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89-479: There are no contemporary sources of Lucretia and Tarquin’s rape of her. Information regarding Lucretia, how and when Tarquin raped her, her suicide, and the consequence of this being the start of the Roman Republic come from the accounts of Roman historian Livy and Greco-Roman historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus approximately 500 years later. Secondary sources on the establishment of the republic reiterate

178-574: A Roman consul , the colleague of Lucius Junius Brutus in 509 BC, traditionally considered the first year of the Roman Republic . According to Livy and Plutarch , the Valerii were of Sabine origin, but settled in Rome during the reign of Titus Tatius , a contemporary of Romulus , and worked for the peaceful unification of both peoples. Valerius came from a wealthy family. His father

267-535: A quadrans for the funeral. The remains of Poplicola were buried within the city of Rome, on the Velian Hill . His death was mourned for an entire year. After Poplicola, many noted members of the Valerian gens were buried near the same spot. In 1977 an inscription was discovered in the ruins of the ancient town of Satricum. The Lapis Satricanus dates from the late 6th to early 5th centuries BC and bears

356-597: A Roman citizen under the name of Appius Claudius; he was the founder of the Claudii . When the Sabines attempted to besiege Rome, Poplicola successfully commanded the army, anticipating their movements and thwarting their plans. He was elected consul for the fourth time in 504 BC, and once again defeated the Sabines . He celebrated a triumph in May of that year. Publius Valerius Poplicola died in 503 BC, shortly after passing

445-400: A Scotsman involved in the first Jacobite uprising of 1715 was recaptured (and executed) because, having escaped, he yet lingered near the place of his captivity in "the hope of recovering his favourite Titus Livius ". The authority supplying information from which possible vital data on Livy can be deduced is Eusebius of Caesarea , a bishop of the early Christian Church . One of his works

534-650: A banquet. Livy Titus Livius ( Latin: [ˈtɪtʊs ˈliːwiʊs] ; 59 BC – AD 17), known in English as Livy ( / ˈ l ɪ v i / LIV -ee ), was a Roman historian. He wrote a monumental history of Rome and the Roman people, titled Ab Urbe Condita , ''From the Founding of the City'', covering the period from the earliest legends of Rome before the traditional founding in 753 BC through

623-564: A book on geography and a daughter married Lucius Magius, a rhetorician. Titus Livius died at his home city of Patavium in AD 17. The tombstone of Livy and his wife might have been found in Padua. Livy's only surviving work is commonly known as History of Rome (or Ab Urbe Condita , 'From the Founding of the City';). Together with Polybius it is considered one of the main accounts of

712-503: A century after Livy's time, described the Emperor Augustus as his friend. Describing the trial of Cremutius Cordus , Tacitus represents him as defending himself face-to-face with the frowning Tiberius as follows: I am said to have praised Brutus and Cassius , whose careers many have described and no one mentioned without eulogy. Titus Livius, pre-eminently famous for eloquence and truthfulness, extolled Cn. Pompeius in such

801-442: A common pastime. He was familiar with the emperor Augustus and the imperial family. Augustus was considered by later Romans to have been the greatest Roman emperor, benefiting Livy's reputation long after his death. Suetonius described how Livy encouraged the future emperor Claudius , who was born in 10 BC, to write historiographical works during his childhood. Livy's most famous work was his history of Rome . In it he narrates

890-502: A complete history of the city of Rome, from its foundation to the death of Augustus. Because he was writing under the reign of Augustus, Livy's history emphasizes the great triumphs of Rome. He wrote his history with embellished accounts of Roman heroism in order to promote the new type of government implemented by Augustus when he became emperor. In Livy's preface to his history, he said that he did not care whether his personal fame remained in darkness, as long as his work helped to "preserve

979-400: A complex formula (made so by the 0 reference point not falling on the border of an Olympiad), these codes correspond to 59 BC for the birth, 17 AD for the death. In another manuscript the birth is in 180.4, or 57 BC. Publius Valerius Publicola Publius Valerius Poplicola or Publicola (died 503 BC) was one of four Roman aristocrats who led the overthrow of the monarchy , and became

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1068-595: A counterpoint to, or sub-group of, the set of subjects known as the Power of Women , showing female violence against, or domination of, men. These were often depicted by the same artists, and especially popular in Northern Renaissance art. The story of Esther lay somewhere between these two extremes. The subject of Lucretia spinning with her ladies, is sometimes depicted, as in a series of four engravings of her story by Hendrick Goltzius , which also includes

1157-671: A crown; instead, they had to devise a confluence of several republican offices onto their persons in order to secure absolute power. Their successors both in Rome and in Constantinople adhered to this tradition in essence, and the office of German Holy Roman Emperor remained elective rather than hereditary—up to its abolition in the Napoleonic Wars , over 2300 years later. Lucretia became an important embodiment of political and literary ideals for different authors throughout

1246-408: A mark of humility, and to remove the axes from them within the city. "I have just liberated Rome, bravely, but now I am slandered, like being either an Aquillius or a Vitellian . I am the bitterest enemy of the former kings, so I shouldn't be accused of wanting to be king." In order to allay suspicions, he caused his house to be built at the foot of the hill, rather than its peak. In later times,

1335-490: A military errand to Collatia . Tarquin was received with great hospitality at the governor's mansion, home of Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus , son of the king's cousin, Arruns Tarquinius , former governor of Collatia and first of the Tarquinii Collatini . Spurius Lucretius , father of Collatinus' wife Lucretia and prefect of Rome, made sure that the king's son was treated as a guest and a figure of his rank. In

1424-473: A panegyric that Augustus called him Pompeianus, and yet this was no obstacle to their friendship. Livy's reasons for returning to Padua after the death of Augustus (if he did) are unclear, but the circumstances of Tiberius 's reign certainly allow for speculation. During the Middle Ages , due to the length of the work, the literate class was already reading summaries rather than the work itself, which

1513-403: A public trial. The conspirators, including two of Brutus' sons, were found guilty and executed. Valerius played a leading role in the trial. After the trial, Brutus demanded that his colleague, Collatinus, resign the consulship and go into exile, as a member of the hated royal family, whom the people could not trust. Collatinus was stunned by this betrayal, as he had been one of the leaders of

1602-408: A republican form of government with two consuls in place of a king executing the will of a patrician senate. This was a temporary measure until they could consider the details more carefully. Brutus renounced all right to the throne. In subsequent years, the powers of the king were divided among various elected magistracies. A final vote of the curiae carried the interim constitution. Spurius Lucretius

1691-416: A result, standard information in a standard rendition is used, which gives the impression of a standard set of dates for Livy. There are no such dates. A typical presumption is of a birth in the 2nd year of the 180th Olympiad and a death in the first year of the 199th Olympiad, which are coded 180.2 and 199.1 respectively. All sources use the same first Olympiad , 776/775–773/772 BC by the modern calendar. By

1780-463: A revival in the mid twentieth century; André Obey 's 1931 play Le Viol de Lucrèce  [ fr ] was adapted by librettist Ronald Duncan for The Rape of Lucretia , a 1946 opera by Benjamin Britten which premiered at Glyndebourne. Ernst Krenek set Emmet Lavery 's libretto Tarquin (1940), a version in a contemporary setting. Jacques Gallot (died c.  1690 ) composed

1869-653: A search for the now missing books. Laurentius Valla published an amended text initiating the field of Livy scholarship. Dante speaks highly of him in his poetry, and Francis I of France commissioned extensive artwork treating Livian themes; Niccolò Machiavelli 's work on republics , the Discourses on Livy , is presented as a commentary on the History of Rome . Respect for Livy rose to lofty heights. Walter Scott reports in Waverley (1814) as an historical fact that

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1958-572: A sham, and proposed that they drive the Tarquins from Rome. Grasping the bloody dagger, he swore by Mars and all the other gods that he would do everything in his power to overthrow the dominion of the Tarquinii. He stated that he would neither be reconciled to the tyrants himself, nor tolerate any who should be reconciled to them, but would look upon every man who thought otherwise as an enemy, and til his death would pursue with unrelenting hatred both

2047-490: A similar storyline to Livy's. Lucretia calls for her father and husband, but Chaucer's tale also has her call for her mother and attendants as well, whereas Livy's has both her father and husband bring a friend as witness. The tale also deviates from Livy's account, as it begins with her husband coming home to surprise her, rather than the men placing a bet on the virtue of their wives. John Gower 's Confessio Amantis (Book VII), and John Lydgate 's Fall of Princes recount

2136-509: A song entitled "The Rape of Lucretia" was released by the Scottish musician Momus . In Donna Leon 's 2009 Venetian novel, About Face , Franca Marinello refers to the tale of Tarquin and Lucrezia, as recounted in Ovid 's Fasti (Book II, for February 24, "Regifugium") to explain her actions to Commissario Brunetti. American thrash metal band Megadeth used the name Lucretia as the title for

2225-410: A thousand deaths in defense of their liberty than suffer such outrages to be committed by the tyrants." In Livy's version, Lucretia acts quickly and calmly, deciding not to go to Rome, but instead sends for her father and her husband, asking them to bring one friend each to act as a witness. Those selected were Publius Valerius Publicola from Rome and Lucius Junius Brutus from the camp at Ardea. Once

2314-420: A variant of the story, Tarquin and Collatinus, at a wine party on furlough, were debating the virtues of wives when Collatinus volunteered to settle the debate. In order to do so, he proposed riding to his home to observe Lucretia. Upon their arrival, she was weaving with her maids. The party awarded her the palm of victory and Collatinus invited them to stay, but for the time being they returned to camp. Later in

2403-499: A woman) shall act in a manner which is fitting for me: you, if you are men, and if you care for your wives and children, exact vengeance on my behalf and free your selves and show the tyrants what sort of woman they outraged, and what sort of men were her menfolk!" She follows her statement by plunging the dagger into her chest and promptly dying. In this version, Collatinus and Brutus were encountered returning to Rome unaware of Tarquin's rape of Lucretia, were briefed, and were brought to

2492-766: Is also the subject of William Shakespeare 's 1594 long poem The Rape of Lucrece , which draws extensively on Ovid's treatment of the story; he also mentions her in Titus Andronicus , in As You Like It , and in Twelfth Night , wherein Malvolio authenticates his fateful letter by spotting Olivia's Lucrece seal. Shakespeare also alludes to her in Macbeth , and in Cymbeline he further refers to

2581-525: Is to blame. In 1769, doctor Juan Ramis wrote a tragedy in Menorca entitled Lucrecia . The play is written in the Catalan language using a neoclassical style and is a significant work of the eighteenth century written in this language. In 1932, the play Lucrece was produced on Broadway, starring legendary actress Katharine Cornell in the title part. It was mostly performed in pantomime . In 1989,

2670-674: Is used when Shakespeare prefaces his poem with a brief prose called "Argument". This is the internal deliberation Lucrece suffered from, following the rape. Niccolò Machiavelli 's comedy La Mandragola is loosely based on the Lucretia story. She is also mentioned in the poem " Appius and Virginia " by John Webster and Thomas Heywood , which includes the following lines: Two fair, but ladies most infortunate, Have in their ruins rais'd declining Rome, Lucretia and Virginia , both renown'd For chastity. Thomas Heywood 's play The Rape of Lucretia dates from 1607. The subject also enjoyed

2759-656: The Chronographia , a summary of history in annalist form, and the Chronikoi Kanones , tables of years and events. St. Jerome translated the tables into Latin as the Chronicon , probably adding some information of his own from unknown sources. Livy's dates appear in Jerome's Chronicon. The main problem with the information given in the manuscripts is that, between them, they often give different dates for

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2848-506: The Battle of Silva Arsia . Valerius commanded the Roman infantry, while Brutus led the cavalry. Arruns Tarquinius , the king's son, died in combat with Brutus, who was also mortally wounded, but the Romans were ultimately victorious. Valerius collected the spoils of battle and returned to Rome, where he celebrated a triumph on March 1, 509 BC. His four-horse chariot subsequently became

2937-478: The Roman army . However, he was educated in philosophy and rhetoric. It seems that Livy had the financial resources and means to live an independent life, though the origin of that wealth is unknown. He devoted a large part of his life to his writings, which he was able to do because of his financial freedom. Livy was known to give recitations to small audiences, but he was not heard of to engage in declamation , then

3026-610: The Second Punic War . When he began this work he was already past his youth, probably 33; presumably, events in his life prior to that time had led to his intense activity as a historian. He continued working on it until he left Rome for Padua in his old age, probably in the reign of Tiberius after the death of Augustus. Seneca the Younger says he was an orator and philosopher and had written some historical treatises in those fields. History of Rome also served as

3115-541: The Temple of Victory stood in the same place. For his actions and deference to the people of Rome, Valerius received the surname Poplicola , meaning "one who courts the people". Before the impending elections, Valerius filled up the ranks of the Senate, which had been severely reduced as a result of the revolution and the subsequent war. The consul also promulgated new laws, including the right of appeal ( provocatio ) from

3204-422: The 40s BC, a period of civil wars throughout the Roman world . The governor of Cisalpine Gaul at the time, Asinius Pollio , tried to sway Patavium into supporting Marcus Antonius (Mark Antony) , the leader of one of the warring factions during Caesar's Civil War (49-45 BC). The wealthy citizens of Patavium refused to contribute money and arms to Asinius Pollio, and went into hiding. Pollio then attempted to bribe

3293-679: The Elder , Johannes Moreelse , Artemisia Gentileschi , Damià Campeny , Eduardo Rosales , Lucas Cranach the Elder , and others. Most commonly, either the moment of the rape is shown, or Lucretia is shown alone at the moment of her suicide. In either situation, her clothing is loosened or absent, while Tarquin is normally clothed. The subject was one of a group showing women from legend or the Bible who were either powerless, such as Susanna and Verginia , or only able to escape their situations by suicide, such as Dido of Carthage and Lucretia. These formed

3382-590: The Etruscan ladies who feasted with friends. Ovid recounts the story of Lucretia in Book II of his Fasti , published in 8 AD, concentrating on the bold over-reaching character of Tarquin. Later, St. Augustine made use of the figure of Lucretia in The City of God (published 426 AD) to defend the honour of Christian women who had been raped in the sack of Rome and had not committed suicide. The story of Lucretia

3471-619: The Tarquins. In 506, when his brother Marcus was consul, the Sabines attacked Rome. Poplicola participated in two Roman victories, repelling the invasion. The people rewarded Poplicola with a house on the Palatine Hill . In 505, the Latin League and the Sabines threatened Rome with a large army. Although diplomatic negotiations were halted, Poplicola meddled with the politics of the Sabines, assisting Attius Clausus , who moved to Rome with five hundred followers. Clausus became

3560-547: The ages, specifically because "stories of sexual violence against women serve as foundational myths of Western culture." Livy 's account in Ab Urbe Condita Libri (c. 25–8 BC) is the earliest surviving full historical treatment. In his account, her husband has boasted of the virtue of his wife to Tarquin and others. Livy contrasts the virtue of the Roman Lucretia, who remained in her room weaving, with

3649-429: The allemandes " Lucrèce " and " Tarquin " for baroque lute. In Samuel Richardson 's 1740 novel Pamela , Mr. B. cites the story of Lucretia as a reason why Pamela ought not fear for her reputation, should he rape her. Pamela quickly sets him straight with a better reading of the story. Colonial Mexican poet Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz also mentions Lucretia in her poem "Redondillas," a commentary on prostitution and who

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3738-587: The alternative story, he returned from camp a few days later with one companion to take Collatinus up on his invitation to visit and was lodged in a guest bedroom. He entered Lucretia's room while she lay naked in her bed and started to wash her belly with water, which woke her up. Tarquin tried to convince Lucretia that she should be with him, using "every argument likely to influence a female heart." However, Lucretia stood firm in her devotion to her husband, even when Tarquin threatened her life and honor, while ultimately raping her. In Dionysius of Halicarnassus' account,

3827-415: The basic events of Lucretia's story, though accounts vary slightly between historians. The evidence points to the historical existence of a woman named Lucretia and an event that played a critical part in the downfall of the monarchy. However, specific details are debatable and vary depending on the writer. According to modern sources, Lucretia's narrative is considered a part of Roman mythohistory . Much like

3916-439: The beginning of the sixty-eighth Olympiad ... Isagoras being the annual archon at Athens "; that is, 508/507 BC. According to Dionysius, Lucretia therefore died in 508 BC. This approximate date is met with consensus by other historians; however, the exact year is debatable within a range of about five years. While engaged in the siege of Ardea , Lucius Tarquinius Superbus , the last king of Rome, sent his son, Tarquin , on

4005-468: The bloody corpse of Lucretia to the Roman Forum where it remained on display as a reminder of the dishonor committed. At the forum, the committee heard grievances against the Tarquins and began to enlist an army to abolish the monarchy. Brutus "urged them to act as men and Romans and take up arms against their insolent foes" in response to the death of a dutiful wife. The gates of Rome were blockaded by

4094-428: The consular office to his successors, Agrippa Menenius Lanatus and Publius Postumius Tubertus . Livy records that at the time of his death, he was considered "by universal consent to be the ablest man in Rome, in the arts both of peace and war". He had little money, and so was buried at the public charge, and was mourned by the Roman matrons as had been done for Brutus before him. By decree, each citizen contributed

4183-410: The dais, the king's tyranny, the forced labor of the plebeians in the ditches and sewers of Rome. In his speech, he pointed out that Superbus had come to rule by the murder of Servius Tullius , his wife's father, next-to-the-last king of Rome. He "solemnly invoked the gods as the avengers of murdered parents." He suggested that the king's wife, Tullia , was in fact in Rome and probably was a witness to

4272-412: The death scene. Brutus happened to be a politically motivated participant. By kinship he was a Tarquin on his mother's side, the son of Tarquinia, daughter of Lucius Tarquinius Priscus , the third king before last. He was a candidate for the throne if anything should happen to Superbus. By law, however, because he was a Junius on his father's side, he was thus not a Tarquin and therefore could later propose

4361-401: The decisions of a magistrate, and demanding the forfeiture of all the rights of anyone convicted of plotting to restore the monarchy. Poplicola was elected consul three more times, in 508, 507, and 504 BC. Horatius was his colleague again in 507, while his colleague in 508 and 504 was Titus Lucretius Tricipitinus . He was the first consul ever to be re-elected. In 508 BC, Lars Porsena ,

4450-436: The decrees of the king. Summoning them on the spot, he transformed the crowd into an authoritative legislative assembly and began to address them in one of the more noted and effective speeches of ancient Rome. He began by revealing that his pose as a fool was a sham designed to protect him against an evil king. He levelled a number of charges against the king and his family: Tarquin’s rape of Lucretia, whom everyone could see on

4539-534: The driving force behind the "northern theory" regarding the Etruscans' origins. This is because in the book Livy states, "The Greeks also call them the 'Tyrrhene' and the 'Adriatic ... The Alpine tribes are undoubtedly of the same kind, especially the Raetii, who had through the nature of their country become so uncivilized that they retained no trace of their original condition except their language, and even this

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4628-413: The exile of the Tarquins without fear for himself. Superbus had taken his inheritance and left him a pittance, keeping him at court for entertainment. Collatinus, seeing his wife dead, became distraught. He held her, kissed her, called her name and spoke to her. Dio stated that after seeing the hand of Destiny in these events, Brutus called the grieving party to order, explained that his simplicity had been

4717-523: The first consuls. From exile, the Tarquins plotted the assassination of the consuls, together with some disaffected members of the Aquillii and Vitellii , who had benefited from the deposed regime. Valerius was informed of the plot by a slave, Vindicius . He personally investigated the conspiracy, sneaking into the Aquillius estate and finding incriminating evidence, based on which the consuls held

4806-422: The following day Lucretia dressed in black and went to her father's house in Rome and cast herself down in the supplicant's position (embracing the knees), weeping in front of her father and husband. She asked to explain herself and insisted on summoning witnesses before she told them about her rape. After disclosing that Tarquin had raped her, she asked them for vengeance, a plea that could not be ignored because she

4895-441: The king of Clusium , attacked Rome at the behest of Tarquin. According to Plutarch, both Poplicola and his colleague, Lucretius, were severely wounded during the battle. During the siege, Poplicola executed a successful sally , defeating a Clusian raiding party. According to Plutarch, Poplicola negotiated a treaty with Porsena, ending the war. He gave the king hostages, including his daughter Valeria, whom Porsena protected from

4984-448: The leaders of the Roman revolution, together with Lucius Junius Brutus , Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus , and Spurius Lucretius Tricipitinus . Winning over public opinion while the king was campaigning away from the city, they deposed and banished Lucius Tarquinius Superbus , the seventh and last King of Rome . In place of the monarchy, they established a republic , together with the office of consul . Brutus and Collatinus were elected

5073-508: The memory of the deeds of the world’s preeminent nation." Because Livy was mostly writing about events that had occurred hundreds of years earlier, the historical value of his work was questionable, although many Romans came to believe his account to be true. Livy was married and had at least one daughter and one son. He also produced other works, including an essay in the form of a letter to his son, and numerous dialogues, most likely modelled on similar works by Cicero . One of his sons wrote

5162-493: The men found Lucretia in her room, her explanation of Tarquin’s rape of her leads the men to state that "it is the mind that sins, not the body, and where there has been no consent there is no guilt." After exacting an oath of vengeance while the men were discussing the matter—"Pledge me your solemn word that the adulterer shall not go unpunished"— Lucretia drew a poignard and stabbed herself in her heart. In Dio 's version, Lucretia's request for revenge is: "And, whereas I (for I am

5251-511: The myth of Lucretia. Gower's work is a collection of narrative poems. In Book VII, he tells the "Tale of the Rape of Lucrece." Lydgate's work is a long poem containing stories and myths about various kings and princes who fell from power. It follows their lives from their rise into power and their fall into adversity. Lydgate's poem mentions the fall of Tarquin, the rape and suicide of Lucretia, and her speech prior to death. Lucretia's rape and suicide

5340-642: The name Poplios Valesios , which would be rendered in Classical Latin as Publius Valerius. This does not prove the historicity of the narrative given by later Roman historians, but it does demonstrate that at least one prominent individual did indeed bear the name at the close of the 6th century. In The Federalist Papers , a collection of 85 essays promoting the adoption of the United States Constitution , written by Alexander Hamilton , James Madison , and John Jay in 1787–1788,

5429-524: The new revolutionary soldiers and more were sent to guard Collatia. By now a crowd had gathered in the forum; the presence of the magistrates among the revolutionaries kept them in good order. Brutus was the Tribune of the Celeres, a minor office of some religious duties, which as a magistracy gave him the theoretical power to summon the curiae , an organization of patrician families used mainly to ratify

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5518-428: The night, Tarquin entered Lucretia's bedroom, quietly avoiding the slaves who were sleeping at her door. When she awoke, he identified himself and offered her two choices: he would rape her and she would become his wife and future queen, or he would kill her and one of her slaves, place the bodies together, and claim he had caught her having adulterous sex (see sexuality in ancient Rome for Roman attitudes toward sex). In

5607-502: The proceedings from her palace near the forum. Seeing herself the target of so much animosity, she fled from the palace in fear of her life and proceeded to the camp at Ardea. Brutus opened a debate on the form of government Rome ought to have, a debate at which many patricians spoke. In summation, he proposed the banishment of the Tarquins from all the territories of Rome and the appointment of an interrex to nominate new magistrates and conduct an election of ratification. They decided on

5696-504: The rape of the Sabine women , Lucretia's story provides an explanation for historical change in Rome through a recounting of violence against women by men. Lucretia was the daughter of magistrate Spurius Lucretius and the wife of Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus . The marriage between Lucretia and Collatinus was depicted as the ideal Roman union, as both Lucretia and Collatinus were faithfully devoted to one another. According to Livy, Lucretia

5785-405: The rebellion following his wife Lucretia 's suicide because of her being raped by the king's son, Sextus Tarquinius . Nevertheless, he resigned, and Valerius was elected to replace him. Meanwhile, Tarquin, whose family was of Etruscan origin, obtained the support of the Etruscan cities of Tarquinii and Veii . At the head of an Etruscan army, Tarquin fought the consuls Brutus and Valerius at

5874-568: The reign of Augustus in Livy's own lifetime. He was on good terms with members of the Julio-Claudian dynasty and was a friend of Augustus , whose young grandnephew, the future emperor Claudius , he encouraged to take up the writing of history. Livy was born in Patavium in northern Italy , now modern Padua , probably in 59 BC. At the time of his birth, his home city of Patavium was

5963-506: The reign of Augustus, who came to power after a civil war with generals and consuls claiming to be defending the Roman Republic , such as Pompey . Patavium had been pro-Pompey. To clarify his status, the victor of the civil war, Octavian Caesar , had wanted to take the title Romulus (the first king of Rome) but in the end accepted the senate proposal of Augustus . Rather than abolishing the republic, he adapted it and its institutions to imperial rule. The historian Tacitus , writing about

6052-475: The result of bad feelings he harboured toward the city of Patavium from his experiences there during the civil wars. Livy probably went to Rome in the 30s BC, and it is likely that he spent a large amount of time in the city after this, although it may not have been his primary home. During his time in Rome, he was never a senator nor held a government position. His writings contain elementary mistakes on military matters, indicating that he probably never served in

6141-590: The same events or different events, do not include the same material entirely, and reformat what they do include. A date may be in Ab Urbe Condita or in Olympiads or in some other form, such as age. These variations may have occurred through scribal error or scribal license. Some material has been inserted under the aegis of Eusebius . The topic of manuscript variants is a large and specialized one, on which authors of works on Livy seldom care to linger. As

6230-554: The second wealthiest on the Italian peninsula, and the largest in the province of Cisalpine Gaul (northern Italy). Cisalpine Gaul was merged in Italy proper during his lifetime and its inhabitants were given Roman citizenship by Julius Caesar . In his works, Livy often expressed his deep affection and pride for Patavium, and the city was well known for its conservative values in morality and politics. Livy's teenage years were during

6319-508: The sixth track on their 1990 release Rust In Peace . The song doesn’t have a direct connection to the story of Lucretia, rather Lucretia acting as a muse for Megadeth frontman Dave Mustaine reaching sobriety after a heavy drug and alcohol addiction during the 1980s. Since the Renaissance, the suicide of Lucretia has been an enduring subject for visual artists, including Titian , Rembrandt , Dürer , Raphael , Botticelli , Jörg Breu

6408-613: The slaves of those wealthy citizens to expose the whereabouts of their masters; his bribery did not work, and the citizens instead pledged their allegiance to the Senate . It is therefore likely that the Roman civil wars prevented Livy from pursuing a higher education in Rome or going on a tour of Greece , which was common for adolescent males of the nobility at the time. Many years later, Asinius Pollio derisively commented on Livy's "patavinity", saying that Livy's Latin showed certain "provincialisms" frowned on at Rome. Pollio's dig may have been

6497-611: The sovereignty in accordance with our ancestral customs and laws, nor, since he obtained it—in whatever manner he got it—has he been exercising it in an honourable or kingly manner, but has surpassed in insolence and lawlessness all the tyrants the world ever saw, we patricians met together and resolved to deprive him of his power, a thing we ought to have done long ago, but are doing now when a favourable opportunity has offered. And we have called you together, plebeians, in order to declare our own decision and then ask for your assistance in achieving liberty for our country .... A general election

6586-447: The story, though without mentioning Lucretia by name. Shakespeare's poem, based on the rape of Lucretia, draws on the beginning of the Livy's account of the incident. The poem begins with a bet between husbands about the virtuousness of their wives. Shakespeare draws on the idea of Lucretia as a moral agent, as Livy did, when he explores his characters' response to death and her unwillingness to yield to her rapist. A direct excerpt from Livy

6675-734: The three statesmen used the allonym "Publius" in honor of Poplicola's role in establishing the Roman Republic . Following the Spanish–American War , a piece titled "The Duty of the American People as to the Philippines" was published under the pseudonym "Publicola". The author recommended the development of the Philippines to improve the lives of the Filipino people , as well as to further American trading interests in

6764-460: The traditional vehicle for a victorious Roman general. Then, Valerius held a magnificent funeral for Brutus, and gave a memorable speech. Livy wrote that Valerius fought the Veientes again in the same year, although the reason is not stated. After the death of Brutus, Valerius was the sole surviving consul. Spurius Lucretius was chosen in place of Brutus, but he died after a few days, and

6853-672: The tyranny and its abettors; and if he should violate his oath, he prayed that he and his children might meet with the same end as Lucretia. He passed the dagger around and each mourner swore the same oath by it. The primary sources of both Dio and Livy agree on this point: Livy's version is: By this blood—most pure before the outrage wrought by the king's son—I swear, and you, O gods, I call to witness that I will drive hence Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, together with his cursed wife and his whole blood, with fire and sword and every means in my power, and I will not suffer them or anyone else to reign in Rome. The newly sworn revolutionary committee paraded

6942-457: The women socializing with each other, presumably in conversation. By contrast, they find Lucretia home alone, working with her wool in silence. Because of her devotion to her husband, Roman writers Livy and Dionysius outline Lucretia as the role model for Roman girls. As the events of the story move rapidly, the date that Tarquin raped Lucretia is most likely the same year as the first of the fasti . Dionysius of Halicarnassus sets this year "at

7031-401: Was Volesus Valerius , and his brothers were Marcus Valerius Volusus and Manius Valerius Volusus Maximus . He had a daughter, Valeria, and possibly a son or grandson who was also named Publius Valerius Poplicola who served as consul in 475 BC and 460 BC. Before holding public office, Valerius had spoken in defense of the plebs , the common people of Rome. In 509 BC, Valerius was one of

7120-592: Was a popular moral tale in the later Middle Ages. Lucretia appears to Dante in the section of Limbo, reserved for the nobles of Rome and other "virtuous pagans", in Canto IV of the Inferno . Christine de Pizan used Lucretia, just as St. Augustine of Hippo did, in her City of Ladies , defending a woman's sanctity. The myth is recounted in Geoffrey Chaucer 's The Legend of Good Women , and it follows

7209-649: Was a summary of world history in ancient Greek , termed the Chronikon , dating from the early 4th century AD. This work was lost except for fragments (mainly excerpts), but not before it had been translated in whole and in part by various authors such as St. Jerome . The entire work survives in two separate manuscripts, Armenian and Greek (Christesen and Martirosova-Torlone 2006). St. Jerome wrote in Latin. Fragments in Syriac exist. Eusebius ' work consists of two books:

7298-571: Was an exemplar of "beauty and purity," as well as Roman standards. While her husband was away at battle, Lucretia would stay at home and pray for his safe return. As with Livy, Dionysius ' depiction of Lucretia separates her from the rest of Roman women in a story about the men returning home from a battle. The narrative begins with a bet between the sons of Tarquinius and their kinsmen, Brutus and Collatinus . The men fight over which of their wives best exemplified sophrosyne , an ideal of superb moral and intellectual character. The men return home to find

7387-457: Was followed by Marcus Horatius Pulvillus . When Valerius began construction of a new house on top of the Velian Hill , which would be conspicuously visible from the Senate house , a rumour began to circulate that he intended to re-establish the monarchy, with himself as king. At once, Valerius stopped building, and demolished the structure in a single night. Addressing an assembly of the people, he caused his lictors to lower their fasces as

7476-401: Was held and the vote won in favor of the republic. This ended the monarchy, and during these proceedings Lucretia was still displayed in the forum. The constitutional consequences of this event ended the reign of the hereditary king; however, later emperors were absolute rulers in all but name. This constitutional tradition prevented both Julius Caesar and Octavian Augustus from accepting

7565-533: Was not free from corruption". Thus, many scholars, like Karl Otfried Müller, utilized this statement as evidence that the Etruscans or the Tyrrhenians migrated from the north and were descendants of an Alpine tribe known as the Raeti. Livy's History of Rome was in high demand from the time it was published and remained so during the early years of the empire. Pliny the Younger reported that Livy's celebrity

7654-503: Was so widespread, a man from Cádiz travelled to Rome and back for the sole purpose of meeting him. Livy's work was a source for the later works of Aurelius Victor , Cassiodorus , Eutropius , Festus , Florus , Granius Licinianus and Orosius . Julius Obsequens used Livy, or a source with access to Livy, to compose his De Prodigiis , an account of supernatural events in Rome from the consulship of Scipio and Laelius to that of Paulus Fabius and Quintus Aelius. Livy wrote during

7743-419: Was speaking to the chief magistrate of Rome. While the men debated the proper course of action, Lucretia drew a concealed dagger and stabbed herself in the heart. She died in her father's arms, while the women present lamented her death. According to Dionysius, "This dreadful scene struck the Romans who were present with so much horror and compassion that they all cried out with one voice that they would rather die

7832-441: Was swiftly elected interrex; he was prefect of the city already. He proposed Brutus and Collatinus as the first two consuls and that choice was ratified by the curiae. Needing to acquire the assent of the population as a whole, they paraded Lucretia through the streets, summoning the plebeians to a legal assembly in the forum. Once there, they heard a constitutional speech by Brutus. It began: In as much as Tarquinius neither obtained

7921-511: Was tedious to copy, expensive, and required a lot of storage space. It must have been during this period, if not before, that manuscripts began to be lost without replacement. The Renaissance was a time of intense revival; the population discovered that Livy's work was being lost and large amounts of money changed hands in the rush to collect Livian manuscripts. The poet Beccadelli sold a country home for funding to purchase one manuscript copied by Poggio . Petrarch and Pope Nicholas V launched

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