Misplaced Pages

#340659

94-550: The ecosystem stretches from the coast of the Indian Ocean to the Malacca Straits . It encompasses two vast mountain ranges including Mount Leuser that reaches 3455m, two major volcanoes, three lakes and more than nine major river systems. As well as providing habitats for a number of endangered wildlife species, the ecosystem acts as a life support for approximately four million people who live around it by providing

188-443: A few ( R. baletei and R. verrucosa ) have hermaphroditic flowers. Little is known about seed dispersal. Tree shrews and other forest mammals eat the fruits. The extremely tiny seeds have extremely tiny elaiosomes , and are thus most likely dispersed by ants. The seeds are packed into berries, each of which contains hundreds of thousands of seeds. Because Amorphophallus has the world's largest unbranched inflorescence , it

282-468: A global rise in sea level. Sea level also increases in the Indian Ocean, except in the south tropical Indian Ocean where it decreases, a pattern most likely caused by rising levels of greenhouse gases . Among the tropical oceans, the western Indian Ocean hosts one of the largest concentrations of phytoplankton blooms in summer, due to the strong monsoon winds. The monsoonal wind forcing leads to

376-418: A major threat are palm oil plantations, particularly in an area on the west coast of Aceh known as Tripa. Palm oil plantations in this area are primarily located on peat swamps up to three metres deep. Between 50 and 100 million tonnes of carbon is stored in the peat swamps, and is released into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide when the peat is burned. Palm oil plantations clear primary forest and burn

470-747: A maximum depth of 7,290 m (23,920 ft). All of the Indian Ocean is in the Eastern Hemisphere and the centre of the Eastern Hemisphere, the 90th meridian east , passes through the Ninety East Ridge . Within these waters are a number of islands. These include those controlled by surrounding countries, and independent island states and territories. Of the non-coastal islands, there are two broad clusters: one around Madagascar, and one south of India. A few other oceanic islands are scattered elsewhere. In contrast to

564-470: A period of six years, except for debris that gets indefinitely stuck in the centre of the gyre. The garbage patch in the Indian Ocean will, according to a 2012 study, decrease in size after several decades to vanish completely over centuries. Over several millennia, however, the global system of garbage patches will accumulate in the North Pacific. There are two amphidromes of opposite rotation in

658-790: A process of aridification began in the southwest Indian Ocean began around 4,000 years ago. Mammalian megafauna once widespread in the MPA was driven to near extinction in the early 20th century. Some species have been successfully recovered since then — the population of white rhinoceros ( Ceratotherium simum simum ) increased from less than 20 individuals in 1895 to more than 17,000 as of 2013. Other species still depend on fenced areas and management programs, including black rhinoceros ( Diceros bicornis minor ), African wild dog ( Lycaon pictus ), cheetah ( Acynonix jubatus ), elephant ( Loxodonta africana ), and lion ( Panthera leo ). This biodiversity hotspot (and namesake ecoregion and "Endemic Bird Area")

752-504: A significant portion of the world's tuna catch and is home to endangered marine species. It faces challenges like overfishing and pollution , including a significant garbage patch . Historically, the Indian Ocean has been a hub of cultural and commercial exchange since ancient times. It played a key role in early human migrations and the spread of civilizations. In modern times, it remains crucial for global trade, especially in oil and hydrocarbons. Environmental and geopolitical concerns in

846-501: A steady supply of water, soil fertility, flood control, climate regulation and pest mitigation. The ecosystem is home to the largest remaining populations of the Sumatran tiger , Sumatran elephant , Sumatran rhino and the Sumatran orangutan . There are at least 130 species of mammals within the ecosystem which means that one in 32 of the world's mammals are found there, or one quarter of Indonesia's mammals. Primates residing within

940-464: A strong coastal and open ocean upwelling , which introduces nutrients into the upper zones where sufficient light is available for photosynthesis and phytoplankton production. These phytoplankton blooms support the marine ecosystem, as the base of the marine food web, and eventually the larger fish species. The Indian Ocean accounts for the second-largest share of the most economically valuable tuna catch. Its fish are of great and growing importance to

1034-473: Is a patchwork of small forested areas, often with a unique assemblage of species within each, located within 200 km (120 mi) from the coast and covering a total area of c. 6,200 km (2,400 sq mi). It also encompasses coastal islands, including Zanzibar and Pemba, and Mafia. This area, one of the only two hotspots that are entirely arid, includes the Ethiopian Highlands ,

SECTION 10

#1732772260341

1128-643: Is approximately 30° north in the Persian Gulf . The Indian Ocean covers 70,560,000 km (27,240,000 sq mi), including the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf but excluding the Southern Ocean, or 19.5% of the world's oceans; its volume is 264,000,000 km (63,000,000 cu mi) or 19.8% of the world's oceans' volume; it has an average depth of 3,741 m (12,274 ft) and

1222-825: Is artificially connected to the Mediterranean Sea without ship lock through the Suez Canal , which is accessible via the Red Sea. The Arabian Sea is connected to the Persian Gulf by the Gulf of Oman and the Strait of Hormuz . In the Persian Gulf, the Gulf of Bahrain separates Qatar from the Arabic Peninsula. Along the west coast of India, the Gulf of Kutch and Gulf of Khambat are located in Gujarat in

1316-515: Is called krubut or kerubut , 'great flower'. The words padma , pakma or patma originate etymologically from the word पद्म ( padma ), Sanskrit for ' lotus '. In English Rafflesia is known as the stinking corpse lily. It is also known as "corpse flower", or bunga bankai in Indonesian, a name that more commonly refers to the titan arum ( Amorphophallus titanum ) of the family Araceae . The type species arnoldii has been called

1410-581: Is from Arnold's account of discovering the flower: Here I rejoice to tell you I happened to meet with what I consider as the greatest prodigy of the vegetable world. I had ventured some way from the party, when one of the Malay servants came running to me ... To tell you the truth, had I been alone, and had there been no witnesses, I should, I think, have been fearful of mentioning the dimensions of this flower, so much does it exceed every flower I have seen or heard of. Vivid contemporary accounts documenting some of

1504-469: Is projected to push the tropical Indian Ocean into a basin-wide near-permanent heatwave state by the end of the 21st century, where marine heatwaves are projected to increase from 20 days per year (during 1970–2000) to 220–250 days per year. South of the Equator (20–5°S), the Indian Ocean is gaining heat from June to October, during the austral winter, while it is losing heat from November to March, during

1598-404: Is sometimes mistakenly credited as having the world's largest flower. Both Rafflesia and Amorphophallus are flowering plants, but they are unrelated to each other. Rafflesia arnoldii has the largest single flower of any flowering plant, at least in terms of weight. Amorphophallus titanum has the largest unbranched inflorescence, while the talipot palm ( Corypha umbraculifera ) forms

1692-497: Is the third-largest of the world's five oceanic divisions, covering 70,560,000 km (27,240,000 sq mi) or approximately 20% of the water area of Earth's surface . It is bounded by Asia to the north, Africa to the west and Australia to the east. To the south it is bounded by the Southern Ocean , or Antarctica , depending on the definition in use. The Indian Ocean has large marginal, or regional seas, such as

1786-748: The Andaman Sea , the Arabian Sea , the Bay of Bengal , and the Laccadive Sea . Once called the Eastern Ocean, it is now named after India , which protrudes into it, and has been known by its current name since at least 1515. It is the only ocean named after a country. It has an average depth of 3,741 m. All of the Indian Ocean is in the Eastern Hemisphere . Unlike the Atlantic and Pacific,

1880-518: The Annals of Philosophy in September 1820 (the name was technically an unpublished nomen nudum until this publication). Mabberley claimed the author was Samuel Frederick Gray . However, as that is nowhere stated in the Annals , per Article 46.8 of the code of ICBN, Mabberley was wrong to formally ascribe the validation to Gray. The validation of the name was thus attributed to one Thomas Thomson,

1974-748: The Arabian Peninsula in the Northern Hemisphere and north of the trade winds in the Southern Hemisphere. The Indonesian Throughflow is a unique Equatorial connection to the Pacific. The climate north of the equator is affected by a monsoon climate. Strong north-east winds blow from October until April; from May until October south and west winds prevail. In the Arabian Sea, the violent Monsoon brings rain to

SECTION 20

#1732772260341

2068-577: The East African Rift valley , the Socotra islands, as well as some small islands in the Red Sea and areas on the southern Arabic Peninsula. Endemic and threatened mammals include the dibatag ( Ammodorcas clarkei ) and Speke's gazelle ( Gazella spekei ); the Somali wild ass ( Equus africanus somaliensis ) and hamadryas baboon ( Papio hamadryas ). It also contains many reptiles. In Somalia,

2162-629: The Malacca , Sunda and Torres Straits . The Gulf of Carpentaria is located on the Australian north coast while the Great Australian Bight constitutes a large part of its southern coast. Several features make the Indian Ocean unique. It constitutes the core of the large-scale Tropical Warm Pool which, when interacting with the atmosphere, affects the climate both regionally and globally. Asia blocks heat export and prevents

2256-612: The Malay Peninsula . In Peninsular Malaysia, the flower can be found in few states, such as Kelantan , Pahang , Perak and Terengganu . In Perak, three species of the flower can be found in Royal Belum state park and Gerik forest reserve of which are Rafflesia kerrii , Rafflesia cantleyi and Rafflesia azlanii . Rafflesia azlanii was named after the Sultan of Perak , Sultan Azlan Shah . Meanwhile, two species of

2350-818: The Mascarene Basin the CDW becomes a deep western boundary current before it is met by a re-circulated branch of itself, the North Indian Deep Water. This mixed water partly flows north into the Somali Basin whilst most of it flows clockwise in the Mascarene Basin where an oscillating flow is produced by Rossby waves . Water circulation in the Indian Ocean is dominated by the Subtropical Anticyclonic Gyre,

2444-695: The Sea of Zanj is located north of Madagascar. On the northern coast of the Arabian Sea , Gulf of Aden is connected to the Red Sea by the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb . In the Gulf of Aden, the Gulf of Tadjoura is located in Djibouti and the Guardafui Channel separates Socotra island from the Horn of Africa. The northern end of the Red Sea terminates in the Gulf of Aqaba and Gulf of Suez . The Indian Ocean

2538-477: The haustorium , inside the tissue of the vine. The only part of the plant that can be seen outside the host vine is the five-petalled flower . In some species, such as Rafflesia arnoldii , the flower may be over 100 centimetres (40 in) in diameter, and weigh up to 10 kilograms (22 lb). A Rafflesia that flowered in West Sumatra in 2019 was measured to be almost 4 feet (120 cm) in diameter,

2632-1257: The mouse deer . Among the largest reptiles found in Leuser are the turtles and tortoises . The most venomous are the snakes which include the king cobra and pythons that can reach up to ten meters in length. Monitor lizards , skinks , geckos and a variety of frogs are also common. At least 325 species of birds have been recorded in the ecosystem with at least eight species endemic to Sumatra. This rich diversity of bird species includes: bee-eaters , flycatchers , flowerpeckers, honeyguides , kingfishers , spiderhunters, woodpeckers , barbets , babblers , broadbills, bulbul , drongos , hornbills , magpies , minvets, myna , orioles , robins , shamas , shrikes , swallows , swifts , thrushes , treepies, trogons , warblers , weavers , whistlers , white-eyes , leafbirds, sunbirds , tailorbirds, fantail , forktails, needletails, wagtails , doves , pigeons , quails , partridges , pheasants , cuckoos , parakeets , parrots , bitterns , herons , finfoots, ducks , snipes , sandpipers , waders , falcons , hawks , nightjars , owls , serpent eagles , hawk eagles, fish eagles, sea eagles, and many more. The Leuser Ecosystem comprises one of

2726-582: The runoff water to the Indian Ocean. Mainly in summer, this runoff flows into the Arabian Sea but also south across the Equator where it mixes with fresher seawater from the Indonesian Throughflow . This mixed freshwater joins the South Equatorial Current in the southern tropical Indian Ocean. Sea surface salinity is highest (more than 36  PSU ) in the Arabian Sea because evaporation exceeds precipitation there. In

2820-423: The "Hinge zone may represent the relict of continental and proto-oceanic crustal boundary formed during the rifting of India from Antarctica ." Australia, Indonesia, and India are the three countries with the longest shorelines and exclusive economic zones . The continental shelf makes up 15% of the Indian Ocean. More than two billion people live in countries bordering the Indian Ocean, compared to 1.7 billion for

2914-588: The "monster flower". Robert Brown introduced the genus Rafflesia to the wider scientific world in a presentation before the Linnean Society of London in June 1820, but his scientific paper on the subject was only published in late 1821. In 1999 the British botanical historian David Mabberley pointed out that the genus Rafflesia was first validated by an anonymous report on the meeting published in

Leuser Ecosystem - Misplaced Pages Continue

3008-768: The 15th century called it the Western Oceans. In Ancient Greek geography , the Indian Ocean region known to the Greeks was called the Erythraean Sea . The borders of the Indian Ocean , as delineated by the International Hydrographic Organization in 1953 included the Southern Ocean but not the marginal seas along the northern rim but in 2002 the IHO delimited the Southern Ocean separately, which removed waters south of 60°s from

3102-727: The Arabian Peninsula) and Limpopo rivers. After the breakup of East Gondwana and the formation of the Himalayas, the Ganges-Brahmaputra rivers flow into the world's largest delta known as the Bengal delta or Sunderbans . Marginal seas , gulfs, bays and straits of the Indian Ocean include: Along the east coast of Africa, the Mozambique Channel separates Madagascar from mainland Africa, while

3196-541: The Atlantic and 2.7 billion for the Pacific (some countries border more than one ocean). The Indian Ocean drainage basin covers 21,100,000 km (8,100,000 sq mi), virtually identical to that of the Pacific Ocean and half that of the Atlantic basin, or 30% of its ocean surface (compared to 15% for the Pacific). The Indian Ocean drainage basin is divided into roughly 800 individual basins, half that of

3290-549: The Atlantic and Pacific, the Indian Ocean is enclosed by major landmasses and an archipelago on three sides and does not stretch from pole to pole, and can be likened to an embayed ocean. It is centered on the Indian Peninsula. Although this subcontinent has played a significant role in its history, the Indian Ocean has foremostly been a cosmopolitan stage, interlinking diverse regions by innovations, trade, and religion since early in human history. The active margins of

3384-615: The British in 1803, were not available to western science until 1861. The first British person to see one was Joseph Arnold in 1818, in the Indonesia rainforest in Bengkulu , Sumatra , after a Malay servant working for him discovered a flower and pointed it out to him. The flower, and the genus, was later named after Stamford Raffles , the leader of the expedition and the founder of the British colony of Singapore . The following

3478-581: The Comoros. Although both species represent an order of lobe-finned fishes known from the Early Devonian (410 mya ) and though extinct 66 mya, they are morphologically distinct from their Devonian ancestors. Over millions of years, coelacanths evolved to inhabit different environments — lungs adapted for shallow, brackish waters evolved into gills adapted for deep marine waters. Of Earth's 36 biodiversity hotspots nine (or 25%) are located on

3572-483: The East India Coastal Current to the Arabian Sea from January to April. An Indian Ocean garbage patch was discovered in 2010 covering at least 5 million square kilometres (1.9 million square miles). Riding the southern Indian Ocean Gyre , this vortex of plastic garbage constantly circulates the ocean from Australia to Africa, down the Mozambique Channel , and back to Australia in

3666-643: The Home Ministry. Act No.26/2007 on Spatial Planning has designated important conservation and areas of high biodiversity as National Strategic Areas. One such area is the Gunung Leuser National Park and the broader Leuser Ecosystem. The area provides water to nearly 4 million people living in Aceh and it is of global importance to the conservation of biodiversity, as well as an important status symbol of Aceh. Conservationist applauds

3760-532: The Indian Ocean but included the northern marginal seas. Meridionally , the Indian Ocean is delimited from the Atlantic Ocean by the 20° east meridian , running south from Cape Agulhas , South Africa, and from the Pacific Ocean by the meridian of 146°49'E, running south from South East Cape on the island of Tasmania in Australia. The northernmost extent of the Indian Ocean (including marginal seas)

3854-405: The Indian Ocean have an average width (horizontal distance from land to shelf break ) of 19 ± 0.61 km (11.81 ± 0.38 mi) with a maximum width of 175 km (109 mi). The passive margins have an average width of 47.6 ± 0.8 km (29.58 ± 0.50 mi). The average width of the slopes (horizontal distance from shelf break to foot of slope) of

Leuser Ecosystem - Misplaced Pages Continue

3948-509: The Indian Ocean includes beaches and intertidal zones covering 3,000 km (1,200 sq mi) and 246 larger estuaries . Upwelling areas are small but important. The hypersaline salterns in India covers between 5,000–10,000 km (1,900–3,900 sq mi) and species adapted for this environment, such as Artemia salina and Dunaliella salina , are important to bird life. Coral reefs, sea grass beds, and mangrove forests are

4042-445: The Indian Ocean is bordered by landmasses and an archipelago on three sides, making it more like an embayed ocean centered on the Indian Peninsula. Its coasts and shelves differ from other oceans, with distinct features, such as a narrower continental shelf . In terms of geology, the Indian Ocean is the youngest of the major oceans, with active spreading ridges and features like seamounts and ridges formed by hotspots . The climate of

4136-503: The Indian Ocean is characterized by monsoons . It is the warmest ocean, with a significant impact on global climate due to its interaction with the atmosphere. Its waters are affected by the Indian Ocean Walker circulation , resulting in unique oceanic currents and upwelling patterns. The Indian Ocean is ecologically diverse, with important marine life and ecosystems like coral reefs, mangroves, and sea grass beds. It hosts

4230-424: The Indian Ocean region, or almost half of the world's mangrove habitat, of which 42,500 km (16,400 sq mi) is located in Indonesia, or 50% of mangroves in the Indian Ocean. Mangroves originated in the Indian Ocean region and have adapted to a wide range of its habitats but it is also where it suffers its biggest loss of habitat. In 2016, six new animal species were identified at hydrothermal vents in

4324-730: The Indian Ocean, during the past six decades. The tuna catch rates have also declined 50–90% during the past half-century, mostly due to increased industrial fisheries, with the ocean warming adding further stress to the fish species. Endangered and vulnerable marine mammals and turtles: 80% of the Indian Ocean is open ocean and includes nine large marine ecosystems : the Agulhas Current , Somali Coastal Current , Red Sea , Arabian Sea , Bay of Bengal , Gulf of Thailand , West Central Australian Shelf , Northwest Australian Shelf and Southwest Australian Shelf . Coral reefs cover c. 200,000 km (77,000 sq mi). The coasts of

4418-432: The Indian Ocean, probably caused by Rossby wave propagation. Icebergs drift as far north as 55° south latitude , similar to the Pacific but less than in the Atlantic where icebergs reach up to 45°S. The volume of iceberg loss in the Indian Ocean between 2004 and 2012 was 24  Gt . Since the 1960s, anthropogenic warming of the global ocean combined with contributions of freshwater from retreating land ice causes

4512-466: The Indian Ocean. While the Indian Ocean warmed at a rate of 1.2°C per century during 1950–2020, climate models predict accelerated warming, at a rate of 1.7 °C–3.8 °C per century during 2020–2100. Though the warming is basin-wide, maximum warming is in the northwestern Indian Ocean including the Arabian Sea, and reduced warming off the Sumatra and Java coasts in the southeast Indian Ocean. Global warming

4606-454: The Indian subcontinent. In the southern hemisphere, the winds are generally milder, but summer storms near Mauritius can be severe. When the monsoon winds change, cyclones sometimes strike the shores of the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal . Some 80% of the total annual rainfall in India occurs during summer and the region is so dependent on this rainfall that many civilisations perished when

4700-573: The KEL’s status as a national strategic area in its land use plan issued through Qanun (Islamic bylaw) No. 19/2013. One of the biggest threats to the Leuser Ecosystem is the building of road networks through the forest. The expansion of roads and settlements into this area lead to increased deforestation and allows illegal logging and poaching to be undertaken with greater ease. A proposed road network known as "Ladia Galaska" that would connect

4794-460: The Leuser Ecosystem. Irwandi Yusuf , the current Governor of Aceh, established Badan Pengelola Kawasan Ekosistem Leuser (BPKEL) to govern the Leuser Ecosystem and coordinate wildlife management in Aceh. The local Aceh government has introduced a land development plan that would open up an estimated 1.2 million hectares of the forest reserve’s 2.6 million hectares to mining, logging, and agriculture. A group of Aceh citizens has decided to sue

SECTION 50

#1732772260341

4888-536: The Monsoon failed in the past. The huge variability in the Indian Summer Monsoon has also occurred pre-historically, with a strong, wet phase 33,500–32,500 BP; a weak, dry phase 26,000–23,500 BC; and a very weak phase 17,000–15,000 BP, corresponding to a series of dramatic global events: Bølling–Allerød warming , Heinrich , and Younger Dryas . The Indian Ocean is the warmest ocean in

4982-668: The Pacific, of which 50% are located in Asia, 30% in Africa, and 20% in Australasia. The rivers of the Indian Ocean are shorter on average (740 km (460 mi)) than those of the other major oceans. The largest rivers are ( order 5 ) the Zambezi , Ganges - Brahmaputra , Indus , Jubba , and Murray rivers and (order 4) the Shatt al-Arab , Wadi Ad Dawasir (a dried-out river system on

5076-441: The Southeast Arabian Sea salinity drops to less than 34 PSU. It is the lowest (c. 33 PSU) in the Bay of Bengal because of river runoff and precipitation. The Indonesian Throughflow and precipitation results in lower salinity (34 PSU) along the Sumatran west coast. Monsoonal variation results in eastward transportation of saltier water from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal from June to September and in westerly transport by

5170-411: The Southwest Indian Ridge, from where it continues into the Mozambique Channel and Prince Edward Fracture Zone . North of 20° south latitude the minimum surface temperature is 22 °C (72 °F), exceeding 28 °C (82 °F) to the east. Southward of 40° south latitude , temperatures drop quickly. The Bay of Bengal contributes more than half (2,950 km or 710 cu mi) of

5264-399: The Southwest Indian Ridge: a "Hoff" crab, a "giant peltospirid" snail, a whelk-like snail, a limpet, a scaleworm and a polychaete worm. The West Indian Ocean coelacanth was discovered in the Indian Ocean off South Africa in the 1930s and in the late 1990s another species, the Indonesian coelacanth , was discovered off Sulawesi Island , Indonesia. Most extant coelacanths have been found in

5358-404: The Tripa peat swamp forest, endangering many rare species. These actions have spurred an international movement to save Tripa. Conservation groups have aligned together in an international campaign that has resulted in historic cancellation of palm oil plantation permits. This sets a legal precedent for saving critically endangered orangutan habitat. Indian Ocean The Indian Ocean

5452-422: The World Online accepted the following species: Research published in 2014 revealed that one Philippine Rafflesia species from the island of Luzon , R. lagascae (a synonym of R. manillana ), may have lost the genome of its chloroplast and it is speculated that the loss happened due to the parasitic lifestyle of the plant. Rafflesia can be found along the area of Peninsular Malaysia and Thailand in

5546-442: The austral summer. In 1999, the Indian Ocean Experiment showed that fossil fuel and biomass burning in South and Southeast Asia caused air pollution (also known as the Asian brown cloud ) that reach as far as the Intertropical Convergence Zone . This pollution has implications on both a local and global scale. Forty percent of the sediment of the Indian Ocean is found in the Indus and Ganges fans. The oceanic basins adjacent to

5640-400: The bordering countries for domestic consumption and export. Fishing fleets from Russia, Japan, South Korea , and Taiwan also exploit the Indian Ocean, mainly for shrimp and tuna. Research indicates that increasing ocean temperatures are taking a toll on the marine ecosystem. A study on the phytoplankton changes in the Indian Ocean indicates a decline of up to 20% in the marine plankton in

5734-427: The cells of Rafflesia ; these appear to have exchanged genes with the mitochondria of the host tissue. In Indonesian and Malaysian , it is known as padma . The species R. arnoldii is known as padma raksasa ("giant padma "). In Javanese it is called patma . In Malay , the 'normal' R. hasseltii is vernacularly known as pakma , patma or ambai-ambai , whereas the goliath R. arnoldii from Sumatra

SECTION 60

#1732772260341

5828-534: The centre of the 1,500,000 km (580,000 sq mi) hotspot, the landscape is dominated by Acacia - Commiphora deciduous bushland, but also includes the Yeheb nut ( Cordeauxia edulus ) and species discovered more recently such as the Somali cyclamen ( Cyclamen somalense ), the only cyclamen outside the Mediterranean. Warsangli linnet ( Carduelis johannis ) is an endemic bird found only in northern Somalia. An unstable political situation and mismanagement has resulted in overgrazing which has produced one of

5922-463: The clear monophyly of the four geographical clades does not correspond to any clear difference in appearance. There is no consistency within the clades in the size of flowers, or the presence or absence of white warts; species in different clades resemble one another more than they do some other species within the same clade. Homoplasy – repeatedly gaining or losing traits – seems to be the rule within Rafflesia . As of October 2020 , Plants of

6016-400: The continental shelves are 50.4–52.4 km (31.3–32.6 mi) for active and passive margins respectively, with a maximum width of 205.3–255.2 km (127.6–158.6 mi). In correspondence of the Shelf break , also known as Hinge zone, the Bouguer gravity ranges from 0 to 30 mGals that is unusual for a continental region of around 16 km thick sediments. It has been hypothesized that

6110-477: The continental slopes mostly contain terrigenous sediments. The ocean south of the polar front (roughly 50° south latitude ) is high in biologic productivity and dominated by non-stratified sediment composed mostly of siliceous oozes . Near the three major mid-ocean ridges the ocean floor is relatively young and therefore bare of sediment, except for the Southwest Indian Ridge due to its ultra-slow spreading rate. The ocean's currents are mainly controlled by

6204-415: The east and west coasts of Aceh and cut through the Leuser Ecosystem in at least nine places would have a devastating effect on the area's animals, many species of which do not cross roads. The plans for the proposed road comprise 450 km (280 mi) of main road plus more than 1,200 km (750 mi) of minor roads, the majority of which would lie within the boundaries of the Leuser Ecosystem. Also

6298-537: The eastern extension of which is blocked by the Southeast Indian Ridge and the 90°E Ridge. Madagascar and the Southwest Indian Ridge separate three cells south of Madagascar and off South Africa. North Atlantic Deep Water reaches into the Indian Ocean south of Africa at a depth of 2,000–3,000 m (6,600–9,800 ft) and flows north along the eastern continental slope of Africa. Deeper than NADW, Antarctic Bottom Water flows from Enderby Basin to Agulhas Basin across deep channels (<4,000 m (13,000 ft)) in

6392-415: The ecosystem include the white-handed gibbon , the siamang , macaques , the loris and the lutung . Leuser is home to as many as seven species of cats including the clouded leopard , the Asian golden cat , and the spotted linsang . The sun bear is quite common within the boundaries of the ecosystem. The most common herbivores found in Leuser are the deer which include the sambar , the muntjac and

6486-504: The editor of the Annals in 1820, by the IPNI. Mabberley admitted his error in 2017. This Thomson was not the botanist Thomas Thomson , who was three years old in 1820, but his identically named father , a chemist. Comparison of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequences of Rafflesia with other angiosperm mtDNA indicated this parasite evolved from photosynthetic plants of the order Malpighiales . Another 2004 study confirmed this result using both mtDNA and nuclear DNA sequences, and showed

6580-491: The family except at the origin of Rafflesiaceae , where the flowers rapidly evolved to become much larger before reverting to the slower rate of change. To maintain monophyletic families, in 2016 the APG IV system separated the family Peraceae from the Euphorbiaceae. A summary cladogram is shown below, with family placements in the APG IV system . Peraceae (3 genera in the study) Sapria Rhizanthes Rafflesia Euphorbiaceae sensu stricto (18 genera in

6674-470: The flower hosted by Tetrastigma Planch can be found in three location in Kelantan. The Rafflesia cantleyi species can be found in Ulut Sat and Chabang Tongkat while Rafflesia kerrii can be found in Lojing. Furthermore, two locations in Pahang where this flower can be found are Lembah Benum forest reserve and Lata Jarum. For Terengganu, the flower of Rafflesia Cantleyi species can be found in Kuala Berang. A flower has been found in this area hanging on

6768-550: The ground or directly from the lower stems of their host plants ; one species has the largest flower in the world. Plants of the World Online lists up to 41 species from this genus; all of them are found throughout Southeast Asia . Western Europeans first learned about plants of this genus from French surgeon and naturalist Louis Deschamps when he was in Java between 1791 and 1794; but his notes and illustrations, seized by

6862-593: The islands of the Indian Ocean are textbook cases of evolutionary processes; the dung beetles , day geckos , and lemurs are all examples of adaptive radiation . Many bones (250 bones per square metre) of recently extinct vertebrates have been found in the Mare aux Songes swamp in Mauritius, including bones of the Dodo bird ( Raphus cucullatus ) and Cylindraspis giant tortoise. An analysis of these remains suggests

6956-401: The largest branched inflorescence, containing thousands of flowers; the talipot is monocarpic , meaning the individual plants die after flowering. Rafflesia are also remarkable for showing a large horizontal transfer of genes from their host plants. This is well known among bacteria, but not higher organisms. It occurs in the mitochondria (originally derived from bacteria) found within

7050-411: The largest flower ever recorded – 4 inches (10 cm) wider than the flower reported as the largest in 2017. Even one of the smallest species, R. baletei , has 12 cm (5 in) diameter flowers. A team of morphologists and geneticists headed by Prof. Charles Davis of Harvard has discovered an important difference between Rafflesia spp. and the very similar Sapria spp. In both genera

7144-481: The margins of the Indian Ocean. The origin of this diversity is debated; the break-up of Gondwana can explain vicariance older than 100 mya, but the diversity on the younger, smaller islands must have required a Cenozoic dispersal from the rims of the Indian Ocean to the islands. A "reverse colonisation", from islands to continents, apparently occurred more recently; the chameleons , for example, first diversified on Madagascar and then colonised Africa. Several species on

7238-634: The mid-18th century, as opposed to the Western Ocean ( Atlantic ) before the Pacific was surmised. In modern times, the name Afro-Asian Ocean has occasionally been used. The Hindi name for the Ocean is हिंद महासागर ( Hind Mahāsāgar ; lit. transl.  Ocean of India ). Conversely, Chinese explorers (e.g., Zheng He during the Ming dynasty ) who traveled to the Indian Ocean during

7332-400: The monsoon. Two large gyres , one in the northern hemisphere flowing clockwise and one south of the equator moving anticlockwise (including the Agulhas Current and Agulhas Return Current ), constitute the dominant flow pattern. During the winter monsoon (November–February), however, circulation is reversed north of 30°S and winds are weakened during winter and the transitional periods between

7426-696: The monsoons. The Indian Ocean contains the largest submarine fans of the world, the Bengal Fan and Indus Fan , and the largest areas of slope terraces and rift valleys . The inflow of deep water into the Indian Ocean is 11  Sv , most of which comes from the Circumpolar Deep Water (CDW). The CDW enters the Indian Ocean through the Crozet and Madagascar basins and crosses the Southwest Indian Ridge at 30°S. In

7520-399: The most degraded hotspots where only c. 5 % of the original habitat remains. Rafflesia See Classification section Rafflesia ( / r ə ˈ f l iː z ( i ) ə , - ˈ f l iː ʒ ( i ) ə , r æ -/ ), or stinking corpse lily , is a genus of parasitic flowering plants in the family Rafflesiaceae . The species have enormous flowers, the buds rising from

7614-470: The most important and impressive trees are the several species of strangling fig. The largest flower on earth; the parasitic Rafflesia is a relatively common in the ecosystem. As a result of the peace agreement between the Free Aceh Movement (GAM) and the central government of Indonesia, Aceh was awarded a significant level of autonomy over its natural resources, including the right to govern

7708-586: The most inaccessible species of Rafflesia are described in the popular science book, Pathless Forest : The Quest to Save the World's Largest Flowers , by botanist Chris Thorogood based at the University of Oxford Botanic Garden . The plant has no stems, leaves or roots. It is a holoparasite of vines in the genus Tetrastigma (a plant in the Vitaceae , the grape vine family), spreading its absorptive organ,

7802-543: The most productive ecosystems of the Indian Ocean ;— coastal areas produce 20 tones of fish per square kilometre. These areas, however, are also being urbanised with populations often exceeding several thousand people per square kilometre and fishing techniques become more effective and often destructive beyond sustainable levels while the increase in sea surface temperature spreads coral bleaching. Mangroves covers 80,984 km (31,268 sq mi) in

7896-689: The national governments tough stance on criminal activities in the National Strategic Areas such as Leuser; Act No.26/2007 allow criminal charges to be brought against not only those who carry out illegal activities in the area, but also to those who give permission allowing criminal activities to take place. This is an important milestone, and stand to deter corrupt officials from ‘selling’ permits to conduct activities could damage this sensitive ecosystem. National Spatial Planning Law ruled maximum sentence of 5 years imprisonment and Rp 500 million fine. The Aceh administration did not mention

7990-638: The northern end while the Laccadive Sea separates the Maldives from the southern tip of India. The Bay of Bengal is off the east coast of India. The Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Strait separate Sri Lanka from India, while Adam's Bridge separates the two. The Andaman Sea is located between the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Islands. In Indonesia, the so-called Indonesian Seaway is composed of

8084-550: The peat swamps in order to construct large canals to facilitate the planting of palm oil. The land degradation caused by palm oil plantations in Tripa compromises the welfare of local communities and destroys the habitats of a number of charismatic animal species, including the highest density of orangutans found anywhere in the world. Despite a two-year moratorium on forest clearance, Governor Irwardi Yusuf issued an official permit to oil palm corporation PT Kallista Alam to cut-and-burn

8178-583: The petals are now described as sepals (or more correctly as "petaloid tepals") instead of vaguely defined "perigon lobes". In Sapria , the "diaphragm" is a true corona while in Rafflesia the diaphragm is made up of adnate petals to form a dome, the true corona being greatly reduced. The flowers look and smell like rotting flesh. The foul odour attracts insects such as carrion flies , which transport pollen from male to female flowers. Most species are dioecious , having separate male and female flowers, but

8272-530: The region include the effects of climate change , piracy, and strategic disputes over island territories. The Indian Ocean has been known by its present name since at least 1515, when the Latin form Oceanus Orientalis Indicus ( lit.   ' Indian Eastern Ocean ' ) is attested, named after India, which projects into it. It was earlier known as the Eastern Ocean , a term that was still in use during

8366-653: The remaining examples of Indo-Malayan (Malesian) vegetation communities, with an estimated 45% of the approximately 10,000 recorded plant species. In general the ecosystem can be characterised as a montane rainforest community. However, the typical vegetation type up to an altitude of 600 metres is moist tropical lowland forest characterised by multi-layered stories with emergent trees reaching between 45 and 60 metres in height and high densities of fruit tree species. The large variety of tree species found in Leuser represent virtually all life-strategies of trees, from root flowering and trunk flowering to common twig flowering types. Among

8460-683: The root of its host three metres above the ground, unlike the common flowers found on the ground roots. The locations of these flowers are turned into tourist attractions for biodiversity lovers and hikers and helps to generate income for the local people. In Thailand Rafflesia can be observed in Khao Sok National Park where the flowers are numbered and monitored by the park rangers. Species native to Borneo include Rafflesia arnoldii , R. cantleyi , R. hasseltii , R. keithii , R. kerrii , R. pricei , R. tengku-adlinii and R. tuan-mudae . R. arnoldii boasts

8554-618: The study) A 2010 molecular phylogenetic study of 18 species of Rafflesia found that they fell into four clear-cut geographically defined groups: Rafflesia speciosa Rafflesia manillana Rafflesia lobata Rafflesia sp. Rafflesia kerrii Rafflesia cantleyi Rafflesia azlanii Rafflesia tuan-mudae Rafflesia tengku-adlinii Rafflesia keithii Rafflesia pricei Rafflesia patma Rafflesia rochussenii Rafflesia zollingeriana Rafflesia gadutensis Rafflesia hasseltii Rafflesia micropylora Rafflesia arnoldii However,

8648-477: The three other groups traditionally classified in Rafflesiaceae were unrelated. A 2007 study more specifically found Rafflesia and its relatives to be embedded within the family Euphorbiaceae as traditionally circumscribed , which was surprising, as members of that family typically have very small flowers. According to their analysis, the rate of flower size evolution was more or less constant throughout

8742-528: The ventilation of the Indian Ocean thermocline . That continent also drives the Indian Ocean monsoon , the strongest on Earth, which causes large-scale seasonal variations in ocean currents, including the reversal of the Somali Current and Indian Monsoon Current . Because of the Indian Ocean Walker circulation there are no continuous equatorial easterlies. Upwelling occurs near the Horn of Africa and

8836-487: The world. Long-term ocean temperature records show a rapid, continuous warming in the Indian Ocean, at about 1.2 °C (34.2 °F) (compared to 0.7 °C (33.3 °F) for the warm pool region) during 1901–2012. Research indicates that human induced greenhouse warming , and changes in the frequency and magnitude of El Niño (or the Indian Ocean Dipole ), events are a trigger to this strong warming in

#340659