French Language and Literature
110-407: Les Misérables ( / l eɪ ˌ m ɪ z ə ˈ r ɑː b ( əl ), - b l ə / , French: [le mizeʁabl] ) is a French epic historical novel by Victor Hugo , first published in 1862, that is considered one of the greatest novels of the 19th century. Les Misérables has been popularized through numerous adaptations for film, television, and the stage, including a musical . In
220-508: A clergy separate from other Witnesses, who are also ordained ministers, they do recognize that a government may consider them such for administrative purposes. Jehovah's Witnesses do not have a separate clergy class, but consider an adherent's qualified baptism to constitute his ordination as a minister . Governments have generally recognized that Jehovah's Witnesses' full-time appointees qualify as ministers regardless of sex or appointment as an elder or deacon ("ministerial servant") ;
330-575: A 14th-century scholar and dedicated Sufi, who is however remembered mainly as an outspoken critic of the excesses of certain schools of Sufism during his time. A form of ordered religious living is common also in many tribes and religions of Africa and South America , though on a smaller scale, and some parts of England. Due to the unorganized character of these small religious groups, orders are not as visible as in other well-organised religions. Cults and coercive groups such as Scientology and Moonies often rely heavily on devout religious orders as
440-436: A complete contemporary history of his countrymen. Realism also appears in the works of Alexandre Dumas, fils . Many of the novels in this period, including Balzac's, were published in newspapers in serial form, and the immensely popular realist "roman feuilleton" tended to specialize in portraying the hidden side of urban life (crime, police spies, criminal slang), as in the novels of Eugène Sue . Similar tendencies appeared in
550-497: A former convict. He sleeps on the street, angry and bitter. Digne's benevolent Bishop Myriel gives him shelter. At night, Valjean runs off with Myriel's silverware. When the police capture Valjean, Myriel pretends that he has given the silverware to Valjean and presses him to take two silver candlesticks as well, as if he had forgotten to take them. The police accept his explanation and leave. Myriel tells Valjean that his soul has been purchased for God and that he should use money from
660-474: A hospital. Javert comes to see Valjean again. Javert admits that after being forced to free Fantine, he reported him as Valjean to the French authorities. He tells Valjean he realizes he was wrong because the authorities have identified someone else as the real Jean Valjean, have him in custody, and plan to try him the next day. Valjean is torn but decides to reveal himself to save the innocent man, whose real name
770-460: A large part of the text demands that it be read in the context of the "overarching structure" discussed above. Hugo draws his own personal conclusions, taking Waterloo to be a pivot point in history but definitely not a victory for the forces of reaction. Waterloo, by cutting short the demolition of European thrones by the sword, had no other effect than to cause the revolutionary work to be continued in another direction. The slashers have finished; it
880-565: A leading "decadent" and rebel against naturalism), Edmond de Goncourt and his brother Jules de Goncourt , and (in a very different vein) Paul Bourget . An attempt to be objective was made in poetry by the group of writers known as the Parnassians —which included Leconte de Lisle , Théodore de Banville , Catulle Mendès , Sully-Prudhomme , François Coppée , José María de Heredia and (early in his career) Paul Verlaine —who (using Théophile Gautier 's notion of art for art's sake and
990-660: A literary critic, showed romantic expansiveness in his hospitality to all ideas and in his unfailing endeavour to understand and interpret authors rather than to judge them. Romanticism is associated with a number of literary salons and groups: the Arsenal (formed around Charles Nodier at the Arsenal Library in Paris from 1824-1844 where Nodier was administrator), the Cénacle (formed around Nodier, then Hugo from 1823–1828),
1100-432: A note lands in his lap. It says, "Move Out." He sees a figure running away in the dim light. He goes home, tells Cosette they will be staying at their other house on Rue de l'Homme-Armé, and restates that they will be moving to England. Marius tries to get permission from M. Gillenormand to marry Cosette. His grandfather seems stern and angry but has been longing for Marius's return. When tempers flare, he refuses to consent to
1210-516: A number of orders of Deaconesses , who are now ordained as clergy and are Ministers in equal standing alongside their presbyteral colleagues.The Methodist Diaconal Order (MDO) currently admits both men and women to the Order and all are now known as Deacons. Since the functions of a deacon are primarily pastoral , the MDO may therefore be regarded as an order of Regular clerics . The Order of Saint Luke
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#17327763870651320-894: A number of poets like Tristan Corbière , Stéphane Mallarmé and Arthur Rimbaud who had fought against poetic conventions and suffered social rebuke or had been ignored by the critics. But with the publication of Jean Moréas Symbolist Manifesto in 1886, it was the term symbolism which was most often applied to the new literary environment. The writers Stéphane Mallarmé , Paul Verlaine , Paul Valéry , Joris-Karl Huysmans , Arthur Rimbaud , Jules Laforgue , Jean Moréas , Gustave Kahn , Albert Samain , Jean Lorrain , Rémy de Gourmont , Pierre Louÿs , Tristan Corbière , Henri de Régnier , Villiers de l'Isle-Adam , Stuart Merrill , René Ghil , Saint-Pol-Roux , Oscar-Vladislas de Milosz , Albert Giraud , Emile Verhaeren , Georges Rodenbach and Maurice Maeterlinck and others have been called symbolists, although each author's personal literary project
1430-693: A particular branch, traveling overseers , special pioneers , and branch staff are considered members of the Order of Special Full-time Servants and the Bethel Family . Globally, their order is the Worldwide Order of Special Full-Time Servants of Jehovah's Witnesses . Male and female members of such religious orders typically make a formal vow of poverty and are granted certain status and exemptions by many governments. While Jehovah's Witnesses do not consider members of their religious orders to be
1540-408: A police officer. One of the strangers was a man who had stolen a loaf of bread, similar to Jean Valjean , being taken to the coach by a police officer. Nearby, two onlookers, a mother and daughter, had stopped to watch the thief. They became the inspiration for Fantine and Cosette . Hugo imagined the life of the man in jail and the mother and daughter taken away from each other. Valjean's character
1650-570: A present of an expensive new doll, which, after some hesitation, she happily accepts. Éponine and Azelma are envious. Madame Thénardier is furious with Valjean, while her husband makes light of Valjean's behavior, caring only that he pays for his food and lodging. The next morning, Valjean informs the Thénardiers that he wants to take Cosette with him. Madame Thénardier immediately accepts while Thénardier pretends to love Cosette and be concerned for her welfare, reluctant to give her up. Valjean pays
1760-486: A profound loss for aspects of the pre-revolutionary world in a society now dominated by money and fame, rather than honor. Key ideas from early French Romanticism: Romanticism in England and Germany largely predate French romanticism, although there was a kind of "pre-romanticism" in the works of Senancour and Jean-Jacques Rousseau (among others) at the end of the 18th century. French Romanticism took definite form in
1870-482: A prostitute from arrest for assault. He used a short part of his dialogue with the police when recounting Valjean's rescue of Fantine in the novel. On 22 February 1846, when he had begun work on the novel, Hugo witnessed the arrest of a bread thief while a duchess and her child watched the scene pitilessly from their coach. He spent several vacations in Montreuil-sur-Mer . During the 1832 revolt, Hugo walked
1980-533: A sailor caught in the ship's rigging. Spectators call for his release. Valjean fakes his death by allowing himself to fall into the ocean. Authorities report him dead and his body lost. Valjean arrives at Montfermeil on Christmas Eve. He finds Cosette fetching water in the woods alone and walks with her to the inn. He orders a meal and observes how the Thénardiers abuse her while pampering their own daughters, Éponine and Azelma , who mistreat Cosette for playing with their doll. Valjean leaves and returns to give Cosette
2090-502: A sergeant named Thénardier who saved his life at Waterloo —in reality, Thénardier was looting corpses and only saved Pontmercy's life by accident; he had called himself a sergeant under Napoleon to avoid exposing himself as a robber. At the Luxembourg Garden , Marius falls in love with the now grown and beautiful Cosette. The Thénardiers have also moved to Paris and now live in poverty after losing their inn. They live under
2200-462: A setting contrary to the popular notion that the book is set in the 1789 French Revolution ) following the death of Lamarque , a popular general known for his sympathy towards the working class. Lamarque was a victim of a major cholera epidemic that had ravaged the city, particularly its poor neighborhoods, arousing suspicion that the government had been poisoning wells. The Friends of the ABC are joined by
2310-738: A sheet of paper. Marius pities her and gives her some money. After Éponine leaves, Marius observes the "Jondrettes" in their apartment through a crack in the wall. Éponine comes in and announces that a philanthropist and his daughter are arriving to visit them. In order to look poorer, Thénardier puts out the fire and breaks a chair. He also orders Azelma to punch out a window pane, which she does, resulting in cutting her hand (as Thénardier had hoped). The philanthropist and his daughter—actually Valjean and Cosette—enter. Marius immediately recognizes Cosette. After seeing them, Valjean promises to return with rent money for them. After he and Cosette leave, Marius asks Éponine to retrieve her address for him. Éponine, who
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#17327763870652420-399: A soldier comes up to shoot him. However, a man covers the muzzle of the soldier's gun with his hand. The soldier fires, fatally wounding the man while missing Marius. Meanwhile, the soldiers are closing in. Marius climbs to the top of the barricade, holding a torch in one hand, and a powder keg in the other, and threatens to the soldiers that he will blow up the barricade. After confirming this,
2530-592: A street urchin who might have been Gavroche. He also informed himself by personal inspection of the Paris Conciergerie in 1846 and Waterloo in 1861, by gathering information on some industries, and on working-class people's wages and living standards. He asked his mistresses, Léonie d'Aunet and Juliette Drouet , to tell him about life in convents. He also slipped personal anecdotes into the plot. For instance, Marius and Cosette's wedding night (Part V, Book 6, Chapter 1) takes place on 16 February 1833, which
2640-597: A tariqa are known as murīdīn (singular murīd ), meaning "desirous", viz. "desiring the knowledge of knowing God and loving God" (also called a faqīr فقير ). Tariqas have silsilas ( Arabic : سلسلة ) which is the spiritual lineage of the Shaikhs of that order. Almost all orders trace their silsila back to the Islamic prophet Muhammad . Tariqas are spread all over the Muslim world. Among Shias , Noorbakshia Islam
2750-467: A thousand crowns, but Valjean and Cosette leave. Thénardier regrets that he did not bring his gun and turns back towards home. Valjean and Cosette flee to Paris. Valjean rents new lodgings at the Gorbeau House, where he and Cosette live happily. However, Javert discovers Valjean's lodgings there a few months later. Valjean takes Cosette, and they try to escape from Javert. They soon find shelter in
2860-405: A window but is subdued and tied up. Thénardier orders Valjean to pay him 200,000 francs. He also orders Valjean to write a letter to Cosette to return to the apartment, saying they will keep her with them until he delivers the money. After Valjean writes the letter and informs Thénardier of his address, Thénardier sends out Mme. Thénardier to get Cosette. Mme. Thénardier comes back alone and announces
2970-474: Is Champmathieu. He travels to attend the trial and there reveals his true identity. Valjean returns to Montreuil to see Fantine, followed by Javert, who confronts him in her hospital room. After Javert grabs Valjean, Valjean asks for three days to bring Cosette to Fantine, but Javert refuses. Fantine discovers that Cosette is not at the hospital and fretfully asks where she is. Javert orders her to be quiet and then reveals to her Valjean's real identity. Weakened by
3080-671: Is a religious order in the United Methodist Church dedicated to sacramental and liturgical scholarship, education, and practice. Some Protestant religious orders follow Anabaptist theology. These would include the Hutterites and Bruderhof , who live in full community of goods and living as a peace church. Among their corporations, the Religious Order of Jehovah's Witnesses cares for matters specific to Jehovah's Witnesses special full-time servants. In
3190-473: Is also the date when Hugo and his lifelong mistress Juliette Drouet made love for the first time. A template for Hugo's novel was Les Mystères de Paris ( The Mysteries of Paris ), a serial novel of similar length that enjoyed great success on its appearance in 1842–43, by Eugène Sue . Les mystères , like Les Misérables , views contemporary Paris from the point of view of the downtrodden and criminal underclasses who had been little represented in novels up to
3300-423: Is an order that blends Sufi principles with Shia doctrine. It claims to trace its direct spiritual lineage and chain (silsilah) to the Islamic prophet Muhammad through Ali, the first imam of Shia Islam. There is some historical connection between certain schools of Sufism and the development of Wahhabism and Salafism due to the history of these denominations. Ibn Abd al-Wahhab was inspired by Ibn Taymiyyah ,
3410-533: Is apparent in his fantastic The Temptation of Saint Anthony and the baroque and exotic scenes of ancient Carthage in Salammbô . In addition to melodramas, popular and bourgeois theater in the mid-century turned to realism in the "well-made" bourgeois farces of Eugène Marin Labiche and the moral dramas of Émile Augier . From the 1860s on, critics increasingly speak of literary " Naturalism ". The expression
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3520-442: Is apprehended, he will be returned to the galleys for life as a repeat offender. Six years pass, and Valjean, using the alias Monsieur Madeleine, has become a wealthy factory owner and is appointed mayor of Montreuil-sur-Mer . Walking down the street, he sees a man named Fauchelevent pinned under the wheels of a cart. When no one volunteers to lift the cart, even for pay, he decides to rescue Fauchelevent himself. He crawls underneath
3630-436: Is imprecise, and was frequently used disparagingly to characterize authors whose chosen subject matter was taken from the working classes and who portrayed the misery and harsh conditions of real life. Many of the "naturalist" writers took a radical position against the excesses of romanticism and strove to use scientific and encyclopedic precision in their novels (Zola spent months visiting coal mines for his Germinal , and even
3740-457: Is in love with Marius herself, reluctantly agrees. The Thénardiers have also recognized Valjean and Cosette, and vow their revenge. Thénardier enlists the aid of Patron-Minette , a well-known and feared gang of murderers and robbers. Marius overhears Thénardier's plan and goes to Javert to report the crime. Javert gives Marius two pistols and instructs him to fire one into the air if things get dangerous. Marius returns home and waits for Javert and
3850-530: Is linked to the development of science (especially biology), history and the social sciences and to the growth of industrialism and commerce. The "realist" tendency is not necessarily anti-romantic; romanticism in France often affirmed the common man and the natural setting, as in the peasant stories of George Sand , and concerned itself with historical forces and periods, as in the work of historian Jules Michelet . The novels of Stendhal , including The Red and
3960-444: Is loosely based on the life of the ex-convict Eugène François Vidocq . Vidocq became the head of an undercover police unit and later founded France's first private detective agency. He was also a businessman and was widely noted for his social engagement and philanthropy. Vidocq also inspired Hugo's " Claude Gueux " and Le Dernier jour d'un condamné ( The Last Day of a Condemned Man ). In 1828, Vidocq, already pardoned, saved one of
4070-604: The New York City punk scene in the 1970s). The infernal images of the prose poem Les Chants de Maldoror by Isidore Ducasse, Comte de Lautréamont would have a similar impact. The crisis of language and meaning in Mallarmé and the radical vision of literature, life and the political world in Rimbaud are to some degree the cornerstones of the "modern" and the radical experiments of Dada , Surrealism and Theatre of
4180-591: The Second Republic (1848–1852), the Second Empire under Napoleon III (1852–1871), and the first decades of the Third Republic (1871–1940). French literature enjoyed enormous international prestige and success in the 19th century. The first part of the century was dominated by Romanticism , until around the mid-century Realism emerged, at least partly as a reaction. In the last half of
4290-594: The Thénardiers , a corrupt innkeeper and his selfish, cruel wife. Fantine is unaware that they are abusing her daughter and using her as forced labor for their inn and continues to try to meet their growing, extortionate, and fictitious demands. She is later fired from her job at Jean Valjean's factory because of the discovery of her daughter, who was born out of wedlock. Meanwhile, the Thénardiers' monetary demands continue to grow. In desperation, Fantine sells her hair and two front teeth and resorts to prostitution to pay
4400-795: The Visitandines . Several religious orders evolved during the Crusades to incorporate a military mission becoming "religious military orders ", such as the Knights of the Order of Saint John of Jerusalem , the Knights of the Order of the Temple and the Knights of the Holy Sepulchre . In the Eastern Orthodox Church , there is only one type of monasticism. The profession of monastics is known as tonsure (referring to
4510-833: The 10th century the Rule of St Benedict became the standardised norm among the Latin Church’s monks and nuns while the Rule of St Augustine was standardised among its canons and canonesses. The earliest orders include the Cistercians (1098), the Premonstratensians (1120), the Poor Clares founded by Francis of Assisi (1212), and the Benedictine reform movements of Cluny (1216). These orders consist entirely of independent abbeys and priories where power rests in
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4620-836: The 16th century the orders of clerics regular began to emerge, including such institutes as the Society of Jesus , the Theatines , the Barnabites , the Somascans . Most of these groups began to turn away from the common public celebration of the divine office. In accordance with the concept of independent communities in the Rule of Saint Benedict, the Benedictines, Cistercians, and Trappists have autonomous abbeys (so-called "independent houses"). Their members profess "stability" to
4730-535: The 20th century. Naturalism is most often associated with the novels of Émile Zola in particular his Les Rougon-Macquart novel cycle, which includes Germinal , L'Assommoir , Nana , Le Ventre de Paris , La Bête humaine , and L'Œuvre (The Masterpiece) , in which the social success or failure of two branches of a family is explained by physical, social and hereditary laws. Other writers who have been labeled naturalists include: Alphonse Daudet , Jules Vallès , Joris-Karl Huysmans (later
4840-466: The Absurd (to name a few) in the 20th century. Religious order A religious order is a subgroup within a larger confessional community with a distinctive high-religiosity lifestyle and clear membership. Religious orders often trace their lineage from revered teachers, venerate their founders , and have a document describing their lifestyle called a rule of life . Such orders exist in many of
4950-464: The Black and The Charterhouse of Parma , address issues of their contemporary society while also using themes and characters derived from the romantic movement. Honoré de Balzac is the most prominent representative of 19th century realism in fiction. His La Comédie humaine , a vast collection of nearly 100 novels, was the most ambitious scheme ever devised by a writer of fiction—nothing less than
5060-948: The Catholic Church is a kind of religious institute , a society whose members (referred to as " religious ") make solemn vows that are accepted by a superior in the name of the Church, who wear a religious habit and who live a life of brothers or sisters in common. Religious orders are to be distinguished from religious congregations , which are religious institutes whose members profess simple vows , and from secular institutes , including societies of apostolic life and lay ecclesial movements . Unless they are also deacons or priests in Holy Orders members of religious orders are not clergy but laity . However, particular orders and institutes are classified as either specifically clerical or lay depending on their charism . Among
5170-463: The Corinth restaurant. Later that evening, Marius returns to Valjean and Cosette's house on Rue Plumet but finds it no longer occupied. He then hears a voice telling him that his friends are waiting for him at the barricade. Distraught to find Cosette gone, he heeds the voice and goes. When Marius arrives at the barricade, the revolution has already started. When he stoops down to pick up a powder keg,
5280-553: The English-speaking world, the novel is usually referred to by its original French title. However, several alternatives have been used, including The Miserables , The Wretched , The Miserable Ones , The Poor Ones , The Wretched Poor , The Victims , and The Dispossessed . Beginning in 1815 and culminating in the 1832 June Rebellion in Paris , the novel follows the lives and interactions of several characters, particularly
5390-526: The Petit-Picpus convent with the help of Fauchelevent, the man Valjean once rescued from being crushed under a cart and who has become the convent's gardener. Valjean also becomes a gardener, and Cosette becomes a student at the convent school. Eight years later, the Friends of the ABC , led by Enjolras , are preparing an act of anti- Orléanist civil unrest (i.e., the Paris uprising on 5–6 June 1832 ,
5500-795: The Reformation. After the foundation of the Lutheran Churches , some monasteries in Lutheran lands (such as Amelungsborn Abbey near Negenborn and Loccum Abbey in Rehburg-Loccum ) and convents (such as Ebstorf Abbey near the town of Uelzen and Bursfelde Abbey in Bursfelde ) adopted the Lutheran Christian faith. Other examples of Lutheran religious orders include the " Order of Lutheran Franciscans " in
5610-411: The Thénardiers 1,500 francs, and he and Cosette leave the inn. Thénardier, hoping to swindle more out of Valjean, runs after them, holding the 1,500 francs, and tells Valjean he wants Cosette back. He informs Valjean that he cannot release Cosette without a note from the child's mother. Valjean hands Thénardier Fantine's letter authorizing the bearer to take Cosette. Thénardier then demands that Valjean pay
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#17327763870655720-577: The Thénardiers and Patron-Minette (except Claquesous , who escapes during his transportation to prison, and Montparnasse , who stops to run off with Éponine instead of joining in on the robbery). Valjean manages to escape the scene before Javert sees him. After Éponine's release from prison, she finds Marius at "the Field of the Lark" and sadly tells him that she found Cosette's address. She leads him to Valjean and Cosette's house on Rue Plumet, and Marius watches
5830-545: The Thénardiers. Fantine is slowly dying from an unspecified disease. A dandy named Bamatabois harasses Fantine in the street, and she reacts by striking him. Javert arrests Fantine. She begs to be released so that she can provide for her daughter, but Javert sentences her to six months in prison. Valjean (Mayor Madeleine) intervenes and orders Javert to release her. Javert resists, but Valjean prevails. Valjean, feeling responsible because his factory turned her away, promises Fantine that he will bring Cosette to her. He takes her to
5940-800: The United States. Also, a Lutheran religious order following the Rule of St. Benedict, "The Congregation of the Servants of Christ", was established at St. Augustine's House in Oxford, Michigan, in 1958 when some other men joined Father Arthur Kreinheder in observing the monastic life and offices of prayer. This order has strong ties to Lutheran Benedictine orders in Sweden ( Östanbäck Monastery ) and in Germany ( Priory of St. Wigbert ). Religious orders in England were dissolved by King Henry VIII upon
6050-483: The abbeys where they make their religious vows ; hence their abbots or abbesses may not move them to other abbeys. An "independent house" may occasionally make a new foundation which remains a "dependent house" (identified by the name "priory") until it is granted independence by Rome and itself becomes an abbey. Each house's autonomy does not prevent it being affiliated into a congregation —whether national or based on some other joint characteristic—and these, in turn, form
6160-463: The address is a fake. It is during this time that Valjean manages to free himself. Thénardier decides to kill Valjean. While he and Patron-Minette are about to do so, Marius remembers the scrap of paper that Éponine wrote on earlier. He throws it into the Thénardiers' apartment through the wall crack. Thénardier reads it and thinks Éponine threw it inside. He, Mme. Thénardier, and Patron-Minette try to escape, only to be stopped by Javert. He arrests all
6270-535: The arch-realist Flaubert was famous for his years of research for historical details). Hippolyte Taine supplied much of the philosophy of naturalism: he believed that every human being was determined by the forces of heredity and environment and by the time in which he lived. The influence of certain Norwegian , Swedish and Russian writers gave an added impulse to the naturalistic movement. The novels and short stories of Guy de Maupassant are often tagged with
6380-411: The arts. French literature from the first half of the century was dominated by Romanticism , which is associated with such authors as Victor Hugo , Alexandre Dumas, père , François-René de Chateaubriand , Alphonse de Lamartine , Gérard de Nerval , Charles Nodier , Alfred de Musset , Théophile Gautier and Alfred de Vigny . Their influence was felt in theatre, poetry, prose fiction. The effect of
6490-451: The cart, manages to lift it, and frees him. The town's police inspector, Inspector Javert , who was an adjutant guard at the Bagne of Toulon during Valjean's incarceration, becomes suspicious of the mayor after witnessing this remarkable feat of strength. He has known only one other man, a convict named Jean Valjean, who could accomplish it. Years earlier in Paris, a grisette named Fantine
6600-515: The century, " naturalism ", " parnassian " poetry, and " symbolism ", among other styles, were often competing tendencies at the same time. Some writers did form into literary groups defined by a name and a program or manifesto. In other cases, these expressions were merely pejorative terms given by critics to certain writers or have been used by modern literary historians to group writers of divergent projects or methods. Nevertheless, these labels can be useful in describing broad historical developments in
6710-502: The departure of prisoners from the Bagne of Toulon in one of his early stories, Le Dernier Jour d'un Condamné . He went to Toulon to visit the Bagne in 1839 and took extensive notes, though he did not start writing the book until 1845. On one of the pages of his notes about the prison, he wrote in large block letters a possible name for his hero: "JEAN TRÉJEAN". When the book was finally written, Tréjean became Valjean. In 1841, Hugo saved
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#17327763870656820-592: The developments in French literature during a dynamic period in French history that saw the rise of Democracy and the fitful end of Monarchy and Empire. The period covered spans the following political regimes: Napoleon Bonaparte 's Consulate (1799–1804) and Empire (1804–1814), the Restoration under Louis XVIII and Charles X (1814–1830), the July Monarchy under Louis Philippe d'Orléans (1830–1848),
6930-441: The dwarfing of childhood by physical and spiritual night—are not solved; so long as, in certain regions, social asphyxia shall be possible; in other words, and from a yet more extended point of view, so long as ignorance and misery remain on earth, books like this cannot be useless. Towards the end of the novel, Hugo explains the work's overarching structure: The book which the reader has before him at this moment is, from one end to
7040-497: The first order for women was established. The first order for men was founded 25 years later. Anglican religious voluntarily commit themselves for life, or a term of years, to holding their possessions in common or in trust; to a celibate life in community; and obedience to their Rule and Constitution. There are presently thirteen active religious orders for men, fifty-three for women, and eight mixed gender. The Methodist Church of Great Britain , and its ancestors, have established
7150-467: The gates, threatens to scream and awaken the whole neighbourhood if the thieves do not leave. Hearing this, they reluctantly retire. Meanwhile, Cosette informs Marius that she and Valjean will be leaving for England in a week, which greatly troubles the pair. The next day, Valjean is sitting in the Champ de Mars . He is feeling troubled about seeing Thénardier in the neighbourhood several times. Unexpectedly,
7260-735: The hands of the individual communities and their abbot or abbess, prior or prioress. Their members remain in the same community for life. Later in the 13th century the mendicant orders like the Carmelites , the Order of Friars Minor , the Order of Preachers , the Order of the Most Holy Trinity and the Order of Saint Augustine formed. These Mendicant orders did not hold property for their Religious Communities, instead begging for alms and going where they were needed. Their leadership structure included each member, as opposed to each Abbey or House, as subject to their direct superior. In
7370-422: The house for a few days. He and Cosette then finally meet and declare their love for one another. Thénardier, Patron-Minette, and Brujon manage to escape from prison with the aid of Gavroche (a rare case of Gavroche helping his family in their criminal activities). One night, during one of Marius's visits with Cosette, the six men attempt to raid Valjean and Cosette's house. However, Éponine, who has been sitting by
7480-400: The label "naturalist", although he clearly followed the realist model of his teacher and mentor, Flaubert. Maupassant used elements derived from the gothic novel in stories like Le Horla . This tension between portrayal of the contemporary world in all its sordidness, detached irony and the use of romantic images and themes would also influence the symbolists (see below) and would continue to
7590-430: The main thread is the story of ex-convict Jean Valjean , who becomes a force for good in the world but cannot escape his criminal past. The novel is divided into 5 volumes, each divided into several books and subdivided into chapters, for a total of 48 books and 365 chapters. Each chapter is relatively short, commonly no longer than a few pages. The novel as a whole is one of the longest ever written, with 655,478 words in
7700-404: The marriage, telling Marius to make Cosette his mistress instead. Insulted, Marius leaves. The following day, the students revolt and erect barricades in the narrow streets of Paris. Gavroche spots Javert and informs Enjolras that he is a spy. When Enjolras confronts Javert about this, he admits his identity and his orders to spy on the students. Enjolras and the other students tie him to a pole in
7810-592: The movement were the austere and pessimistic Alfred de Vigny , Théophile Gautier a devotee of beauty and creator of the " Art for art's sake " movement, and Alfred de Musset , who best exemplifies romantic melancholy. All three also wrote novels and short stories, and Musset won a belated success with his plays. Alexandre Dumas, père wrote The Three Musketeers and other romantic novels in an historical setting. Prosper Mérimée and Charles Nodier were masters of shorter fiction. Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve ,
7920-409: The natural world (i.e. elegies by lakes), and the common man; and the styles of lyricism, sentimentalism , exoticism and orientalism . Foreign influences played a big part in this, especially those of Shakespeare , Walter Scott , Byron , Goethe , and Friedrich Schiller . French Romanticism had ideals diametrically opposed to French classicism and the classical unities, but it could also express
8030-459: The notion of the complete work of art (blending music, visuals and language) in the works of the German composer Richard Wagner also had a profound impact on these writers. Stéphane Mallarmé 's profound interest in the limits of language as an attempt at describing the world, and his use of convoluted syntax, and in his last major poem Un coup de dés , the spacing, size and position of words on
8140-419: The original French. Hugo explained his ambitions for the novel to his Italian publisher: I don't know whether it will be read by everyone, but it is meant for everyone. It addresses England as well as Spain, Italy as well as France, Germany as well as Ireland, the republics that harbour slaves as well as empires that have serfs. Social problems go beyond frontiers. Humankind's wounds, those huge sores that litter
8250-418: The other, in its entirety and details ... a progress from evil to good, from injustice to justice, from falsehood to truth, from night to day, from appetite to conscience, from corruption to life; from bestiality to duty, from hell to heaven, from nothingness to God. The starting point: matter, destination: the soul. The hydra at the beginning, the angel at the end. The novel contains various subplots, but
8360-523: The page were important modern breakthroughs that continue to preoccupy contemporary poetry in France. Arthur Rimbaud 's prose poem collection Illuminations are among the first free verse poems in French; his biographically inspired poem Une saison en enfer (A Season in Hell) was championed by the Surrealists as a revolutionary modern literary act (the same work would play an important role in
8470-456: The plot, nor even a subplot, a method Hugo used in such other works as The Hunchback of Notre-Dame and Toilers of the Sea . One biographer noted, "The digressions of genius are easily pardoned". The topics Hugo addresses include cloistered religious orders , the construction of the Paris sewers , argot , and the street urchins of Paris. The one about convents he titles "Parenthesis" to alert
8580-494: The police to arrive. Thénardier sends Éponine and Azelma outside to look out for the police. When Valjean returns with rent money, Thénardier, with Patron-Minette, ambushes him, revealing his true identity. Marius recognizes Thénardier as the man who saved his father's life at Waterloo and is caught in a dilemma. He tries to find a way to save Valjean while not betraying Thénardier. Valjean denies knowing Thénardier and tells him that they have never met. Valjean tries to escape through
8690-467: The poor of the Cour des miracles , including the Thénardiers' eldest son, Gavroche , who is a street urchin . One of the students, Marius Pontmercy , has become alienated from his family (especially his royalist grandfather, M. Gillenormand) because of his Bonapartist views. After the death of his father, Colonel Georges Pontmercy, Marius discovers a note from him instructing his son to provide help to
8800-405: The pursuit of the beautiful) strove for exact and faultless workmanship, and selected exotic and classical subjects which they treated with a rigidity of form and an emotional detachment (elements of which echo the philosophical work of Arthur Schopenhauer whose aesthetic theories would also have an influence on the symbolists). Modern science and geography were united with romantic adventure in
8910-473: The reader to its irrelevance to the storyline. Hugo devotes another 19 chapters (Volume II, Book I) to an account—and meditation on the place in history—of the Battle of Waterloo , the battlefield of which Hugo visited in 1861 and where he finished writing the novel. It opens volume 2 with such a change of subject as to seem the beginning of an entirely different work. The fact that this "digression" occupies such
9020-499: The religion itself asserts what is sometimes termed " ecclesiastical privilege " only for its appointed elders. A tariqah is how a religious order is described in Sufism . It especially refers to the mystical teaching and spiritual practices of such an order with the aim of seeking ḥaqīqah "ultimate truth". Such tariqas typically have a murshid (guide) who plays the role of leader or spiritual director. Members and followers of
9130-516: The ritual cutting of the monastic's hair which takes place during the service) and is considered by monks to be a Sacred Mystery (Sacrament). The Rite of Tonsure is printed in the Euchologion ( Church Slavonic : Trebnik ), the same book as the other Sacred Mysteries and services performed according to need. Martin Luther had concerns with the spiritual value of monastic life at the time of
9240-412: The romantic movement would continue to be felt in the latter half of the century in diverse literary developments, such as "realism", "symbolism", and the so-called fin de siècle "decadent" movement . French romanticism used forms such as the historical novel , the romance , the "roman noir" or Gothic novel ; subjects like traditional myths (including the myth of the romantic hero ), nationalism ,
9350-444: The romantic poet, and the world-weariness of the "mal du siècle", etc. Similar elements occur in the novels of Jules Barbey d'Aurevilly . The poetry of Baudelaire and much of the literature in the latter half of the century (or " fin de siècle ") were often characterized as " decadent " for their lurid content or moral vision. In a similar vein, Paul Verlaine used the expression " poète maudit " ("accursed poet") in 1884 to refer to
9460-566: The romantics often chose subjects from historic periods (the French Renaissance , the reign of Louis XIII of France ) and doomed noble characters (rebel princes and outlaws) or misunderstood artists (Vigny's play based on the life of Thomas Chatterton ). Victor Hugo was the outstanding genius of the Romantic School and its recognized leader. He was prolific alike in poetry, drama, and fiction. Other writers associated with
9570-461: The salon of Louis Charles Delescluze , the salon of Antoine (or Antony Deschamps ), the salon of Madame de Staël . Romanticism in France defied political affiliation: one finds both "liberal" (like Stendhal ), "conservative" (like Chateaubriand ) and socialist ( George Sand ) strains. The expression " Realism ", when being applied to literature of the 19th century, implies the attempt to depict contemporary life and society. The growth of realism
9680-719: The separation of the English church from Roman primacy. For three hundred years, there were no formal religious orders in Anglicanism, although some informal communities – such as the Little Gidding community – occasionally sprang into being. With the advent of the Oxford Movement in the Church of England and worldwide Anglicanism in the middle of the 19th century, several orders appeared. In 1841,
9790-446: The severity of her illness, she falls back in shock and dies. Valjean goes to Fantine, speaks to her in an inaudible whisper, kisses her hand, and then leaves with Javert. Later, Fantine's body is unceremoniously thrown into a public grave. Valjean escapes, is recaptured, and is sentenced to death. The king commutes his sentence to penal servitude for life. While imprisoned in the Bagne of Toulon , Valjean, at great personal risk, rescues
9900-406: The silver candlesticks to make an honest man of himself. Valjean broods over Myriel's words. When opportunity presents itself, purely out of habit, he steals a 40- sou coin from 12-year-old Petit Gervais and chases the boy away. He quickly repents and panics, searching the city for Gervais. At the same time, his theft is reported to the authorities. Valjean hides as they search for him because if he
10010-437: The soldiers retreat from the barricade. 19th-century French literature French literary history Medieval 16th century • 17th century 18th century • 19th century 20th century • Contemporary Literature by country France • Quebec Postcolonial • Haiti Franco-American Portals France • Literature French literature Wikisource 19th-century French literature concerns
10120-529: The spirit of the Revolution, but the production of Victor Hugo 's Hernani in 1830 marked the triumph of the romantic movement on the stage (a description of the turbulent opening night can be found in Théophile Gautier). The dramatic unities of time and place were abolished, tragic and comic elements appeared together and metrical freedom was won. Marked by the plays of Friedrich Schiller ,
10230-506: The straightforward recitation of events, his voice and control of the storyline unconstrained by time and sequence. The novel opens with a statement about the bishop of Digne in 1815 and immediately shifts: "Although these details in no way essentially concern that which we have to tell..." Only after 14 chapters does Hugo pick up the opening thread again, "In the early days of the month of October, 1815...", to introduce Jean Valjean. An incident Hugo witnessed in 1829 involved three strangers and
10340-459: The streets of Paris, saw the barricades blocking his way at points, and had to take shelter from gunfire. He participated more directly in the 1848 Paris insurrection , helping to smash barricades and suppress both the popular revolt and its monarchist allies. Victor Hugo drew his inspiration from everything he heard and saw, writing it down in his diary. In December 1846, he witnessed an altercation between an old woman scavenging through rubbish and
10450-421: The struggles of ex-convict Jean Valjean and his experience of redemption. Examining the nature of law and grace, the novel elaborates upon the history of France , the architecture and urban design of Paris, politics, moral philosophy , antimonarchism , justice, religion, and the types and nature of romantic and familial love. Upton Sinclair described the novel as "one of the half-dozen greatest novels of
10560-680: The supra-national Benedictine Confederation . Non-monastic religious institutes typically have a motherhouse, generalate, or general curia with jurisdiction over any number of dependent religious communities, whose members may be moved by their superior general to its other communities as the institute's needs require. Well-known Roman Catholic religious institute include Augustinians , Basilians , Benedictines , Bethlehemites , Bridgettines , Camaldolese , Carmelites , Carthusians , Cistercians , Conceptionists , Crosiers , Dominicans , Franciscans , Hieronymites , Jesuits , Minims , Piarists , Salesians , Olivetans , Theatines , Trappists and
10670-410: The surname Jondrette at the Gorbeau House (coincidentally, the same building Valjean and Cosette briefly lived in after leaving the Thénardiers' inn). Marius lives there as well, next door to the Thénardiers. Éponine, now ragged and emaciated, visits Marius at his apartment to beg for money. To impress him, she tries to prove her literacy by reading aloud from a book and by writing "The Cops Are Here" on
10780-483: The theatrical melodramas of the period and, in an even more lurid and gruesome light, in the Grand Guignol at the end of the century. Gustave Flaubert 's great novels Madame Bovary (1857)—which reveals the tragic consequences of romanticism on the wife of a provincial doctor—and Sentimental Education represent perhaps the highest stages in the development of French realism, while Flaubert's romanticism
10890-523: The time and features the interventions of detectives and the indifference of aristocrats. Although socially progressive in tone, it is more sensationalist than Les Misérables and does not have the same breadth of moral vision. In 1815 Digne , the peasant Jean Valjean , just released from 19 years' imprisonment in the Bagne of Toulon —five for stealing bread for his starving sister and her family and fourteen more for numerous escape attempts—is turned away by innkeepers because his yellow passport marks him as
11000-549: The traditional forms of solemnly vowed religious order there are four key categories: Religious life began in the Latin Church as early as the 3rd century, with the Order of Saint Benedict being formed in the 6th, in 529. All the earliest religious foundations were either essentially monastic or canonical depending on how much weight they placed on monastic enclosure or pastoral care respectively. Initially rules of life tended to vary between communities but gradually by
11110-446: The whole the symbolists did not stress moral or ethical ideas. In poetry, the symbolist procedure—as typified by Paul Verlaine —was to use subtle suggestion instead of precise statement ( rhetoric was banned) and to evoke moods and feelings by the magic of words and repeated sounds and the cadence of verse (musicality) and metrical innovation. Some symbolists explored the use of free verse . The use of leitmotifs, medieval settings and
11220-504: The workers in his paper factory by lifting a heavy cart on his shoulders as Valjean does. Hugo's description of Valjean rescuing a sailor on the Orion draws almost word for word on a Baron La Roncière's letter describing such an incident. Hugo used Bienvenu de Miollis (1753–1843), the Bishop of Digne during the time in which Valjean encounters Myriel, as the model for Myriel. Hugo had used
11330-594: The works of François-René de Chateaubriand and Benjamin Constant and in Madame de Staël 's interpretation of Germany as the land of romantic ideals. It found early expression also in the sentimental poetry of Alphonse de Lamartine . The major battles of romanticism in France were in the theater. The early years of the century were marked by a revival of classicism and classical-inspired tragedies, often with themes of national sacrifice or patriotic heroism in keeping with
11440-456: The works of Jules Verne and other writers of popular serial adventure novels and early science-fiction. The naturalist tendency to see life without illusions and to dwell on its more depressing and sordid aspects appears in an intensified degree in the immensely influential poetry of Charles Baudelaire , but with profoundly romantic elements derived from the Byronic myth of the anti-hero and
11550-423: The world" and remarked that Hugo set forth the purpose of Les Misérables in the preface: So long as there shall exist, by reason of law and custom, a social condemnation, which, in the face of civilization, artificially creates hells on earth, and complicates a destiny that is divine with human fatality; so long as the three problems of the age—the degradation of man by poverty, the ruin of women by starvation, and
11660-486: The world's religions . In Buddhist societies, a religious order is one of the number of monastic orders of monks and nuns, many of which follow a certain school of teaching—such as Thailand's Dhammayuttika order , a monastic order founded by King Mongkut (Rama IV). A well-known Chinese Buddhist order is the ancient Shaolin order in Ch'an ( Zen ) Buddhism; and in modern times, the Order of Hsu Yun. A Religious order in
11770-456: The world, do not stop at the blue and red lines drawn on maps. Wherever men go in ignorance or despair, wherever women sell themselves for bread, wherever children lack a book to learn from or a warm hearth, Les Misérables knocks at the door and says: "open up, I am here for you". More than a quarter of the novel—by one count 955 of 2,783 pages—is devoted to essays that argue a moral point or display Hugo's encyclopedic knowledge but do not advance
11880-489: Was the turn of the thinkers. The century that Waterloo was intended to arrest has pursued its march. That sinister victory was vanquished by liberty. One critic has called this "the spiritual gateway" to the novel, as its chance encounter of Thénardier and Colonel Pontmercy foreshadows so many of the novel's encounters "blending chance and necessity", a "confrontation of heroism and villainy". Even when not turning to other subjects outside his narrative, Hugo sometimes interrupts
11990-451: Was unique. The symbolists often share themes that parallel Schopenhauer's aesthetics and notions of will, fatality and unconscious forces. The symbolists often used themes of sex (often through the figure of the prostitute), the city, irrational phenomena (delirium, dreams, narcotics, alcohol), and sometimes a vaguely medieval setting. The tone of symbolism is highly variable, at times realistic, imaginative, ironic or detached, although on
12100-410: Was very much in love with Félix Tholomyès. His friends, Listolier, Fameuil, and Blachevelle, were also paired with Fantine's friends Dahlia, Zéphine, and Favourite. The men abandon the women, treating their relationships as youthful amusements. Fantine must draw on her own resources to care for her and Tholomyès's daughter, Cosette . When Fantine arrives at Montfermeil , she leaves Cosette in the care of
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