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131-413: Lindesberg has centuries old history, being the center of an old mining district. The earliest known traces of a town are in the foundations of the 14th century stone church. That town was however known as Lindesås. It got its charter and current name in 1643, granted by Queen Christina , making it one of the now defunct Cities of Sweden . The name lind means the linden tree (Br. Eng. lime tree ), which

262-631: A "Ballet de la Naissance de la Paix," performed on her birthday. On the day after, 19 December 1649, he probably started his private lessons for the queen. With Christina's strict schedule, he was invited to the cold and draughty castle at 5:00 am daily to discuss philosophy and religion. Soon, it became clear they did not like each other; she disapproved of his mechanical view, and he did not appreciate her interest in Ancient Greek . On 15 January Descartes wrote he had seen Christina only four or five times. On 1 February 1650, Descartes caught

393-470: A book about Greek dance . Christina was interested in theatre, especially the plays of Pierre Corneille ; she was herself an amateur actress. From 1638 Oxenstierna employed a French ballet troupe under Antoine de Beaulieu , who also had to teach Christina to move around more elegantly. In 1647, the Italian architect Antonio Brunati was ordered to build a theatrical setting in one of the larger rooms of

524-741: A bride. She sent letters recommending two of the Duke's daughters to Charles. Based on this recommendation, he married Hedwig Eleonora . On 10 July Christina arrived in Hamburg and stayed with Jacob Curiel at Krameramtsstuben . Christina visited Johann Friedrich Gronovius , and Anna Maria van Schurman in the Dutch Republic. In August, she arrived in the Southern Netherlands and settled down in Antwerp. For four months Christina

655-500: A cavalry charge on his wing. Lützen was a victory for the Protestants, but cost them their leader, which caused their campaign to lose direction and finally suffer a crushing defeat at Nördlingen . Towards 1:00 pm, in the thick mix of gun smoke and fog covering the field, the king was separated from his fellow riders and suffered multiple shots. A bullet crushed his left arm below the elbow. Almost simultaneously his horse suffered

786-575: A certain Gian Rinaldo Monaldeschi. The official entry into Rome took place on 20 December, in a sedan chair designed by Bernini through Porta Flaminia , which today is known as Porta del Popolo . Christina met Bernini on the next day, she invited him to her apartment the same evening and they became lifelong friends. "Two days afterwards she was conducted to the Vatican Basilica, where the pope gave her confirmation. It

917-456: A cold. He died ten days later, early in the morning of 11 February 1650, and according to Chanut, the cause of his death was pneumonia . By the age of nine, Christina was already impressed by the Catholic religion and the merits of celibacy . She read a biography of the virgin queen Elizabeth I of England with interest. But Christina understood that she was expected to provide an heir to

1048-425: A deposed brother ( Eric XIV of Sweden ) and a deposed nephew ( Sigismund III of Poland ). Gustav Adolf's legitimate younger brothers had died years earlier. The one legitimate female left, his half-sister Catharine , came to be excluded in 1615 when she married John Casimir, a non-Lutheran. Christina became the undisputed heir presumptive . From Christina's birth, King Gustav Adolph recognized her eligibility even as

1179-647: A female heir, and although she was called "queen," the official title the Riksdag gave at her coronation in February 1633 was "king". In June 1630, when Christina was three years old, Gustav Adolf left for Germany to defend Protestantism and became involved in the Thirty Years' War . He secured his daughter's right to inherit the throne, in case he never returned, and gave orders to Axel Gustafsson Banér, his marshal, that Christina should receive an education of

1310-591: A few exceptions, including Ebba Sparre , Lady Jane Ruthven and Louise van der Nooth , Christina did not show any interest in any of her female courtiers. She generally mentions them in her memoirs only to compare herself favorably toward them by referring to herself as more masculine than they. Christina was educated as a royal male would have been. The theologian Johannes Matthiae Gothus became her tutor; he gave her lessons in religion, philosophy, Greek and Latin . Chancellor Oxenstierna taught her politics and discussed Tacitus with her. Oxenstierna proudly wrote of

1441-468: A guitarist. A Dutch theater troupe with Ariana Nozeman and Susanna van Lee visited her in 1653. Among the French artists she employed was Anne Chabanceau de La Barre , who was made court singer. In 1646, Christina's good friend, the French ambassador Pierre Chanut , met and corresponded with the philosopher René Descartes , asking him for a copy of his Meditations . Upon showing the queen some of

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1572-569: A location in Örebro County , Sweden is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Christina of Sweden Christina ( Swedish : Kristina ; 18 December [ O.S. 8 December] 1626 – 19 April 1689) was a member of the House of Vasa and the Queen of Sweden in her own right from 1632 until her abdication in 1654. Her conversion to Catholicism and refusal to marry led her to relinquish her throne and move to Rome. The Swedish queen

1703-456: A monument to Gustavus Adolphus was agreed to, and it was suggested by Superintendent Grossmann that the best memorial to Gustavus Adolphus would be the formation of a union for propagating his ideas. It quickly gained popularity in Germany. The lack of political correctness received some criticism; however, the organization used GAW as its brand in the meanwhile. The Swedish royal family visited

1834-611: A never-ending round of fireworks, jousts , mock duels, acrobatics, and operas. On 31 January Vita Humana an opera by Marco Marazzoli was performed. At the Palazzo Barberini , where she was welcomed on 28 February by a few hundred privileged spectators, she watched an amazing carousel in the courtyard. Christina had settled down in the Palazzo Farnese , which belonged to the Duke of Parma . Every Wednesday she held

1965-492: A new church order, but it was voted down as this was interpreted as Crypto-Calvinism . Queen Christina defended him against the advice of Chancellor Oxenstierna, but three years later, the proposal had to be withdrawn. In 1647, the clergy wanted to introduce the Book of Concord ( Swedish : Konkordieboken ) – a book defining correct Lutheranism versus heresy, making some aspects of free theological thinking impossible. Matthiae

2096-593: A policy. In 1649, Louis de Geer founded the Swedish Africa Company and in 1650, Christina hired Hendrik Carloff to improve trade on the Gold Coast . Her reign also saw the founding of the colony of New Sweden in 1638; it lasted until 1655. Christina has been described as the " Minerva of the North" due to her strong support of arts and academics. In 1645, Christina invited Hugo Grotius ,

2227-650: A quarrel between the Protestant and Catholic parties. The Brandenburg minister and diplomat baron Samuel von Winterfeld  [ de ] influenced Gustavus Adolphus to support and protect the Protestant side in Germany. When Gustavus Adolphus began his push into northern Germany in June–July 1630, he had just 4,000 troops. He was soon able to consolidate the Protestant position in the north, however, using reinforcements from Sweden and money supplied by France at

2358-669: A round of this dynastic dispute, Gustavus Adolphus invaded Livonia when he was 31, beginning the Polish–Swedish War (1626–1629) . In the course of it he won a victory at Wallhof , fought at Gniew , Dirschau , and suffered a defeat at Trzciana . His reign became known from his actions a few years later when, in June 1630, he landed in Germany, marking the Swedish intervention in the Thirty Years' War . Gustavus Adolphus intervened on

2489-412: A shot to the neck that made it hard to control. In the mix of fog and smoke from the burning town of Lützen the king rode astray behind enemy lines. There he sustained yet another shot in the back, was stabbed and fell from his horse. Lying on the ground, he received a final, fatal shot to the temple. His fate remained unknown for some time. However, when the gunnery paused and the smoke cleared, his horse

2620-459: A sixteen-year-old Gustavus inherited the throne, being declared of age and able to reign himself at seventeen as of 16 December. He also inherited an ongoing succession of occasionally belligerent dynastic disputes with his Polish cousin, Sigismund III, who persisted in his effort to regain the Swedish throne. He also briefly assumed the title of tsar of Russia in the beginning of his reign. In

2751-520: A threat in the manifesto had never reached more than a quarter of the size of the Swedish fleet. Moreover, it was never maintained to challenge Sweden but to face the separatist Netherlands. So if ruling the Baltic Sea was a goal of Swedish strategy, the conquests in Germany were not a defensive war but an act of expansion. From Swedish Finland, Gustavus Adolphus advanced along the Baltic Sea coast and eventually to Augsburg and Munich and he even urged

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2882-565: A work bestowing doubt on all organized religion. In 1651, the kabbalist Menasseh ben Israel offered to become her agent or librarian for Hebrew books and manuscripts; they discussed his messianic ideas as he had recently spelled them out in his latest book, Hope of Israel . Other illustrious scholars who came to visit were Claude Saumaise , Johannes Schefferus , Olaus Rudbeck , Johann Heinrich Boeckler , Gabriel Naudé , Christian Ravis , Nicolaas Heinsius and Samuel Bochart , together with Pierre Daniel Huet and Marcus Meibomius , who wrote

3013-486: Is an exaggeration to credit him with a uniquely disciplined conscript army, or call his the first military state to fight a protracted war on the continent. He argues that he improved existing techniques and used them brilliantly. Richard Brzezinski says his legendary status was based on inaccurate myths created by later historians. Many of his innovations were developed by his senior staff. Gustavus Adolphus' politics also show progressive tendencies: for example, in 1631, in

3144-401: Is failing or great, subject to such rule in common, so that otherwise I would have had scant reason to desire such a rule, had I not found myself obliged to it through God's bidding and nature. Now it was of my acquaintance, that inasmuch as God had let me be born a prince, such as I then am born, then my good and my destruction were knotted into one with the common good; for every reason then, it

3275-535: Is my protector!" However, it is more likely that he simply wore a padded cuirass rather than going into battle wearing no battle protection whatsoever. In 1627, near Dirschau in Prussia, a Polish soldier shot him in the muscles above his shoulders. He survived, but the doctors could not remove the bullet, so from that point on, he could not wear iron armor and two fingers of his right hand were paralyzed. The plate cuirass normally worn by important officers at that time

3406-601: Is one of the few women buried in the Vatican Grottoes . Christina was born in the royal castle Tre Kronor . Her parents were the Swedish king Gustavus Adolphus and his German wife, Maria Eleonora . They had already had three children: two daughters (a stillborn princess in 1621, then the first Princess Christina, who was born in 1623 and died the following year) and a stillborn son in May 1625. Excited expectations surrounded Maria Eleonora's fourth pregnancy in 1626. When

3537-546: Is regarded as the first tourist to visit North Cape, Norway . Another Franciscan was the Swede Lars Skytte, who, under the name pater Laurentius, served as Christina's confessor for eight years. Twenty-nine-year-old Christina gave occasion to much gossip when socializing freely with men her own age. One of them was Cardinal Decio Azzolino , who had been a secretary to the ambassador in Spain, and responsible for

3668-563: Is remembered as one of the most erudite women of the 17th century, wanting Stockholm to become the "Athens of the North" and was given the special right to establish a university at will by the Peace of Westphalia . She is also remembered for her unconventional lifestyle and occasional adoption of masculine attire, which have been depicted frequently in media; gender and cultural identity are pivotal themes in many of her biographies. She succeeded her father Gustavus Adolphus upon his death at

3799-533: Is said to have been almost ruined by her visit. Her departure was on 8 November. The southbound journey through Italy was planned in detail by the Vatican and included brilliant triumphs in Ferrara, Bologna, Faenza and Rimini. In Pesaro , Christina became acquainted with the handsome brothers Santinelli , who so impressed her with their poetry and adeptness of dancing that she took them into service, as well as

3930-550: Is why the coat of arms depicts a tree. The mining district Lindesberg was mentioned on the 16th century grand map Carta Marina . Between 1996 and 2007, the Augustibuller punk festival had been held in Lindesberg. The festival attracted more visitors each year and some of the bands who played were Desmond Dekker , Charged GBH , Bad Manners , Napalm Death and The Perishers . Due to low number of visitors in 2007,

4061-534: Is widely commemorated by Protestants in Europe as the main defender of their cause during the Thirty Years' War, with multiple churches, foundations and other undertakings named after him. He became a symbol of Swedish pride, and his name is attached to city squares in major Swedish cities like Stockholm , Gothenburg and Helsingborg . Gustavus Adolphus Day is celebrated in Sweden and Finland each year on 6 November,

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4192-638: The Codex Argenteus and the Codex Gigas . In 1649, 760 paintings, 170 marble and 100 bronze statues, 33,000 coins and medallions, 600 pieces of crystal, 300 scientific instruments, manuscripts, and books (including the Sanctae Crucis laudibus by Rabanus Maurus ) were transported to Stockholm. The art, from Prague Castle , had belonged to Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor and had been captured by Hans Christoff von Königsmarck during

4323-673: The Battle of Lützen at seven years old, but she began ruling the Swedish Empire when she reached the age of eighteen. During the Torstenson War in 1644, she initiated the issuance of copper in lumps to be used as currency . Her lavish spending habits pushed the state towards bankruptcy, sparking public unrest. Christina argued for peace to end the Thirty Years' War and received indemnity . Following scandals over her not marrying and converting to Catholicism, she relinquished

4454-459: The Battle of Prague and the negotiations of the Peace of Westphalia . By 1649–1650, "her desire to collect men of learning round her, as well as books and rare manuscripts, became almost a mania", Goldsmith wrote. To catalog her new collection she asked Isaac Vossius to come to Sweden and Heinsius to purchase more books on the market. Her ambitions naturally demanded a wide-ranging correspondence. Not infrequently, she sat and wrote far into

4585-413: The Battle of Prague (1648) , when her armies looted Prague Castle , many of the treasures collected by Rudolph II were brought back to Stockholm. Thus, Christina acquired a number of valuable illustrated works and rare manuscripts for her library. The inventory drawn up at the time mentions 100 an allerhand Kunstbüchern ("a hundred art books of different kinds"), among them two world-famous manuscripts:

4716-603: The Confessio Augustana , the core confession of faith of the Lutheran Church , and let himself be praised as its saviour. Yet Gustavus Adolphus's own "manifesto of war" does not mention any religious motivations at all but speaks of political and economic reasons. Sweden would have to maintain its integrity in the face of several provocations and aggressions by the Habsburg Empire. The manifesto

4847-529: The Duke of Guise gave up. Christina's goal was to become a mediator between France and Spain in their contest to control Naples. Her plan detailed that she would lead French troops to take Naples and rule until bequeathing the crown to France after her death. Christina sent home all her Spanish servants, including her confidant Pimentel and her confessor Guêmes. On 20 July 1656 Christina set sail from Civitavecchia for Marseille where she arrived nine days later. In early August, she traveled to Paris, accompanied by

4978-503: The Galerie des Cerfs , discussing the matter and letters with him. He insisted that betrayal should be punished with death. She was convinced that he had pronounced his own death sentence. After an hour or so Le Bel was to receive his confession. Both Le Bel and Monaldeschi entreated for mercy, but he was stabbed by her domestics – notably Ludovico Santinelli – in his stomach and in his neck. Wearing his coat of mail , which protected him, he

5109-592: The Rhine , making plans for the invasion of the rest of the Holy Roman Empire . In March 1632, Gustavus Adolphus invaded Bavaria , an ally of the Emperor. He forced the withdrawal of his Catholic opponents at the Battle of Rain , marking the high point of the campaign. In the summer of that year, he sought a political solution that would preserve the existing structure of states in Germany, while guaranteeing

5240-531: The Riksdag of the Estates in 1634. He is often regarded as one of the greatest military commanders in modern history, with use of an early form of combined arms . His most notable military victory was the Battle of Breitenfeld in 1631. With his resources, logistics, and support, Gustavus Adolphus was positioned to become a major European leader, but he was killed a year later at the Battle of Lützen . He

5371-624: The Swiss Confederacy to join him. This was no longer about Baltic interests but the imperial capital of Vienna and the alpine passes that were now in close reach of the Swedish army. Burkhardt points out that the Gothic legacy of the Swedes, coalesced as a political program. The Swedish king was also " Rex Gotorum " ( Latin : King of the Goths ), and the list of kings was traced back to

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5502-739: The Treaty of Bärwalde . After Swedish plundering in Brandenburg (1631) endangered the system of retrieving war contributions from occupied territories , "marauding and plundering" by Swedish soldiers was prohibited. Meanwhile, a Catholic army under Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly was laying waste to Saxony . Gustavus Adolphus met Tilly's army and won a decisive victory at the First Battle of Breitenfeld in September 1631. He then marched across Germany, establishing his winter quarters near

5633-612: The University of Tartu . Despite significant hardships for the common people, the period of Swedish rule over Estonia has been idealized in local folklore as the "good old Swedish times", which has been attributed to comparisons with the harder times that followed under the Russian rule. On 27 August 1617, his speech before his coronation included the following statement: I had carefully learned to understand, about that experience which I could have upon things of rule, how fortune

5764-483: The putrefaction . They tried to persuade Maria not to visit the corpse so often. Axel Oxenstierna managed to have the corpse interred in Riddarholmen Church on 22 June 1634, but had to post guards after she tried to dig it up. Maria Eleanora had been indifferent to her daughter, but after Gustav Adolf's death, Christina became the center of her mother's attention. Gustav Adolf had decided that in

5895-416: The 14-year-old girl that "she is not at all like a female" and had "a bright intelligence." Christina seemed happy to study ten hours a day. Besides Swedish and German , she learned at least six more languages: Dutch , Danish , French , Italian , Arabic and Hebrew . In 1644, at the age of 18, Christina was declared an adult, although the coronation was postponed because of the Torstenson War . She

6026-452: The Baltic Sea. The final inherited war, the war against Poland , ended in 1629 with the Truce of Altmark , which transferred the large province of Livonia to Sweden and freed the Swedish forces for the subsequent intervention in the Thirty Years' War in Germany, where Swedish forces had already established a bridgehead in 1628. The electorate of Brandenburg was especially torn apart by

6157-458: The Danish war was the most serious. During his reign, Sweden rose from the status of a Baltic Sea basin regional power to one of the great powers of Europe and a model of early modern era government. Gustavus Adolphus is known as the "father of modern warfare", or the first modern general. He taught a number of other military commanders, such as Lennart Torstensson , who would go on to expand

6288-493: The Duke of Guise. Mazarin gave her no official sponsorship but gave instructions that she be celebrated and entertained in every town on her way north. On 8 September she arrived in Paris and was shown around; ladies were shocked by her masculine appearance and demeanor and the unguarded freedom of her conversation. When visiting the ballet with la Grande Mademoiselle , she, as the latter recalls, "surprised me very much – applauding

6419-618: The Estates in 1634, making him officially called Gustavus Adolphus the Great ( Gustavus Adolphus Magnus ). Gustavus Adolphus was the main figure responsible for the success of Swedish arms during the Thirty Years' War and led his nation to great prestige. As a general , Gustavus Adolphus employed mobile artillery on the battlefield, as well as very aggressive tactics, where attack was stressed over defense, and mobility and cavalry initiative were emphasized. Among other innovations, he installed an early form of combined arms in his formations, where

6550-468: The French doctor Pierre Bourdelot arrived in Stockholm. Unlike most doctors of that time, he held no faith in blood-letting ; instead, he ordered sufficient sleep, warm baths, and healthy meals, in contrast to Christina's hitherto ascetic way of life. She was only twenty-five; and advising that she should take more pleasure in life, Bourdelot asked her to stop studying and working so hard and to remove

6681-705: The GAW headquarters in Leipzig on the 400th birthday of Gustavus Adolphus, in 1994. The Columbia Encyclopedia sums up his record: The German Socialist Franz Mehring wrote a biography of Gustavus Adolphus with a Marxist perspective on the actions of the Swedish king during the Thirty Years' War. In it, he makes a case that the war was fought over economics and trade rather than religion. The Swedes discovered huge deposits of copper, which were used to build brass cannon. The cottage-industrial growth stimulated an armaments industry. In his book "Ofredsår" ("Years of Warfare"),

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6812-568: The Gothic rulers to construct continuity. Prior to his embarkment to northern Germany, Gustavus urged the Swedish nobility to follow the example of conquests set by their Gothic ancestors. Had he lived longer, it would have been likely that Gustavus had reached out for the imperial crown of the Holy Roman Empire. The Swedish composer Franz Berwald composed the choral work Gustaf Adolph den stores seger och död vid Lützen ( Gustav Adolf

6943-474: The Great", or Gustav Adolf den Store in Swedish , the only Swedish monarch to be so honoured. As those Vasa princes who descended from deposed monarchs were excluded from the throne and Gustavus Adolphus's younger brother had died ten years before, his young daughter Christina became his successor, with Maria Eleonora and other ministers governing on her behalf. He left one other known child, his illegitimate son Gustav, Count of Vasaborg . Gustavus Adolphus

7074-440: The Great's Victory and Death near Lützen ) in 1845. He is also the protagonist of Max Bruch 's 1898 choral work Gustav Adolf . He is also a significant supporting character in the best-selling alternate history book series, 1632 , written by American author Eric Flint (first published in 2000). The song "The Lion from the North" from the album Carolus Rex , released in 2012 by Swedish power metal band Sabaton ,

7205-618: The North Sea and was no longer encircled by Denmark–Norway . Chancellor Oxenstierna soon discovered that her political views differed from his own. In 1645, he sent his son, Johan Oxenstierna , to the Peace Congress in the Westphalian city of Osnabrück , to argue against peace with the Holy Roman Empire . Christina, however, wanted peace at any cost and sent her own delegate, Johan Adler Salvius . The Peace of Westphalia

7336-559: The Royal Council decided to split the office of head lady-in-waiting (responsible for the queen's female courtiers) and the office royal governess (or foster-mother) in four, with two women appointed to share each office. Accordingly, Ebba Leijonhufvud and Christina Natt och Dag were appointed to share the position of royal governess and foster mother with the title Upptuktelse-Förestånderska ('Castigation Mistress'), while Beata Oxenstierna and Ebba Ryning were appointed to share

7467-587: The Spanish tercios that were up to 50 ranks deep) used in other pike and shot armies of the day. In consequence, his forces could redeploy and reconfigure very rapidly, confounding his enemies. He created the modern Swedish Navy , which transported troops and supplies to the Continental battlefront. Carl von Clausewitz and Napoleon Bonaparte considered him one of the greatest generals of all time, an evaluation agreed with by George S. Patton and others. He

7598-401: The Swedish historian and author Peter Englund argues that there was probably no single all-important reason for the king's decision to go to war. Instead, it was likely a combination of religious, security, as well as economic considerations. This view is supported by German historian Johannes Burkhardt, who writes that Gustavus entered the 30 Years War exactly 100 years after the publication of

7729-470: The Swedish throne. Her first cousin Charles was infatuated with her, and they became secretly engaged before he left in 1642 to serve in the Swedish army in Germany for three years. Christina revealed in her autobiography that she felt "an insurmountable distaste for marriage" and "for all the things that females talked about and did." She once stated, "It takes more courage to marry than to go to war." As she

7860-585: The Thirty Years' War gave rise to the nickname "the Lion from the North". Historian Ronald S. Love wrote that in 1560–1660 there were "a few innovators, notably Maurice of Nassau and Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, whom many scholars credit with revolutionary developments in warfare and with having laid the foundations of military practice for the next two centuries." Scholars consider him an extremely able military commander. His integration of infantry, cavalry, logistics, and particularly his use of artillery, earned him

7991-962: The Vatican's correspondence with European courts. He was also the leader of the Squadrone Volante , the free-thinking "Flying Squad" movement within the Catholic Church. Christina and Azzolino were so close that the pope asked him to shorten his visits to her palace, but they remained lifelong friends. In a letter on 26 January 1676 to Azzolino Christina writes (in French) that she would never offend God or give Azzolino reason to take offense, but this "does not prevent me from loving you until death, and since piety relieves you from being my lover, then I relieve you from being my servant, for I shall live and die as your slave." As he had promised to remain celibate, his replies were more reserved. In

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8122-492: The abdication ceremony at Uppsala Castle , Christina wore her regalia , which were ceremonially removed from her, one by one. Per Brahe , who was supposed to remove the crown, did not move, so she had to take the crown off herself. Dressed in a simple white taffeta dress, she gave her farewell speech with a faltering voice, thanked everyone, and left the throne to Charles X Gustav, who was dressed in black. Per Brahe felt that she "stood there as pretty as an angel." Charles Gustav

8253-664: The activities of Bourdelot and tried to convince her to change her attitude towards him; Bourdelot returned to France in 1653 "laden in riches and curses". The Queen had long conversations about Copernicus , Tycho Brahe , Francis Bacon , and Kepler with Antonio Macedo, secretary and interpreter for Portugal's ambassador. Macedo was a Jesuit , and in August 1651, smuggled on his person a letter from Christina to his general in Rome. In reply, Paolo Casati and Francesco Malines, trained in both natural sciences and theology, came to Sweden in

8384-650: The aid of other churches and commemorates Gustavus' legacy. It is responsible for taking care of the Diaspora work of the EKD and has separate branches internationally. The organization in Austria is called the Gustav-Adolf-Verein. The project of forming such a society was first broached in connection with the bicentennial celebration of the Battle of Lützen on 6 November 1832. A proposal to collect funds for

8515-489: The anti-Imperial side, which at the time was losing to the Holy Roman Empire and its Catholic allies; the Swedish forces would quickly reverse that situation. Gustavus Adolphus was married to Maria Eleonora of Brandenburg , the daughter of John Sigismund, Elector of Brandenburg , and chose the Prussian city of Elbing as the base for his operations in Germany. He died in the Battle of Lützen in 1632. His involvement in

8646-435: The archduke invited her to his Brussels palace on Coudenberg . On 24 December 1654, she converted to the Catholic faith in the archduke's chapel in the presence of the Dominican Juan Guêmes, Raimondo Montecuccoli and Pimentel. Baptized as Kristina Augusta, she adopted the name Christina Alexandra. She did not declare her conversion in public, in case the Swedish council might refuse to pay her alimony. In addition, Sweden

8777-497: The arrangement between her and Louis XIV was ready. He would recommend Christina as queen to the Kingdom of Naples and serve as guarantor against Spanish aggression. As Queen of Naples, she would be financially independent of the Swedish king, and also capable of negotiating peace between France and Spain. On her way back Christina visited French courtesan and author Ninon de l'Enclos in the convent at Lagny-sur-Marne . In early October, she left France and arrived in Torino . During

8908-474: The artillery, as his heavy cavalry did when turning captured artillery on the opposing Catholic tercios at First Breitenfeld . Pikemen could shoot—if not as accurately as those designated musketeers—so a valuable firearm could be kept in the firing line. His infantrymen and gunners were taught to ride, if needed. Napoleon thought highly of the achievement and copied the tactics. However, recent historians have challenged his reputation. B. H. Liddell Hart says it

9039-424: The assassin was named as Prince Francis Albert of Saxe-Lauenburg  [ de ] , who was next to the king on the occasion and was thought to be acting on behalf of the enemy. When King Charles XII of Sweden was shown purported evidence in 1707 he dismissed the theory out of doubt that "any prince could be so ungrateful" . In February 1633, the Riksdag of the Estates gave him the title "Gustavus Adolphus

9170-442: The author of Mare Liberum , to become her librarian, but he died on his way in Rostock . That same year she founded Ordinari Post Tijdender ("Regular Mail Times"), the oldest currently published newspaper in the world. In 1647, Johann Freinsheim was appointed as her librarian. During the Thirty Years' War, Swedish troops looted books from conquered territories and dispatched them to Sweden to win favour with Christina. After

9301-439: The baby was born, it was first thought to be a boy. It was "hairy" and screamed "with a strong, hoarse voice." She later wrote in her autobiography that "Deep embarrassment spread among the women when they discovered their mistake." The king, though, was very happy, saying, "She'll be clever, she has made fools of us all!" Gustav Adolf was closely attached to his daughter, whereas her mother remained aloof in her disappointment at

9432-476: The beheading of Arnold Johan Messenius , together with his 17-year-old son, who had accused her of serious misbehavior and of being a " Jezebel ". According to them "Christina was bringing everything to ruin, and that she cared for nothing but sport and pleasure." In 1653, she founded the Amaranten order . Antonio Pimentel was appointed as its first knight; all members had to promise not to marry (again). In

9563-489: The blame due to a brawl among courtiers, but she insisted that she alone was responsible for the act. She wrote to Louis XIV who two weeks later paid her a friendly visit without mentioning it. In Rome, people felt differently; Monaldeschi had been an Italian nobleman, murdered by a foreign barbarian with Santinelli as one of her executioners. The letters proving his guilt are gone; Christina left them with Le Bel and only he confirmed that they existed. Christina never revealed what

9694-487: The books from her apartments. For years, Christina knew by heart all the poems from the Ars Amatoria and was keen on the works by Martial and Petronius . The physician showed her the 16 erotic sonnets of Pietro Aretino , which he kept secretly in his luggage. By subtle means, Bourdelot undermined her principles. Having been Stoic , she now became an Epicurean . Her mother and de la Gardie were very much against

9825-477: The boundaries and power of the Swedish Empire after Gustavus Adolphus's death. Spoils meant he became a successful bookraider in Europe, targeting Jesuit library collections. His contributions to Sweden's rise in power included reformation of the administrative structure. For example, he began Parish Registration of the population, so that the central government could more efficiently tax and conscript

9956-429: The castle. Fountains at the marketplace splashed out wine for three days, a whole roast ox was served, and illuminations sparkled, followed by a themed parade ( The Illustrious Splendors of Felicity ) on 24 October. Her tutor, Johannes Matthiae, influenced by John Dury and Comenius , who since 1638 had been working on a new Swedish school system, represented a gentler attitude than most Lutherans. In 1644, he suggested

10087-421: The cavalry could attack from the safety of an infantry line reinforced by cannon, and retire again within to regroup after their foray. Inspired by the reform of Maurice of Nassau , he adopted much shallower infantry formations than were common in the pike and shot armies of the era, with formations typically fighting in 5 or 6 ranks, occasionally supported at some distance by another such formation—the gaps being

10218-549: The child being a girl. In the year after Christina's birth, Maria Eleonora was described as being in a state of hysteria owing to her husband's absences. She showed little affection for her daughter and was not allowed any influence in Christina's upbringing. He was worried that her instability might pass on to their daughter. The Crown of Sweden was hereditary in the House of Vasa , but from King Charles IX 's time onward (reigned 1604–11), it excluded Vasa princes descended from

10349-509: The conquered territory of Estonia he forced the local nobility into granting more individual rights to the commoners. He also encouraged education, opening a school in Tallinn in 1631, today known as Gustav Adolf Grammar School ( Estonian : Gustav Adolfi Gümnaasium ). On 30 June 1632, Gustavus Adolphus signed the decree for the foundation of Academia Dorpatensis in Estonia, today known as

10480-606: The day the king died at Lützen. One of the traditions on this day is the Gustavus Adolphus pastry . In Finland, the day is also celebrated as "Swedish heritage day". Gustavus Adolphus College , a Lutheran college in St. Peter, Minnesota , is also named for him. The Gustav-Adolf-Werk (GAW) of the Evangelical Church in Germany , founded on the bicentennial celebration of the Battle of Lützen , has as its object

10611-538: The diplomat Antonio Pimentel de Prado to Stockholm in August. On 26 February 1649, Christina announced that she had decided not to marry and instead wanted her first cousin Charles Gustav to be heir to the throne. While the nobility objected to this, the three other estates – clergy, burghers, and peasants – accepted it. She agreed to stay on the condition the councils never again asked her to marry. In 1651, Christina lost much of her popularity after

10742-418: The embalmed body of her husband. The 7-year-old Queen Christina came in solemn procession to Nyköping to receive her mother. Maria Eleonora declared that the burial should not take place during her lifetime - she often spoke of shortening her life - or at least should be postponed as long as possible. She also demanded that the coffin be kept open and went to see it regularly, patting it and taking no notice of

10873-513: The event of his death, his daughter should be cared for by his half-sister, Catherine of Sweden and half-brother Carl Gyllenhielm as regent. This solution did not suit Maria Eleonora, who had her sister-in-law banned from the castle. In 1634, the Instrument of Government , a new constitution, was introduced by Oxenstierna. The constitution stipulated that the "King" must have a Privy Council , which Oxenstierna himself headed. Maria Eleonora

11004-462: The execution of marchese Gian Rinaldo Monaldeschi , her master of the horse and formerly leader of the French party in Rome. For two months she had suspected Monaldeschi of disloyalty; she secretly seized his correspondence, which revealed that he had betrayed her interests. Christina gave three packages of letters to Le Bel, a priest, to keep them for her in custody. Three days later, at one o'clock on Saturday afternoon, she summoned Monaldeschi into

11135-402: The help of her uncle, John Casimir , Christina tried to reduce the influence of Oxenstierna when she declared her cousin Charles Gustav as her heir presumptive. The following year, Christina resisted demands from the other estates (clergy, burghers, and peasants) in the Riksdag of the Estates for the reduction of the number of noble landholdings that were tax-exempt. She never implemented such

11266-440: The last time on 28 October 1632 at Erfurt . The very next day, Gustav Adolf broke camp and left. On 3 November, Maria wrote to Axel Oxenstierna: "without H.R.M. 's presence, I am worth nothing, not even my life." Her mother, of the House of Hohenzollern , was said to be the most beautiful queen in Europe, but she was also considered hysterical, unstable and overly emotional. It is suggested that she inherited madness, from both

11397-459: The letters, Christina became interested in beginning a correspondence with Descartes. She invited him to Sweden, but Descartes was reluctant until she asked him to organize a scientific academy. Christina sent a ship to pick up the philosopher and 2,000 books. Descartes arrived on 4 October 1649. He resided with Chanut and finished his Passions of the Soul . It is highly unlikely Descartes wrote

11528-521: The librarian Lucas Holstenius , himself a convert, waited for her in Innsbruck . On 3 November 1655, Christina announced her conversion to Catholicism in the Hofkirche and wrote to Pope Alexander VII and her cousin Charles X about it. To celebrate her official conversion, L'Argia , an opera by Antonio Cesti , was performed. Ferdinand Charles, Archduke of Austria , already in financial trouble,

11659-606: The meantime Christina learned that the Swedes had confiscated all her revenue as the princess had become a Catholic. King Philip IV of Spain ruled the Duchy of Milan and the Kingdom of Naples . The French politician Mazarin , an Italian himself, had attempted to liberate Naples from Spanish rule, against which the locals had fought before the Neapolitan Republic was created. A second expedition in 1654 had failed and

11790-602: The night while the servants came and went with new wax candles. The " Semiramis from the North" corresponded with Pierre Gassendi , her favorite author. Blaise Pascal offered her a copy of his pascaline . She had a firm grasp of classical history and philosophy. Christina studied Neostoicism , the Church Fathers , and Islam ; she systematically looked for a copy of the Treatise of the Three Impostors ,

11921-473: The palace open to visitors from the higher classes who kept themselves busy with poetry and intellectual discussions. Christina opened an academy in the palace on 24 January 1656, called Academy of Arcadia , where the participants enjoyed music, theater, and literature. The poet Reyer Anslo was presented to her. Belonging to the Arcadia-circle was also Francesco Negri , a Franciscan from Ravenna who

12052-529: The palace. In 1648, she commissioned 35 paintings from Jacob Jordaens for a ceiling in Uppsala Castle . The court poet Georg Stiernhielm wrote several plays in the Swedish language, such as Den fångne Cupido eller Laviancu de Diane , performed with Christina taking the main part of the goddess Diana . She invited foreign companies to play at Bollhuset . An Italian opera troupe visited in 1652 with Vincenzo Albrici and Angelo Michele Bartolotti ,

12183-505: The parts which pleased her, taking God to witness, throwing herself back in her chair, crossing her legs, resting them on the arms of her chair, and assuming other postures, such as I had never seen taken but by Travelin and Jodelet, two famous buffoons... She was in all respects a most extraordinary creature". Christina was treated with respect by the young Louis XIV and his mother, Anne of Austria , in Compiègne . On 22 September 1656,

12314-477: The paternal and maternal lines. However, this image of the hysterical, depressive and profligate queen dowager, which has become part of historiography , has been put into perspective in more recent research, first in the 1980s by the archivist Åke Kromnov, among others, and more recently in the monograph "Drottningen som sa nej" by Moa Matthis , published in 2010. After the king died on the battlefield on 6 November 1632, Maria Eleonora returned to Sweden with

12445-543: The people. He is also widely commemorated by Protestants in Europe as the main defender of their cause during the Thirty Years' War, with multiple churches, foundations and other undertakings named after him, including the Gustav-Adolf-Werk . Gustavus Adolphus was born in Stockholm on 9 December 1594, eldest son of Duke Charles of the House of Vasa and his second wife, Christina of Holstein-Gottorp . At

12576-436: The planning for a 2008 festival began late and did not attract enough people to buy tickets. This eventually led to cancellation of 2008 festival, and later bankruptcy for the non-profit organization behind the festival. No more festivals were held after 2007. The Tormek AB factory is located here, where they produce water-cooled sharpening systems for edged tools, which are exported world-wide. This article about

12707-415: The position of head lady-in-waiting, all four with the formal rank and title of Hovmästarinna . The Royal Council's method of giving Queen Christina several foster mothers to avoid her forming an attachment to a single person appears to have been effective, as Christina did not mention her foster mothers directly in her memoirs and did not seem to have formed an attachment to any of them; in fact, with only

12838-461: The provinces of the artillery and cavalry as noted above. His artillery were themselves different—in addition to the usual complements of heavy cannon, he introduced light mobile guns for the first time into the Renaissance battlefield. These were grouped in batteries supporting his more linearly deployed formations, replacing the cumbersome and unmaneuverable traditional deep squares (such as

12969-488: The respective diets ( Kreistage ) of three Imperial Circles : the Upper Saxon Circle , Lower Saxon Circle , and Lower Rhenish-Westphalian Circle ; the city of Bremen was disputed. Shortly before the conclusion of the peace settlement, she admitted Salvius into the council, against Oxenstierna's wishes. Salvius was no aristocrat, but Christina wanted the opposition to the aristocracy present. In 1649, with

13100-523: The same style when writing to women she had never met but whose writings she admired. Christina's coronation took place on 22 October 1650. Christina went to the castle of Jacobsdal , where she boarded a coronation carriage draped in black velvet embroidered in gold and pulled by three white horses. The procession to Storkyrkan was so long that when the first carriages arrived, the last ones had not yet left Jacobsdal (a distance of roughly 10.5 km or 6.5 miles). All four estates were invited to dine at

13231-481: The same year, she ordered Vossius (and Heinsius) to make a list of about 6,000 books and manuscripts to be packed and shipped to Antwerp. In February 1654, she plainly told the Council of her plans to abdicate . Oxenstierna told her she would regret her decision within a few months. In May, the Riksdag discussed her proposals. She had asked for 200,000 rikstalers a year but received dominions instead. Financially she

13362-543: The security of its Protestants. But achieving these objectives depended on his continued success on the battlefield. Some other military actions in the Thirty Years' War with Gustavus at the head were: the victorious battles of Frankfurt an der Oder and Werben , the botched Siege of Nuremberg , the Battle of Fürth , and the unfavourable Battle of the Alte Veste . Gustavus Adolphus is reported to have entered battle without wearing any armor, proclaiming, "The Lord God

13493-466: The spring of 1652. She had more conversations with them, being interested in Catholic views on sin, the immortality of the soul , rationality, and free will . The two scholars revealed her plans to Cardinal Fabio Chigi . Around May 1652 Christina, raised in the Lutheran Church of Sweden , decided to become Catholic . She sent Matthias Palbitzki to Madrid and King Philip IV of Spain sent

13624-504: The subsequent years, Christina thrived in the company of her aunt Catherine and her family. In 1638, after the death of her aunt and foster mother, the Royal Regency Council under Axel Oxenstierna saw the need to appoint a new foster mother to the underage monarch, which resulted in a reorganization of the queen's household. To prevent the young queen from being dependent upon a single individual and favorite mother figure,

13755-430: The ten years of her reign, the number of noble families increased from 300 to about 600, rewarding people such as Lennart Torstenson , Louis De Geer and Johan Palmstruch for their efforts. These donations took place with such haste that they were not always registered, and on some occasions, the same piece of land was given away twice. Christina abdicated her throne on 6 June 1654 in favor of Charles Gustav. During

13886-548: The throne to her cousin Charles X Gustav and settled in Rome. Pope Alexander VII described Christina as "a queen without a realm, a Christian without faith, and a woman without shame." She played a leading part in the theatrical and musical communities and protected many Baroque artists, composers, and musicians. Christina, who was the guest of five consecutive popes and a symbol of the Counter-Reformation ,

14017-687: The time, his cousin Sigismund was both King of Sweden and Poland. The Protestant Duke Charles forced the Catholic Sigismund to abandon the throne of Sweden in 1599, part of the preliminary religious strife before the Thirty Years' War , and reigned as regent before taking the throne as Charles IX of Sweden in 1604. Crown Prince Gustav Adolph had Gagnef-Floda in Dalecarlia as a duchy from 1610. Upon his father's death in October 1611,

14148-470: The title of the "Father of Modern Warfare". Future commanders who studied and admired Gustavus Adolphus include Napoleon I of France and Carl von Clausewitz . His advancements in warfare helped make Sweden the dominant Baltic power for the next hundred years ( see Swedish Empire ). He is also the only Swedish monarch to be styled " the Great ". This decision was made by the Swedish Riksdag of

14279-553: The type normally only afforded to boys. When Gustav Adolf did not come home as expected after the summer campaign of 1630, Maria wrote to John Casimir, her brother-in-law that she could not stand it; she wanted to die. She begged him to try to persuade the king to come home. It was decided that Maria would travel to Germany the following spring. She arrived on 10 July 1631, to Wolgast in Pomerania. On 11 January 1632, she met with her spouse near Hanau . The couple were spotted for

14410-673: The victorious for Sweden Storming of Kristianopel and the unsuccessful Battle of Vittsjö , — was concluded in 1613 with a peace that did not cost Sweden any territory except for Älvsborg Castle, which Sweden had to pay to get back , but it was forced to pay a heavy indemnity to Denmark–Norway ( Treaty of Knäred ). During this war, Gustavus Adolphus let his soldiers plunder towns and villages, and as he met little resistance from Danish forces in Scania , they pillaged and devastated twenty-four Scanian parishes. His memory in Scania has been negative because of that fear. The largest destroyed settlement

14541-644: The winter Christina lived in the apostolic palace in Pesaro, probably to flee the plague which infested several regions including Naples. During the Naples Plague (1656) almost half of the population died within two years. In July 1657, she returned to France, either being impatient or not so anxious to become queen of Naples. On 15 October 1657 apartments were assigned to her at the Palace of Fontainebleau , where she committed an action that stained her memory:

14672-484: Was King of Sweden from 1611 to 1632, and is credited with the rise of Sweden as a great European power ( Swedish : Stormaktstiden ). During his reign, Sweden became one of the primary military forces in Europe during the Thirty Years' War , helping to determine the political and religious balance of power in Europe. He was formally and posthumously given the name Gustavus Adolphus the Great (Swedish: Gustav Adolf den store ; Latin : Gustavus Adolphus Magnus ) by

14803-399: Was also renowned for his constancy of purpose and the equality of his troops—no one part of his armies was considered better or received preferred treatment, as was common in other armies where the cavalry were the elite, followed by the artillery, and both disdained the lowly infantry. In Gustavus Adolphus's' army the units were extensively cross-trained. Both cavalry and infantry could service

14934-479: Was assisted in his efforts by Count Axel Oxenstierna , the Lord High Chancellor of Sweden , who also acted as regent after his death. Coming to the throne at the age of 16, Gustavus Adolphus inherited three wars from his father Charles IX of Sweden : border conflicts with Russia and Denmark–Norway , and a dynastic struggle with his first cousin, King Sigismund III Vasa of Poland . Of these,

15065-650: Was chased around in an adjacent room before they finally succeeded in dealing him a fatal wound in his throat. "In the end, he died, confessing his infamy and admitting [Santinelli's] innocence, protesting that he had invented the whole fantastic story in order to ruin [him]." Father Le Bel was told to have him buried inside the church, and Christina, seemingly unfazed, paid an abbey to say a number of Masses for his soul. She "was sorry that she had been forced to undertake this execution, but claimed that justice had been carried out for his crime and betrayal. Mazarin , who had sent her old friend Chanut, advised Christina to place

15196-510: Was chiefly occupied with her studies, she slept three to four hours a night, forgot to comb her hair, donned her clothes in a hurry and wore men's shoes for the sake of convenience. (In fact, her permanent bed-head became her trademark look in paintings. ) When Christina left Sweden, she continued to write passionate letters to her intimate friend Ebba Sparre, in which she told her that she would always love her. However, such emotional letters were relatively common at that time, and Christina would use

15327-433: Was considered very difficult, and in 1636 she lost her parental rights to her daughter. The Riksråd justified its decision by asserting that she neglected Christina and her upbringing and that she had a bad influence on her daughter ... Chancellor Oxenstierna saw no other solution than to exile the widow to Gripsholm castle, while the governing regency council would decide when she was allowed to see her daughter. For

15458-697: Was crowned later on that day. Christina left the country within a few days. In the summer of 1654, Christina left Sweden in men's clothing with the help of Bernardino de Rebolledo and rode as Count Dohna through Denmark. Relations between the two countries were still so tense that a former Swedish queen could not have traveled safely in Denmark. Christina had already packed and shipped abroad valuable books, paintings, statues, and tapestries from her Stockholm castle, leaving its treasures severely depleted. Christina visited Frederick III, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp and, while there, thought that her successor should have

15589-470: Was in the letters, but according to Le Bel, it is supposed to have dealt with her "amours", either with Monaldeschi or another person. She herself wrote her version of the story for circulation in Europe. Gustavus Adolphus Gustavus Adolphus (9 December [ N.S 19 December] 1594 – 6 November [ N.S 16 November] 1632), also known in English as Gustav II Adolf or Gustav II Adolph ,

15720-554: Was lodged in the mansion of a Jewish merchant. She was visited by Archduke Leopold Wilhelm of Austria ; the Prince de Condé , the ambassador Pierre Chanut , as well as the former governor of Norway, Hannibal Sehested . In the afternoons, she went for a ride, and each evening, parties were held; there was always a play to watch or music to listen to. Christina quickly ran out of money and had to sell some of her tapestries, silverware, and jewelry. When her financial situation did not improve,

15851-682: Was now my promise that I should take great pains about their well-being and good governance and management, and thereabout bear close concern. Gustavus Adolphus inherited three wars from his father when he ascended the throne: against Denmark–Norway , which had attacked Sweden earlier in 1611; against Russia, due to Sweden having tried to take advantage of the Russian Time of Troubles ; and against Poland-Lithuania , due to King Charles's having deposed King Sigismund III, his nephew, as King of Sweden. The war against Denmark–Norway ( Kalmar War ), during which Gustavus fought in minor military actions, —

15982-420: Was preparing for war against Pomerania , which meant that her income from there was considerably reduced. The pope and Philip IV of Spain could not support her openly either, as she was not publicly a Catholic yet. Christina succeeded in arranging a major loan, leaving books and statues to settle her debts. In September, she left for Italy with her entourage of 255 persons and 247 horses. The pope's messenger,

16113-481: Was replaced by a buff coat made of moose hide, which would have serious consequences later. On 6 November 1632, Gustavus Adolphus encountered the Imperial Army under Albrecht von Wallenstein at Lützen , in what would prove to be one of the most significant battles of the Thirty Years' War. Gustavus Adolphus was killed when, at a crucial point in the battle, he became separated from his troops while leading

16244-718: Was secured through a pension and revenue from the town of Norrköping , the isles of Gotland , Öland , Ösel , and Poel , Wolgast and Neukloster in Mecklenburg , and estates in Pomerania . Her plan to convert was not the only reason for her abdication, as there was increasing discontent with her arbitrary and wasteful ways. Within ten years, she and Oxenstierna had created 17 counts , 46 barons , and 428 lesser nobles . To provide these new peers with adequate appanages , they had sold or mortgaged crown property representing an annual income of 1,200,000 rikstalers . During

16375-637: Was signed in October 1648, effectively ending the European wars of religion . Sweden received an indemnity of five million thalers , used primarily to pay its troops. Sweden further received Western Pomerania (henceforth Swedish Pomerania ), Wismar , the Archbishopric of Bremen , and the Bishopric of Verden as hereditary fiefs, thus gaining a seat and vote in the Diet of the Holy Roman Empire and in

16506-433: Was spotted between the two lines, Gustavus Adolphus himself not on it and nowhere to be seen. His disappearance stopped the initiative of the hitherto successful Swedish right wing, while a search was conducted. His partly stripped body was found an hour or two later, and evacuated from the field in a Swedish artillery wagon. As late as the 19th century several stories were retold about Gustav Adolphus's death. In most of them

16637-435: Was strongly opposed to this and was again backed by Christina. The Book of Concord was not introduced. In 1651, after reigning for almost twenty years, working at least ten hours a day, Christina had a nervous breakdown or burn out . For an hour, she seemed to be dead. She suffered from high blood pressure and complained about bad eyesight and her crooked back. She had already seen many court physicians. In February 1652,

16768-564: Was the Town Væ , which two years later was replaced by Danish–Norwegian King Christian IV as the nearby Christiansted (after the Swedification process, spelled Kristianstad), the last Scanian town to be founded by a Danish king. The war against Russia ( Ingrian War ) marked Gustavus' involvement in the successful Siege of Gdov and the failed Siege of Pskov and ended in 1617 with the Treaty of Stolbovo , which excluded Russia from

16899-476: Was then that she received from the pope her second name of Alexandra, the feminine form of his own." She was granted her own wing inside the Vatican, decorated by Bernini. Christina's visit to Rome was the triumph of Pope Alexander VII and the occasion for splendid Baroque festivities. For several months, she was the only preoccupation of the Pope and his court. The nobles vied for her attention and treated her to

17030-586: Was visited by a group of Dutch diplomats, including Johan de Witt , to find a solution for the Sound Dues . In the Treaty of Brömsebro , signed at a creek in Blekinge , Denmark added the isles of Gotland and Ösel to Christina's domain while Norway lost the districts of Jämtland and Härjedalen to her. Under Christina's rule, Sweden, virtually controlling the Baltic Sea , had unrestricted access to

17161-477: Was written by scholar Johann Adler Salvius in a style common of the time that promotes a "just war". Burkhardt argues that traditional Swedish historiography constructed a defensive interest in security out of that by taking the manifesto's text for granted. But to defend Stockholm, the occupation of the German Baltic territories would have been an extreme advance and the imperial Baltic Sea fleet mentioned as

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