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103-503: Lemkos are often considered to be either a sub-group of Rusyns or Ukrainians or to form their own ethnicity . Members of these groups have historically also been given other designations such as Verkhovyntsi (Highlanders). Among people of the Carpathian highlands, communities speaking the same dialect will identify with a different ethnic label when crossing borders due to the influence of state-sponsored education and media. As well

206-573: A Lemko festival is held annually in Zdynia . An important aspect of Lemko culture is their deep commitment to Byzantine Christianity which was introduced to the Eastern Slavs from Byzantium via Moravia through the efforts of Saints Cyril and Methodius in the 9th century. Originally the Lemkos adhered to Orthodoxy, but in order to avoid latinization, directly entered into Union of Brest with

309-412: A hand in popular adoption of the term leading up to World War II. Concerned by the potential for Ukrainian nationalism in the region, authorities sought to encourage Rusyn identity as a counter. This led to promotion of the exaggerated historicity of Lemkos as a distinctive ethnographic group and of their corresponding ethnonym. In the aftermath of WWII, Lemko finally supplanted Rusyn and Rusnak as

412-773: A 2:1:1 ratio. Casimir III the Great Casimir III the Great ( Polish : Kazimierz III Wielki ; 30 April 1310 – 5 November 1370) reigned as the King of Poland from 1333 to 1370. He also later became King of Ruthenia in 1340, and fought to retain the title in the Galicia-Volhynia Wars . He was the last Polish king from the Piast dynasty . Casimir inherited a kingdom weakened by war and under his rule it became relatively prosperous and wealthy. He reformed

515-600: A European population, while Lemkos are closest to the Czech and Romanian (0.17) population, and Hutsuls closest to the Croatian (0.11) and Ukrainian (0.16) population. The 2014 Y-DNA studies of 200 Pannonian Rusyns in the region of Vojvodina , Serbia, found they mostly belong to haplogroup R1a (43%), I2 (20%), E-V13 (12.5%), and R1b (8.5%), while I1 , G2a , J2b , N1 between 2.5 and 4.5%, and J1 , T , and H only in traces of less than 1%. They cluster closest to

618-770: A Soviet Red Army offensive, the Nazis who were passing through blew up all the bridges in Uzhhorod, including one built in the 14th century. On 26 November 1944 in Mukachevo representatives from all cities and villages of the land adopted the manifesto uniting Zakarpattia Ukraine with Soviet Ukraine. The Soviets occupied the Carpathians, and in 1945 the Rusyn ethnic homeland was split among three countries, as western portions were incorporated into Czechoslovakia and Poland, while

721-693: A Ukrainophilic orientation. During the time of the Second Polish Republic , the identity conflict between the Lemkos intensified. In 1926, following a conflict with their local Greek Catholic priest, the Lemko people of the village Tylawa underwent a massive conversion to Orthodoxy. This event, known as the Tylawa schism begun a wave of mass conversions in the region, during which many villages completely converted to Orthodoxy, while some remained either loyal to Eastern Catholicism or divided between

824-555: A branch of the Ukrainian people . Rusyns are descended from an East Slavic population which inhabited the northeastern regions of the Eastern Carpathians. In those regions, there are several Rusyn groups, including Dolinyans, Boykos , Hutsuls and Lemkos . Of the estimated 1.7 million people of Rusyn origin, only around 110,000 have been officially identified as such in recent ( c. 2012) national censuses. This

927-504: A common ancestry with other modern Europeans. A 2009 mitochondrial DNA study of 111 samples found that in comparison to eight other Central and Eastern European populations (Belarusian, Croatian, Czech, Hungarian, Polish, Romanian, Russian, Ukrainian), the three Rusyn groups have a greater distance between themselves than these populations, with Boykos showing the greatest distance from all and did not cluster with anyone because have atypically low frequencies of haplogroup H (20%) and J (5%) for

1030-510: A commonly-known ditty that translates as follows: inherited wooden towns and left them fortified with stone and brick (Kazimierz Wielki zastał Polskę drewnianą, a zostawił murowaną). He organized a meeting of kings in Kraków in 1364 at which he exhibited the wealth of the Polish kingdom. Casimir is the only king in Polish history to both receive and retain the title of "Great", as Bolesław I

1133-670: A distinct national minority , and their legal status was regulated in Yugoslav federal units of Serbia and Croatia . In the Constitution of Serbia, that was adopted in 1963, Rusyns were designated as one of seven (explicitly named) national minorities (Article 82), and the same provision was implemented in the Statute of the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina that was adopted in the same year (Article 32). Further on,

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1236-516: A favourable Hungarian attitude, needed in disputes with the hostile Teutonic Order and the Kingdom of Bohemia . At the time Casimir was 45 years old, and so producing a son did not seem unreasonable. Casimir left no legal son, however, begetting five daughters instead. He tried to adopt his grandson, Casimir IV, Duke of Pomerania , in his last will. The child had been born to his eldest daughter, Elisabeth, Duchess of Pomerania , in 1351. This part of

1339-678: A healthy pro-Rusyn movement exists in the Carpathians. Some Ukrainian nationalists have argued that the modern 'Rusyn movement' is in service of the expansionist aims of modern Russia . According to Mrs Jozsefne Csepanyi-Bardos, the president of the Ruthenian Ethnic Minority Council in Budapest Capital. The flag of the Ruthenians of the World and the Ruthenian Ethnic Minority Council is a tricolour in

1442-602: A land tax paid by the lower social class. On 9 October 1334, Casimir confirmed the privileges granted to Jews in 1264 by Bolesław V the Chaste . Under penalty of death , he prohibited the kidnapping of Jewish children for the purpose of enforced Christian baptism , and he inflicted heavy punishment for the desecration of Jewish cemeteries. While Jews had lived in Poland since before his reign, Casimir allowed them to settle in Poland in great numbers and protected them as people of

1545-619: A moat, workers and artisans, and the founding of an Orthodox monastery on the Latorytsia River. The Austro-Hungarian monarchy controlled the Carpathians from 1772 to 1918. With the increased Magyarization in the nineteenth century, for some educated and intellectual Rusyns it was natural to move to Budapest , while for other Slavic minded intellectuals the Russian Empire became a favored destination. The Rusyns have always been subject to larger neighboring powers, but in

1648-454: A non-Polish identity. I.D. Liubchyk (І.Д.Любчик) cites the number of 350 thousand Lemkos in Ukraine. During the population census in Ukraine in 2001, the majority of Lemkos called themselves Ukrainians. The ethnonym Lemko derives from the word lem ( Rusyn : лем , lit.   'only'). The term is thought to have first originated as a nickname for users of the word lem in

1751-476: A priest and begun spreading Orthodoxy in the region. The Austro-Hungarian Empire was highly suspicious of the pro-Russian Lemkos, as well of Sandovich himself. This led to a series of imprisonments before the breakout of World War I, including one of Sandovich himself. After the war broke out, Sandovich was imprisoned again, and executed without trial. In 1914, the Austro-Hungarian authorities created

1854-412: A result of varied historical usage. In older literature and speech, both Catholic and Orthodox Rusyns occasionally referred to themselves as Carpatho-Russians or Carpathian Russians. These terms, however, are generally considered antiquated and now typically refer to ethnic Russians of the Carpathian region. The use of several, imprecise Russian ethnonyms (in a Rusyn context) are also present in

1957-483: A sub-group of the Ukrainian people. In spite of this, Ukraine's Zakarpattia Oblast has recognized Rusyns as a "distinct nationality" within the oblast since a 2007 proclamation by its regional assembly. By the end of the 20th century there appeared many societies and organizations considering Rusyns as people separate from Ukrainians. By the early 21st century they had representatives in parliaments of Serbia, Hungary, and Romania, published their own press, and in 2007

2060-439: A widower for two years. On 29 September 1341, Casimir married his second wife, Adelaide of Hesse . She was a daughter of Henry II, Landgrave of Hesse , and Elizabeth of Meissen. They had no children. Casimir started living separately from Adelaide soon after the marriage. Their loveless marriage lasted until 1356, when he declared himself divorced. After Casimir "divorced" Adelaide he married his mistress Christina Rokiczana ,

2163-667: Is also located in Tremont. The Lemkos' homeland is commonly referred to as the Lemko Region ( Ukrainian : Лeмкiвщина ; Rusyn : Лeмкoвина ; Polish : Łemkowszczyzna ). Up until 1945, this included the area from the Poprad River in the west to the valley of Oslawa River in the east, areas situated primarily in present-day Poland , in the Lesser Poland and Subcarpathian Voivodeships ( provinces ). This part of

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2266-643: Is largely because some census-taking authorities classify them as a subgroup of the Ukrainian people, while others classify them as a distinct ethnic group. The term Rusyn ( Rusyn : Русин , plural Русины , Rusynŷ ) originates from the archaic ethnonym " Rus ' ". The respective endonymic adjective has traditionally been rusʹkŷi ( руськый m. , руська f. , руське/руськое n. ), though rusynʹskŷi ( русиньскый, русинськый, русинский, русиньскій, русински ) has also been used; even more so after 1989. In interwar Czechoslovakia, Ruthenia

2369-612: Is mentioned for the first time in Hypatian Codex in 1150. Lemkos (or their progenitors) became an ethnic minority as part of the Austrian province of Galicia in 1772. Mass emigration from this territory to the Western hemisphere for economic reasons began in the late 19th century. Prior to World War I , Lemkos begun to develop conflicting national identities. While some adopted the Ukrainian nationality , others favored

2472-767: Is more commonly known as "the Brave". Casimir ensured stability and great prospects for the future of the country. He established the Corona Regni Poloniae – the Crown of the Polish Kingdom, which certified the existence of the Polish lands independently from the monarch. Prior to that, the lands were only the property of the Piast dynasty . At the Sejm in Wiślica , on 11 March 1347, Casimir introduced reforms to

2575-562: Is most similar to other Ukrainians, while the Bukovina population slightly "differs from the typical Ukrainian population" because it has the highest percentage of I2a (>30%) and the lowest percentage of R1a (30%) in Ukraine. Bukovina's percentage of I2 is similar to near Moldovan and Romanian population, while the highest percentage is among South Slavs in Western Balkans . It was concluded that although bordered by diverse nations,

2678-615: The American Carpatho-Russian Orthodox Diocese , with over 14,000 members and 78 parishes as of 2006 (and founded by former Byzantine Catholic members), uses the term Carpatho-Russian on a regular basis even today. Finally, as of the early 21st Century, one can still hear Rusyn Americans within the OCA and ROCOR Orthodox churches self-identify as Carpatho-Russian. There are different theories to explain Rusyn origins. According to Paul Robert Magocsi ,

2781-526: The Austrian Empire after 1843). In the Kingdom of Hungary , Ruthene was used as the official term for the Rusyn people ( Hungarian : rutén or ruszin ) of Transcarpathia until 1945. During the early twentieth century the term "became even more restricted: it was generally used to refer to the inhabitants of Transcarpathia and to Transcarpathian emigrants in the United States ", for whom

2884-547: The Dissolution of Austro-Hungarian Monarchy (1918), various parts of Rusyn people were faced with different political challenges. Those who lived in northeastern counties of the Hungarian part of the former Monarchy were faced with pretensions of Hungary, Romania, and Czechoslovakia. On the other hand, those who lived in the former Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria were faced with pretensions of Poland and Ukraine. In

2987-860: The Eastern Carpathians in Central Europe . They speak Rusyn , an East Slavic language variety , treated variously as either a distinct language or a dialect of the Ukrainian language . As traditional adherents of Eastern Christianity , the majority of Rusyns are Eastern Catholics , though a minority of Rusyns practice Eastern Orthodoxy . Rusyns primarily self-identify as a distinct Slavic people and they are recognized as such in Croatia , Hungary , Poland , Romania , Serbia , and Slovakia , where they have official minority status. Alternatively, some identify more closely with their country of residence (i.e. Polish, Slovak), while others are

3090-840: The Lemko-Rusyn Republic and Komancza Republic . Prior to this time, some of the founders of the Lemko-Rusyn Republic were sentenced to death or imprisoned in Talerhof by the prosecuting attorney Kost Levytsky ( Rusyn : Кость Леви́цький ), future president of the West Ukrainian People's Republic . In the interwar period , the Rusyn diaspora in Czechoslovakia enjoyed liberal conditions to develop their culture (in comparison with Ukrainians in Poland or Romania). Hutsul Stepan Klochurak

3193-547: The Operation Vistula campaign of the late 1940s. This action was a state ordered removal of the civilian population, in a counter-insurgency operation to remove potential support for guerrilla war being waged by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA) in south-eastern Poland. Some 5,000 Lemko families returned to their home regions in Poland between 1957 and 1958, (they were officially granted

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3296-665: The Thalerhof internment camp , where they imprisoned Lemkos suspected of spying for the Russian Empire . During the war, 1767 people died in the Thalerhof camp. In the immediate aftermath World War I, Lemkos founded two short-lived republics, the Lemko-Rusyn Republic in the west of Galicia, which had a russophile orientation, as well as attempted to merge with Czechoslovakia and the Komancza Republic , with

3399-800: The Ulichs who were not native in the region. As the region of the Ukrainian Carpathians , including Zakarpattia and Prykarpattia , has since the Early Middle Ages been inhabited by the tribes of Croats, in Ukrainian encyclopedias and dictionaries, and the Great Russian Encyclopedia , the Rusyns are generally considered to be the descendants of the White Croats. According to anthropological studies,

3502-450: The 14th and 15th centuries. The Lemko Region became part of Poland in the time of the medieval Piast dynasty but was frequently disputed with the neighbouring Rus', as can be seen by taking the town of Sanok as an example: In 981CE Vladimir I of Kiev invaded the area and took it over from Poland. In 1018 it returned to Poland, in 1031 it went back to Rus', and in 1340 Casimir III of Poland recovered it for Poland. The gord of Sanok

3605-464: The 17th century. The people in the west called themselves Belarusians and the people in the south were known as Malorussians ( Little Russians ). Later, in what began as a political movement in the mid 19th century, many Little Russians began using the term " Ukrainian " to distinguish themselves from the Great Russians in northern Rus'. So by the mid-20th century the original name Rus or Rusyn

3708-552: The 1920s and 1930s a dispute existed between Russophile and Ukrainophile Rusyns. In October 1938, a series of political reforms were initiated, leading to the creation of the Second Czechoslovak Republic , consisting of three autonomous political entities, one of them being the Subcarpathian Rus' ( Rusyn : Підкарпатьска Русь ). On 11 October 1938, first autonomous Government of Subcarpathian Rus

3811-646: The 19th century a Rusyn national movement was formed which emphasized distinct ethnic identity and literary language. During the Spring of Nations on 2 May 1848 in Lemberg (today Lviv ) was established the first political representation of the Galician Rusyns, the Main Ruthenian Council ( Rusyn : Головна Руська Рада , Holovna Ruska Rada ). The most active and leading stratum among Rusyns

3914-561: The Boykos who place the highest cupola in the middle. Both groups styles have three cupola with numerous eaves . The Slavic dialects of Central Europe form (or formed, prior to standardization) a dialect continuum with few distinct boundaries between neighbouring varieties. However the question of language boundaries has become a controversial political issue since the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and later

4017-647: The Carpathian mountains is mostly deforested , which allowed for an agrarian economy , alongside such traditional occupations as ox grazing and sheep herding . The Lemko region became part of Poland in medieval Piast times . Lemkos were made part of the Austrian province of Galicia in 1772. This area was part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire until its dissolution in 1918, at which point the Lemko-Rusyn Republic ( Ruska Lemkivska ) declared its independence. Independence did not last long however, and

4120-585: The Carpathians seemingly were a barrier decreasing gene flow southward of N1c (М178), R1a (М198) from the region, and northward of E1b (М78), R1b (М269), J (М304) and G (М201) to the region. The general usage of 'Rusyn' by all East Slavs dates back to over 11 centuries, its origin signifying the ethnic tie to the political entity of Kievan Rus' , which existed from the late ninth to the early 13th century. The Carpathian Rusyns, Ukrainians (once called Ruthenians or Little Russians), Belarusians (once called White Russians) and Russians (Great Russians) are descendants of

4223-683: The Constitutional Law of 1969 regulated the position of Rusyn language as one of five official languages in Vojvodina (Article 67). After the fall of communism , new opportunities arose for Rusyns in Poland and in the newly formed countries of Slovakia and Ukraine. The Rusyns of the Transcarpathia region of Ukraine were able to vote in December 1991 for self-rule. With an 89% voter turnout, 78% voted Yes to autonomy. But with

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4326-461: The Duke of Novgorod, brought with him from the north soldiers and their families to settle unpopulated Carpathian lands. While the actual number of immigrants is uncertain, the arrival of Koriatovich and his retinue was a milestone for the Rusyns, substantially improving the region's administrative, ecclesiastical and cultural aspects. This included building and fortifying Mukachevo Castle with cannons,

4429-603: The Eastern Carpathian population makes one of the sub-regional clines of the Ukrainian population, which can be regionally divided into Eastern and Western Carpathian variants. In the study by M. S. Velikanova (1975) the skulls from a medieval necropolis near village of Vasyliv in Zastavna Raion were very similar to contemporary Carpathian population, and according to S. P. Segeda , V. Dyachenko and T. I. Alekseyeva this anthropological complex developed in

4532-993: The Lemko Region (in southeastern Poland), and Maramureş (in north-central Romania). In the Lemko region, the endonym Lemko (pl. Lemkŷ ) became more common in the twentieth century, along with Lemko-Rusyn since the 1990s. The variant Rusnak ( Руснак ; plural: Rusnakŷ or Pannonian-Rusyn, Rusnatsi ) was also (and still is) used as an endonym ; particularly by Rusyns outside the Carpathians in Vojvodina , Serbia and Slavonia , Croatia. However, they may also referred to as Vojvodinian Rusyns ( voivodianski Rusnatsi ), Bachka-Srem Rusyns ( bachvansʹko-srimski rusnatsi ), or formerly as Yugoslav Rusyns ( iuzhnoslaviansʹki Rusnatsi ). Other terms such as Ruthene, Rusniak, Lemak, Lyshak, and Lemko are considered by some scholars to be historic, local, or synonymic names for these inhabitants of Transcarpathia. Others hold that

4635-435: The Lemko Region, Lemkos live in the villages of Łosie , Krynica-Zdrój , Nowica , Zdynia , Gładyszów , Hańczowa , Zyndranowa , Uście Gorlickie , Bartne , Binczarowa and Bielanka . Additional populations can be found in Mokre , Szczawne , Kulaszne , Rzepedź , Turzańsk , Komańcza , Sanok , Nowy Sącz , and Gorlice . In 1968 an open-air museum dedicated to Lemko culture was opened in Zyndranowa . Additionally,

4738-605: The Lemkos, which has a code of rue under ISO 639-3, has been variously described as a language in its own right, a dialect of Rusyn or a dialect of Ukrainian . In Ukraine, almost all Lemkos speak both Lemko and standard Ukrainian (according to the 2001 Ukrainian Census ). Ukraine itself categorizes Lemkos as an ethnic subgroup of Ukrainians and not as a separate ethnicity. In the Polish Census of 2011, 11,000 people declared Lemko nationality, of whom 6,000 declared only Lemko nationality, 4,000 declared double national identity – Lemko-Polish, and 1,000 declared Lemko identity together with

4841-700: The Middle Ages or earlier, as descendants of the medieval Slavs of Galicia and carriers of Chernyakhov culture along Prut - Dniester rivers, possibly with some Thracian component. According to the data, the population has the lowest admixture in Ukraine of Turkic speaking populations, like Volga Tatars and Bashkirs , while in comparison to other populations they have similarities with neighbouring Eastern Slovaks , Gorals of Poland, Romanians , some groups of Czechs and Hungarians , Northwestern Bulgarians , Central and Northern Serbians, and most of Croatians. The 2006 mitochondrial DNA study of Carpathian Highlanders – Boykos , Hutsuls and Lemkos people – showed

4944-421: The Museum of Ruthenian Culture was opened in Prešov , Slovakia. In 2010 in Mukachevo were festivities commemorating the union of Zakarpattia with Ukraine, four out of 663 of congress delegates who adopted the Manifest about the Union and who were still alive attended the event: F. Sabov, O. Lohoida, M. Moldavchuk and J. Matlakh. They shared their experience about first years of the People's Council in revival of

5047-446: The Polish Orthodox Church in the 1990s), in the early 20th century, Eastern Orthodoxy was reintroduced to many Lemko areas which had accepted the Union of Brest centuries before. The distinctive wooden architectural style of the Lemko churches is to place the highest cupola of the church building at the entrance to the church, with the roof sloping downward toward the sanctuary as opposed to their neighbouring sub-ethnic groups such as

5150-713: The Polish army and doubled the size of the kingdom. He reformed the judicial system and introduced several undying codified statutes, gaining the title "the Polish Justinian ". Casimir built extensively and founded the Jagiellonian University (back then simply called the University of Krakow), the oldest Polish university and one of the oldest in the world . He also confirmed privileges and protections previously granted to Jews and encouraged them to settle in Poland in great numbers. Casimir left no legitimate sons. When he died in 1370 from an injury received while hunting, his nephew, King Louis I of Hungary , succeeded him as king of Poland in personal union with Hungary . Casimir

5253-507: The Polish judicial system and sanctioned civil and criminal codes for Great and Lesser Poland, earning the title "the Polish Justinian". In 1364, having received permission from Pope Urban V, Casimir established the University of Kraków , now the oldest university in Poland. It was regarded as a rare distinction, since it was only the second university founded in Central Europe, after the Charles University in Prague. Casimir demonstrated competence in foreign diplomacy and managed to double

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5356-448: The Roman Catholic Church in the 17th century. Most Lemkos today are Eastern rite or Byzantine-rite Catholics . In Poland they belong to the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church with a Roman Catholic minority, or to the Ruthenian Catholic Church (see also Slovak Greek Catholic Church ) in Slovakia. A substantial number belong to the Eastern Orthodox Church . Through the efforts of the martyred priest Father Maxim Sandovich (canonized by

5459-421: The Russian majority in the Odesa region casting a similar vote, the Ukrainian government, fearing secession, has refused to honor this referendum. In terms of minority rights, the question of Rusyn self-identification and recognition in Ukraine has been a subject of interest for European institutions, as well as the United Nations . Nationally, Rusyns are considered (by both state and cultural authorities) only

5562-437: The Russichi, the people of Rus', that is East Slavs who mixed with other peoples over centuries, including in the south with Iranian and later with Germanic peoples, in the west with Baltic peoples, in the east with Finnish and Turkic peoples. Over the centuries these loosely affiliated peoples developed different political and economic centers as well as new names. The inhabitants of northern Rus' were known as Great Russians by

5665-408: The Rusyns of Galicia and Podolia , and Vlach shepherds of Transylvania. It is thought that the Croats were part of the Antes tribal polity who migrated to Galicia in the 3rd-4th century, under pressure by invading Huns and Goths . George Shevelov also considered a connection with East Slavic tribes , more specifically, the Hutsuls , and possibly Boykos , argued to be the descendants of

5768-404: The Second Czechoslovak Republic proclaimed the Constitutional Law on the Autonomy of Subcarpathian Rus' ( Czech : Ústavní zákon o autonomii Podkarpatské Rusi ), officially reaffirming the right of self-determination of Rusyn people ( preamble ), and confirming full political and administrative autonomy of Subcarpathian Rus', with its own assembly and government. In the constitutional system of

5871-458: The Second Czechoslovak Republic, the region continued to be known as the Subcarpathian Rus', while local institutions promoted the use of the term Carpathian Ukraine . The Republic of Carpatho-Ukraine , which existed for one day on March 15, 1939, before it was occupied and annexed by Hungary, is sometimes considered to have been a self-determining Rusyn state that had intentions to unite with Kiev . The Republic's president, Avgustyn Voloshyn ,

5974-442: The Slovakian euro , in the heart of the Lemko Region in the Prešov Region . Avram Davidson makes several references to the Lemko people in his stories. Anna Bibko, mother-in-law of the protagonist of All Shall Be Well; and All Shall Be Well; and All Manner of Things Shall Be Well , is a Lemko "guided by her senses of traditionalism and grievance, not necessarily in that order". In the critically acclaimed movie The Deer Hunter

6077-461: The Soviet Union into " nation states ", each having only one official language. The Lemko dialects share many features with other Carpathian ones, which are often grouped together as the Rusyn language by outside linguists. The Lemko dialect has been influenced greatly by the languages spoken by geographically neighboring peoples and ruling elites, so much so that some consider it a separate entity.—Lemko speech includes some patterns matching those of

6180-447: The Soviets as kulaks, or rich peasants. Property and farm animals were confiscated and newly established kolkhozes (collectivized farms) were built, with people being forced to work on their own former land, 'employed' by the Communist government. Some of the less lucky were sent to Siberia. In 1947, under the Operation Vistula happened forced resettlement of c. 150,000 Lemkos, Boykos and other Ukrainians between Poland and Ukraine. In

6283-537: The State Publishing House. However, shortly before the outbreak of World War II Polish authorities replaced them with Ukrainian texts. Important fieldwork on the Lemko dialect was carried out by the Polish linguist Zdzisław Stieber before their dispersal. According to the Central Statistical Office of Poland , in the school year 2010–2011, Lemko was taught as a first language in twenty primary schools and interschool groups, and ten schools and interschool groups at junior high level, with 188 students attending classes. In

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6386-414: The Ukrainian and Slovakian population, "providing evidence for their genetic isolation from the Serbian majority population". The 2015 Y-DNA study of 150 men from Zakarpattia and Chernivtsi Oblast (Bukovina), found they mostly belong to R1a1a1*(М198), I2a (Р37.2), R1a1a1 (М458) ranging around and less than 30%, with E1b1b1a1 (M78), R1b1b2 (M269), and I1 (М253) ranging between 4-14%. The sampled population

6489-574: The borderlands between the Lemko and Boyko regions: the easternmost extent of usage of the word on the north side of the Carpathians. (On the south side of the Carpathians, the analogous nickname, lemak , was used in the lem-lyš isogloss area.) The ethnonym eventually entered use in academia and was first recorded in print with the 1834 publication of Grammatik der ruthenischen oder klein russischen Sprache in Galizien ( lit. 'Grammar of Ruthenian or Little Russian Language in Galicia') by Yosyp Levytsky. As an endonym, Lemko only entered wider use in

6592-401: The borders of modern Ukraine, Russian President Vladimir Putin specifically referred to the people in the Carpathian Mountains of modern-day Ukraine as Rusyns , rather than Ukrainians. In writing about the Soviet Union's post World War II takeover of the Transcarpathian region, Putin stated that, "quote, 'Rusyns (Русины) made up a considerable share of the local population', unquote". Then, using

6695-402: The concept of the All-Russian nation (the so-called "Old Ruthenian" identity). As the Greek Catholic Church was keen on promoting the Ukrainian identity, some of the pro-Russian Lemkos begun converting to the Orthodoxy . One of the most notable Orthodoxy converts was Saint Maxim Sandovich , a Lemko peasant who, after a brief experience as a Greek Catholic monk, converted to Orthodoxy, became

6798-406: The early 20th century. Prior to adopting the name, Lemkos would refer to themselves as Rusyns ( Rusyn : Русины , romanized:  Rusynŷ ) or Rusnaks ( Rusyn : Руснaкы, Руснаци , romanized:  Rusnakŷ, Rusnacy ). By the interwar period the popularity of Lemko as an endonym had grown, and appeared in periodicals such as Lemko and Naš Lemko . Polish authorities also played

6901-522: The eastern portion became part of the Soviet Union and was officially named Transcarpathia . After World War II, Transcarpathia was declared as a part of Ukrainia. In Poland, the new Communist government deported many Rusyns from their ancestral region, sending many east to Ukraine, and others to the far west of the country. In Czechoslovakia a policy of Ukrainization was implemented. In Ukraine, many Rusyns who owned land or livestock, often funded via their own family members in America, were now branded by

7004-424: The economy was ruined. In 1335, in the Treaty of Trentschin , Casimir was forced to relinquish his claims to Silesia "in perpetuity". Casimir began to rebuild the country and strengthen its defenses. During his reign, nearly 30 towns were supplied with fortification walls and some 50 castles were constructed, including castles along the Trail of the Eagle's Nests . These achievements are still celebrated today, in

7107-767: The exception of some Lemkos who resettled in their homeland in the late 1950s and afterward. Lemkos are/were neighbours with Slovaks , Carpathian Germans and Lachy sądeckie (Poles) to the west, Pogorzans ( Poles ) and Dolinians (a Rusyn subgroup) to the north, Ukrainians to the east, and Slovaks to the south. Rusyns Flag of Rusyns, approved by the World Congress of Rusyns in 2007 Rusyns ( Rusyn : Русины , romanized:  Rusynŷ ), also known as Carpatho-Rusyns ( Rusyn : Карпаторусины or Карпатьскы Русины , romanized:  Karpatorusynŷ or Karpaťskŷ Rusynŷ ), Ruthenians , or Rusnaks ( Rusyn : Руснакы or Руснаци , romanized:  Rusnakŷ or Rusnacy ), are an East Slavic ethnic group from

7210-465: The king . About 70 percent of the world's European Jews, or Ashkenazi , can trace their ancestry to Poland due to Casimir's reforms. Casimir's legendary Jewish mistress Esterka remains unconfirmed by direct historical evidence. Casimir III was married four times: On 30 April or 16 October 1325, Casimir married Aldona of Lithuania , daughter of Grand Duke Gediminas of Lithuania and Jewna . They had: Aldona died on 26 May 1339. Casimir remained

7313-460: The late 19th century, massive emigration of Rusyns to America took place, beginning in the early 1870s. Between 1899 and 1931, Ellis Island listed 268,669 Rusyn immigrants. Most settled in the northeastern states, but Rusyn settlements also appeared in more far flung states such as Minnesota, Colorado, Alabama, Washington and Montana. Smaller numbers also emigrated to Canada, Brazil and Argentina. Rusyns formed two ephemeral states after World War I :

7416-571: The late 20th century, some Lemkos/Rusyns, mainly emigres from the region of the southern slopes of the Carpathians in modern-day Slovakia, began codifying a standard grammar for the Lemko dialect, which was presented on the 27 January 1995 in Prešov, Slovakia. In 2013 the famous novel The Little Prince was translated into Lemko by Petro Krynyckij. Nikolai Gogol 's short story The Terrible Vengeance ends at Kriváň , now in Slovakia and pictured on

7519-534: The life of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth . Parallel, medieval Latin terms such as Rusi , Russi or Rusci are found in sources of the period and were commonly used as an exonym for the East Slavs. Since the end of the 11th century, the exonymic term Rutheni ( Ruthenes ) was also used by some Latin sources of western provenance as an alternative term for all East Slavs. During

7622-659: The origin of the present-day Carpatho-Rusyns is complex and not exclusively related to the Kievan Rus' . The ancestors were the early Slavs whose movement to the Danubian Basin was influenced by the Huns and Pannonian Avars between the 5th and 6th centuries, the White Croats who lived on both slopes of the Carpathians and built many hill-forts in the region including Uzhhorod ruled by the mythical ruler Laborec ,

7725-807: The pre-World War II term to describe the region, he asserted that the population of "Subcarpathian Rus", also known as Podkarpatska Rus (Подкарпатскa Рус) voted to join the Soviet Union either as "either part of the Russian Soviet republic or as a separate Carpathian republic". Putin noted however that the Soviet authorities "ignored the choice of the people" and incorporated it instead into the Ukrainian Soviet republic. Today there are estimated to be approximately 1.5 million Rusyns in Europe and

7828-434: The region. There is also ongoing linguistic and political controversy as to whether Rusyn is a distinct Slavic language or one of several dialects of the Ukrainian language . In several countries, it is recognized as a distinct minority language. Though Ukraine also adopted a law that recognized Rusyn as one of several minority and regional languages in 2012, that law was revoked in 2014. In 2021 while discussing

7931-696: The republic was incorporated into Poland in 1920. As a result of the forcible deportation of Ukrainians from Poland to the Soviet Union after World War II, the majority of Lemkos in Poland were either resettled from their historic homeland to the prеviously German territories in the North-Western region of Poland or to the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic . Only those Lemkos living the Prešov Region in present-day Slovakia continue to live on their ancestral lands, with

8034-424: The right to return in 1956), the Lemko population in the Polish section of Lemkivschyna only numbers around 10,000–15,000 today. Some 50,000 Lemkos live in the western and northern parts of Poland, where they were sent to populate former German villages in areas ceded to Poland. Among those, 5,863 people identified themselves as Lemko in the 2002 census. However, 60,000 ethnic Lemkos may reside in Poland today. Within

8137-488: The rising national consciousness of that time. Aleksander Dukhnovich (1803–1865), who wrote the unofficial Rusyn National Anthem ("I was, am, and will be a Rusyn"), and who by some is considered to be a sort of 'George Washington' of the Rusyns, reminisced that when he saw the Russian Cossacks on the streets, he "danced and cried with joy". A few decades later, when economic conditions and repression worsened in

8240-657: The rule of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth , the scope of Rutheni gradually narrowed to only refer to inhabitants of the East Slavic regions that now mostly belong to the states of Belarus and Ukraine . After the Partitions of Poland , Rutheni "came to be associated primarily with those [East Slavs] who lived under the Habsburg monarchy " (and was used as an official designation in

8343-496: The same community may switch its preferred identification over time. In Slovakia between the 1991 and 2001 censuses, the number of people identifying as "Ukrainian" declined by 2,467 people (an 18.6% decrease) while those reporting Rusyn as their national identity increased by 7,004 people (a 40.6% increase). It is not clear however, if this refers to the same individuals switching their identification, more young first-time respondents choosing Rusyn, or migration. The spoken language of

8446-673: The same time some 8,500 Rusyns voluntarily emigrated from Czechoslovakia to Ukraine, but more than half of them returned during the 1960s. These acts were protested for years, but to no avail. In the US, the Greek Catholic Union's 1964 convention even adopted a resolution calling on the United Nations to act "so that Carpatho-Russia be recognized and accepted into the free nations of the world as an autonomous state". In former Yugoslavia , Rusyns were officially recognized as

8549-743: The size of his kingdom. He neutralized relations with potential enemies to the west and north, and began to expand his territory eastward. He conquered the Ruthenian kingdom of Halych and Volodymyr (a territory in the modern-day Ukraine ), known in Polish history as Red Ruthenia and Volhynia. By extending the borders far south-east, the Polish kingdom gained access to the lucrative Black Sea trade. In 1355, in Buda , Casimir designated his nephew Louis I of Hungary as his successor should he produce no male heir, just as his father had with Charles I of Hungary to gain help against Bohemia. In exchange Casimir gained

8652-513: The surrounding Polish and Slovak languages . Metodyj Trochanovskij developed a Lemko Primer ( Bukvar: Perša knyžečka dlja narodnŷch škol , 1935) and a First Reader ( Druha knyžečka dlja narodnŷch škol , 1936) for use in schools in the Lemko-speaking area of Poland . In 1934, Lemko was introduced as the language of instruction in schools in the Lemko region. The pupils were taught from textbooks prepared by Trochanovskij and published by

8755-476: The term of choice for the Rusyns on the north face of the Carpathians in Poland. Several hypotheses account for the origin of the Lemkos, however, like all Rusyns, they most probably have a diverse ethnogenetic origin . The Lemkos (and other Carpatho-Rusyns) are considered to be descendants of the medieval White Croats , affected by the migration of Rusyn-influenced Slovaks , and the Vlach / Romanian migrations in

8858-459: The terms Lemko and Rusnak are simply regional variations for Rusyns or Ruthenes. Rusyns have at times also been referred to as Uhro-Rusyn ( Uhro-Rus ) in the regions of Prešov , Slovakia and Carpathian Ruthenia . Several endonyms such as Rus' and Rusyn were used widely by the East Slavs of Kievan Rus' during the medieval period. Common endonymic use of those terms continued through

8961-490: The terms Rusyn and Carpatho-Rusyn are more commonly used since the 1970s. In some non- Slavic languages, Rusyns may be referred to by exonymic or somewhat archaic terms such as Carpatho-Ruthenes or Carpatho-Ruthenians , but such terminology is not present in the Rusyn language . Exonymic Ruthenian designations are seen as less precise because they encompass various East Slavic groups and bear broader ethnic connotations as

9064-492: The testament was invalidated by Louis I of Hungary, however, who had traveled to Kraków quickly after Casimir died (in 1370) and bribed the nobles with future privileges. Casimir III also had a son-in-law, Louis VI of Bavaria, Margrave and Prince-elector of Brandenburg , who was considered a possible successor, but he was deemed ineligible as his wife, Casimir's daughter Cunigunde, had died in 1357 without issue. Thus King Louis I of Hungary became successor in Poland. Louis

9167-670: The two religions. As the Catholic Church was unwilling to hand over their temples to the Orthodox Church, in many convertite villages new churches had to be built. It is estimated that about 130,000 to 140,000 Lemkos were living in the Polish part of the Lemko Region in 1939. Depopulation of these lands occurred during the forced resettlement , initially to the Soviet Union (about 90,000 people) and later to Poland's newly acquired western lands (about 35,000) in

9270-568: The wedding reception scene was filmed in Lemko Hall in the Tremont neighborhood of Cleveland , Ohio , which had a significant immigrant population of Lemkos at one time. The three main characters’ surnames, however, appear to be Russian, possibly Polish and Ukrainian (Michael "Mike" Vronsky, from Polish Wroński , Steven Pushkov, and Nikonar "Nick" Chevotarevich) and the wedding was filmed inside St. Theodosius Russian Orthodox Cathedral , which

9373-845: The widow of Miklusz Rokiczani, a wealthy merchant. Her own origins are unknown. Following the death of her first husband she had entered the court of Bohemia in Prague as a lady-in-waiting . Casimir brought her with him from Prague and convinced the abbot of the Benedictine abbey of Tyniec to marry them. The marriage was held in a secret ceremony but soon became known. Queen Adelaide renounced it as bigamous and returned to Hesse. Casimir continued living with Christine despite complaints by Pope Innocent VI on behalf of Queen Adelaide. This marriage lasted until 1363–64 when Casimir again declared himself divorced. They had no children. In about 1365, Casimir married his fourth wife Hedwig of Żagań . She

9476-500: The works of some older authors, including foreign authors, as well as those native to the region. This terminology has also been reflected within some groups of the Rusyn diaspora. For example, the popular newspaper of the Byzantine (Greek) Catholic Church in the U.S. for decades known as the ‘ Greek Catholic Union Messenger ’, used the term Carpatho-Russian up until the 1950s (by the 1960s the term Ruthenian came into vogue). As well,

9579-487: Was Greek-Catholic clergy (see Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo , Ruthenian Greek Catholic Church , a successor of Ecclesia Ruthena unita). The nineteenth century also saw the spread of pan Slavism in Europe, and a pro-Moscow view became popular. The Russian military campaign of Tsar Nicholas I through the Carpathians in 1849 had significance for the local Rusyn population, who came into close contact with an almost 200,000 man Russian army. This interaction had an impact on

9682-404: Was a daughter of Henry V of Iron , Duke of Żagań and Anna of Mazovia. They had three children: As Adelheid was still alive (and possibly Christina as well), the marriage to Hedwig was also considered bigamous. Because of this, the legitimacy of his three young daughters was disputed. Casimir managed to have Anna and Kunigunde legitimated by Pope Urban V on 5 December 1369. Jadwiga the younger

9785-681: Was a prime minister of Hutsul Republic centered in Yasinia that was seeking union with the West Ukrainian People's Republic, but was overran by the Hungarian troops, later Klochurak became a Defense Minister of Carpatho-Ukraine . After World War I, the majority of Rusyns found themselves in the new country of Czechoslovakia. The interwar period became a mini renaissance for Rusyn culture, as they were permitted their own schools, theater, anthem, and even their own governor. During

9888-532: Was an advocate of writing in Rusyn . The Hungarian annexation caused support for Russophile direction, while in Germany occupied Poland support for Ukrainian identity. Although the Carpathians were not a major WWII battlefield, the Rusyns saw their share of horror and destruction, beginning with the Hungarian government's 1941 deportation of the Carpathian Jews . In September 1944, while retreating from

9991-466: Was appointed, headed by prime-minister Andrej Bródy. Soon after, a crisis occurred between pro-Rusyn and pro-Ukrainian fractions, leading to the fall of Bródy government on 26 October. New regional government, headed by Avgustyn Voloshyn , adopted a pro-Ukrainian course and opted for the change of name, from Subcarpathian Rus' to Carpathian Ukraine . That move led to the creation of a particular terminological duality. On 22 November 1938, authorities of

10094-524: Was born on 30 April 1310 in Kowal , Kuyavia , the third son of Ladislaus the Short and Jadwiga of Kalisz . He had two brothers who died in infancy and three sisters: Kunegunda, Elżbieta, and Jadwiga. When Casimir attained the throne in 1333, his position was in danger, as his neighbours did not recognise his title and instead called him "king of Kraków ". The kingdom was depopulated and exhausted by war, and

10197-524: Was called Rusinsko in Czech; sometimes rendered Rusinia or Rusynia in American-Rusyn publications. Carpatho-Rusyn or Carpatho-Ruthenian ( Karpato-Rusyny ) is the main regional designation for Rusyns. The term refers to Carpathian Ruthenia ( Karpatsʹka Rusʹ ), which is a historical cross-border region encompassing Subcarpathian Rus' (in northeastern Slovakia and Ukraine's Zakarpattia Oblast ), Prešov Region (in eastern Slovakia),

10300-412: Was known for siding with the weak when the law did not protect them from nobles and clergymen. He reportedly even supported a peasant whose house had been demolished by his own mistress, after she had ordered it to be pulled down because it disturbed her enjoyment of the beautiful landscape. His popularity with the peasants helped to rebuild the country, as part of the reconstruction program was funded by

10403-571: Was proclaimed king upon Casimir's death in 1370, though Casimir's sister Elisabeth (Louis's mother) held much of the real power until her death in 1380. Casimir was facetiously named "the Peasants' King". He introduced the codes of law of Greater and Lesser Poland as an attempt to end the overwhelming superiority of the nobility. During his reign all three major classes — the nobility, priesthood, and bourgeoisie — were more or less counterbalanced, allowing Casimir to strengthen his monarchic position. He

10506-628: Was retained only in the Carpathian Mountains. Rusyns settled in the Carpathian Mountain region in various waves of immigration from the north between the eighth and 17th centuries. Weapons and skeletons found in tombs in Bereg County from the 10th century era suggest that Norman Vikings (who played a role in the founding of Kiev Rus') were there as well. Even so, as late as the 11th century, this mountainous area

10609-468: Was still a sparsely inhabited 'No-Man's Land' border between the kingdoms of Kievan Rus' and Hungary. In 1241, the Carpathians fell to Mongol invasions led by Genghis Khan's grandson, Batu Khan , with populations exterminated and villages torched. The Mongols entered the region via the Veretski Pass , just to the north of Mukachevo . In 1395, Orthodox Rus' Prince Feodor Koriatovich , son of

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