germany and the Holy See, while thus a part of an overall Vatican policy, was controversial from its beginning. It remains the most important of Pacelli's concordats. It is debated, not because of its content, which is still valid today, but because of its timing. A national concordat with Germany was one of Pacelli's main objectives as secretary of state, because he had hoped to strengthen

26970-482: The theologian had a right to maintain his own opinions in the face of episcopal and even papal rulings. Until the formation of the Roman Inquisition in the 16th century, the central authority to discover the norm for Catholic truth by means of the study and commentary on scripture and tradition was universally seen as being the role of the theology faculties of universities. The Paris faculty of theology at

27144-402: The truths of the faith," and Thomas Cajetan , in expanding the distinction made by St. Thomas Aquinas, drew a line between personal faith manifested in theologians and the authoritative faith presented as a matter of judgment by the pope. In the late Middle Ages, the concept of papal infallibility came to fruition, but a definitive statement and explanation of these doctrines did not occur until

27318-515: The universal Church on a question of faith or morals.” This declaration wasn't without some controversy; the bishops of Uniate Churches walked out en masse rather than voting against the declaration in session, and the resulting declaration also had a great deal to do with the finalization of the Old Catholic Church schism that had been festering for some time. John Henry Newman accepted the Council's authority, but questioned whether

27492-630: The upheaval following the Armistice, a disconcerted Pacelli sought Benedict XV's permission to leave Munich, where Kurt Eisner had formed the Free State of Bavaria , and he left for a while to Rorschach , and a tranquil Swiss sanatorium run by nuns. Schioppa, the uditore , was left in Munich. "His recovery began with a 'rapport ' " with the 24-year-old Sister Pascalina Lehnert – she would soon be transferred to Munich when Pacelli "pulled strings at

27666-518: The work of earlier canonists and theologians, and that the crucial advance in the teaching came only in the 15th century, two centuries after Olivi; and he declares that, "It is impossible to fix a single author or era as the starting point." Ulrich Horst criticized the Tierney view for the same reasons. In his Protestant evaluation of the ecumenical issue of papal infallibility, Mark E. Powell rejects Tierney's theory about 13th-century Olivi, saying that

27840-442: The world but preserving for all that amongst themselves and with Peter's successor the bond of communion, in their authoritative teaching concerning matters of faith or morals, they are in agreement that a particular teaching is to be held definitively and absolutely." Such teachings of the ordinary and universal magisterium are obviously not given in a single specific document. They are teachings upheld as authoritative, generally for

28014-521: The world, Synods, and so on. Not all Catholic teaching is infallible. The Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith differentiates three kinds of doctrine: Examples of doctrines to be believed as divinely revealed include the sayings of Jesus in the Gospels , since the Gospels are part of the Bible , which is part of the deposit of divine revelation, as well as the Immaculate Conception of Mary and

28188-452: The world. A teaching of ordinary and universal magisterium is a teaching on which all bishops (including the Pope) universally agree, and is also considered infallible. Such a teaching must also be a part of the sensus fidelium . Only the Pope and bishops in communion with him make up the magisterium; theologians and schismatic bishops do not. The most basic foundation of the Magisterium,

28362-519: Was Greek. The relation between the councils and patriarchal authority was complex. For example, the sixth council, the Third Council of Constantinople , condemned both monoenergism and monothelitism and included those who had supported this heresy, including Pope Honorius I and four previous patriarchs of Constantinople. Perceptions of teaching authority in the Middle Ages are hard to characterize because they were so varied. While there arose

28536-438: Was also a document on the Catholic Church itself, explicitly reaffirmed the definition of papal infallibility, so as to avoid any doubts, expressing this in the following words: This Sacred Council, following closely in the footsteps of the First Vatican Council, with that Council teaches and declares that Jesus Christ, the eternal Shepherd, established His holy Church, having sent forth the apostles as He Himself had been sent by

28710-775: Was also enrolled at the State University, La Sapienza where he studied modern languages and history. At the end of the first academic year however, in the summer of 1895, he dropped out of both the Capranica and the Gregorian University. According to his sister Elisabetta, the food at the Capranica was to blame. Having received a special dispensation he continued his studies from home and so spent most of his seminary years as an external student. In 1899, he completed his education in Sacred Theology with

28884-978: Was also formally the Grand Master of the Equestrian Order of the Holy Sepulchre of Jerusalem , prefect of the Supreme Sacred Congregation of the Holy Office , prefect of the Sacred Congregation for the Oriental Churches and prefect of the Sacred Consistorial Congregation . There was however a Cardinal-Secretary to run these bodies on a day-to-day basis. Pacelli took the same papal name as his predecessor,

29058-418: Was head of the Catholic Church and sovereign of the Vatican City State from 2 March 1939 until his death in October 1958. Before his election to the papacy , he served as secretary of the Department of Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs , papal nuncio to Germany , and Cardinal Secretary of State , in which capacity he worked to conclude treaties with various European and Latin American nations, including

29232-628: Was nearing death at the time —from condemning the Kristallnacht in November 1938, when he was informed of it by the papal nuncio in Berlin. The draft encyclical Humani generis unitas ("On the Unity of the Human Race") was ready in September 1938 but, according to those responsible for an edition of the document and other sources, it was not forwarded to the Holy See by the Jesuit General Wlodimir Ledóchowski . The draft encyclical contained an open and clear condemnation of colonialism , racial persecution and antisemitism . Historians Passelecq and Suchecky have argued that Pacelli learned about

29406-464: Was no protest movement or open opposition to the internationalization efforts. In his encyclical Mediator Dei , Pius XII links liturgy with the last will of Jesus Christ . But it is His will, that the worship He instituted and practised during His life on earth shall continue ever afterwards without intermission. For He has not left mankind an orphan. He still offers us the support of His powerful, unfailing intercession, acting as our "advocate with

29580-404: Was not meant to be a complete list. The list included as ex cathedra pronouncements Ineffabilis Deus , Munificentissimus Deus, and Benedictus Deus. Pope John Paul II's confirming of "the doctrine on the grave immorality of direct and voluntary killing of an innocent human being" and that euthanasia is "a grave violation of the law of God" in encyclical Evangelium Vitae was also listed in

29754-423: Was one of only two men known to have served as Camerlengo immediately prior to being elected as pope (the other being Pope Leo XIII ). According to rumours, he asked for another ballot to be taken to ensure the validity of his election. After his election was indeed confirmed, he chose the name Pius XII in honour of his immediate predecessor. His coronation took place on 12 March 1939. Upon being elected pope he

29928-407: Was resting at his favourite retreat, the Rorschach convent sanatorium. He left Berlin on 10 December 1929. David G. Dalin wrote "of the forty-four speeches Pacelli gave in Germany as papal nuncio between 1917 and 1929, forty denounced some aspect of the emerging Nazi ideology". In 1935 he wrote a letter to Karl Joseph Schulte , the archbishop of Cologne, describing the Nazis as "false prophets with

30102-433: Was the nature of concordats and the function of canon law when a concordat falls into abeyance. Promoted to the position of minutante , he prepared digests of reports that had been sent to the Secretariat from all over the world and in the same year became a papal chamberlain . In 1905 he received the title domestic prelate . From 1904 until 1916, he assisted Cardinal Pietro Gasparri in his codification of canon law with

30276-400: Was to become Pius XI's 1937 encyclical, Mit brennender Sorge . The encyclical was written in German and not the usual Latin of official Catholic Church documents. Secretly distributed by an army of motorcyclists and read from every German Catholic Church pulpit on Palm Sunday , it condemned the paganism of the Nazi ideology. Pius XI credited its creation and writing to Pacelli. It was

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