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102-576: The series later became a hit and was aired in 40 different African countries before it was aired internationally in over 70 television stations. The drama was thought to be a very controversial series by the senior generation of Kenyans because it contained some scenes that contained sexually explicit content. It received a Gold award in May 2010 at the World Media Festival in Hamburg, Germany in

204-493: A long terminal repeat (LTR). Regions in the LTR act as switches to control production of new viruses and can be triggered by proteins from either HIV or the host cell. The Psi element is involved in viral genome packaging and recognized by gag and rev proteins. The SLIP element ( TTTTTT ) is involved in the frameshift in the gag - pol reading frame required to make functional pol . The term viral tropism refers to

306-667: A cameo performance from YCEE . The seventh series was again based in South Africa and called "MTV Shuga Down South". Stephanie Sandows who had played Tsholo in the first series reappeared as herself for a special. A French-language season of Shuga was produced for the first time, set in Côte d'Ivoire. The season debuted in December 2019. A second series debuted in 2021. As a result of the Coronavirus pandemic, Shuga went into

408-535: A cell by a virion can be called "cell-free spread" to distinguish it from a more recently recognized process called "cell-to-cell spread". In cell-free spread (see figure), virus particles bud from an infected T cell, enter the blood or extracellular fluid and then infect another T cell following a chance encounter. HIV can also disseminate by direct transmission from one cell to another by a process of cell-to-cell spread, for which two pathways have been described. Firstly, an infected T cell can transmit virus directly to

510-481: A cell surface. The unusual processing and high density means that almost all broadly neutralising antibodies that have so far been identified (from a subset of patients that have been infected for many months to years) bind to, or are adapted to cope with, these envelope glycans. The molecular structure of the viral spike has now been determined by X-ray crystallography and cryogenic electron microscopy . These advances in structural biology were made possible due to

612-414: A few tested specimens might provide inconclusive results because of a low quantity specimen. In these situations, a second specimen is collected and tested for HIV infection. Modern HIV testing is extremely accurate, when the window period is taken into consideration. A single screening test is correct more than 99% of the time. The chance of a false-positive result in a standard two-step testing protocol

714-650: A group of young students whose bright lives and fabulous future were balanced on a knife edge due to their love of risk and danger. This season told the story of a modern girl Ayira ( Lupita Nyong'o ) who knew what she wanted and how to get it. She developed passion with an older man at the expense of a longtime lover Ty. This season also highlighted the life of other two lovers Virginia and Leo who had various obstacles in their relationships but they were determined to make it work. This season also featured cameo appearances from Madtraxx, P-Unit , Nonini , Nameless , Juliani, Jimmy Gait and Dj Adrian. Principal photography for

816-451: A human host cell when the newly formed virus particle buds from the cell. The viral envelope contains proteins from the host cell and relatively few copies of the HIV envelope protein, which consists of a cap made of three molecules known as glycoprotein (gp) 120 , and a stem consisting of three gp41 molecules that anchor the structure into the viral envelope. The envelope protein, encoded by

918-574: A key step in the progression to AIDS. A number of studies with subtype B-infected individuals have determined that between 40 and 50 percent of AIDS patients can harbour viruses of the SI and, it is presumed, the X4 phenotypes. HIV-2 is much less pathogenic than HIV-1 and is restricted in its worldwide distribution to West Africa . The adoption of "accessory genes" by HIV-2 and its more promiscuous pattern of co-receptor usage (including CD4-independence) may assist

1020-532: A local office in Sydney that serves the United Kingdom and Australia. It also oversees Channel 5 Broadcasting Limited and Ten Network Holdings , the respective corporate overseers of British free-to-air channel, Channel 5 and Australian free-to-air channel Network 10 . Paramount Networks EMEAA , formerly MTV Networks Europe , Viacom International Media Networks Europe and ViacomCBS Networks EMEAA ,

1122-546: A mini-series nightly show titled MTV Shuga Alone Together highlighting the problems of Coronavirus on 20 April 2020. The show was to be broadcast for 65 nights and its backers include the United Nations . The series is based in Nigeria, South Africa, Kenya and Côte D’Ivoire and the story is explained with on-line conversations between the main characters. The writing is by Tunde Aladese and Nkiru Njoku . They were

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1224-613: A more stable conformation following the NC binding, in which both the DIS and the U5:AUG regions of the gRNA participate in extensive base pairing. RNA can also be processed to produce mature messenger RNAs (mRNAs). In most cases, this processing involves RNA splicing to produce mRNAs that are shorter than the full-length genome. Which part of the RNA is removed during RNA splicing determines which of

1326-559: A nationwide HIV campaign tagged "MTV Shuga on Tour" was held in March 2015, in partnership with the Elton John AIDS Foundation . The campaign involved a peer to peer education drive seeking to change the attitude of Nigerian youth towards public health issues. Shuga 4 focused on themes involving adolescent girls, stigma, prevention of mother to child transmission (PMTCT), HIV testing, gender based violence, first sex and

1428-447: A number of mechanisms, including pyroptosis of abortively infected T cells, apoptosis of uninfected bystander cells, direct viral killing of infected cells, and killing of infected CD4 T cells by CD8 cytotoxic lymphocytes that recognize infected cells. When CD4 T cell numbers decline below a critical level, cell-mediated immunity is lost, and the body becomes progressively more susceptible to opportunistic infections, leading to

1530-473: A one-hour synopsis episode. It was aired in Africa weekly on MTV Base (DStv Channel 322) from Tuesday 14 February 2012 at 21:30 CAT (20:30 WAT/22:30 EAT) and on other terrestrial broadcasters. The storylines in this season are rape, transactional sex and homosexuality plus a bunch of other issues to be explored included HIV testing, stigma, condom use, gender inequity and the role of multiple partnerships in driving

1632-411: A strain of SIV found in sooty mangabees. Since HIV-1 is derived from SIVcpz, and HIV-2 from SIVsm, the genetic sequence of HIV-2 is only partially homologous to HIV-1 and more closely resembles that of SIVsm. Many HIV-positive people are unaware that they are infected with the virus. For example, in 2001 less than 1% of the sexually active urban population in Africa had been tested, and this proportion

1734-454: A streamlining its sales structure. On 30 November 2021, the studio launched a first-look deal program with 5 British writers to amplify diverse voices. With its parent company rebranded to the current Paramount Global in 2022, its international division was rebranded as Paramount Television International Studios , with a new focus across all international markets. It now touts itself as "concentrating on premium scripted content that reflects

1836-558: A target T cell via a virological synapse . Secondly, an antigen-presenting cell (APC), such as a macrophage or dendritic cell, can transmit HIV to T cells by a process that either involves productive infection (in the case of macrophages) or capture and transfer of virions in trans (in the case of dendritic cells). Whichever pathway is used, infection by cell-to-cell transfer is reported to be much more efficient than cell-free virus spread. A number of factors contribute to this increased efficiency, including polarised virus budding towards

1938-626: Is a Nollywood production, it tends to get more recognition and embrace for people, both locally and internationally". Principal photography commenced in August, mainly in Lagos. The third season of Shuga [ Shuga Naija ] premiered on 26 November 2013 at the Silverbird Cinema, Victoria Island, Lagos, and was generally positively received by the audience. The fourth season of Shuga was filming in Nigeria, in early 2015. Prior to its release,

2040-783: Is a regional subsidiary of Paramount International Networks. Its operational headquarters is located in Miami, Florida, with offices in Mexico, Brazil, Argentina, Chile and Colombia. As currently being based in the United States, all PNA channels are regulated by the Federal Communications Commission , the broadcasting regulator the United States, despite not yet transmitting over there. In 2016, Viacom launched its own subsidiary Viacom International Studios, which have its headquarters in Miami. Its first production

2142-693: Is a subsidiary of Paramount Global which serves Europe, the Middle East, Africa and Asia. It currently consists of the following branches: Viacom18 is a joint venture between Paramount Global and TV18 , which operates the former's television brands in India along with homegrown brand Colors . Paramount owned a stake in the company from 2007 until 2024. Paramount Networks Americas , formerly MTV Networks Latin America , Viacom International Media Networks The Americas and ViacomCBS Networks Americas ,

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2244-460: Is an adaptation for repair of genome damage, and that recombinational variation is a byproduct that may provide a separate benefit. The final step of the viral cycle, assembly of new HIV-1 virions, begins at the plasma membrane of the host cell. The Env polyprotein (gp160) goes through the endoplasmic reticulum and is transported to the Golgi apparatus where it is cleaved by furin resulting in

2346-516: Is bound with the CD4 protein, the envelope complex undergoes a structural change, exposing the chemokine receptor binding domains of gp120 and allowing them to interact with the target chemokine receptor. This allows for a more stable two-pronged attachment, which allows the N-terminal fusion peptide gp41 to penetrate the cell membrane. Repeat sequences in gp41, HR1, and HR2 then interact, causing

2448-499: Is estimated to be about 1 in 250,000 in a low risk population. Testing post-exposure is recommended immediately and then at six weeks, three months, and six months. Viacom International Media Networks Viacom International Inc. (doing business as Paramount International Networks ( PIN )) is the international division of the Paramount Media Networks subsidiary of Paramount Global that oversees

2550-424: Is even lower in rural populations. Furthermore, in 2001 only 0.5% of pregnant women attending urban health facilities were counselled, tested or received their test results. Again, this proportion is even lower in rural health facilities. Since donors may therefore be unaware of their infection, donor blood and blood products used in medicine and medical research are routinely screened for HIV. HIV-1 testing

2652-640: Is headquartered within Paramount Global's offices in New York City and London, with other international offices located in São Paulo, Berlin, Stockholm, Amsterdam, Warsaw, Lagos, Madrid, Milan, Mumbai, Paris, Singapore, Budapest, Belgrade and Sydney amongst others. Its first international offices opened in the late 1980s in London and Amsterdam with the launch of MTV Europe (now MTV Global ). It

2754-464: Is high as the glycans shield the underlying viral protein from neutralisation by antibodies. This is one of the most densely glycosylated molecules known and the density is sufficiently high to prevent the normal maturation process of glycans during biogenesis in the endoplasmic and Golgi apparatus. The majority of the glycans are therefore stalled as immature 'high-mannose' glycans not normally present on human glycoproteins that are secreted or present on

2856-399: Is initially done using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to detect antibodies to HIV-1. Specimens with a non-reactive result from the initial ELISA are considered HIV-negative, unless new exposure to an infected partner or partner of unknown HIV status has occurred. Specimens with a reactive ELISA result are retested in duplicate. If the result of either duplicate test is reactive,

2958-447: Is largely confined to West Africa . HIV is similar in structure to other retroviruses. It is roughly spherical with a diameter of about 120  nm , around 100,000 times smaller in volume than a red blood cell . It is composed of two copies of positive- sense single-stranded RNA that codes for the virus' nine genes enclosed by a conical capsid composed of 2,000 copies of the viral protein p24 . The single-stranded RNA

3060-612: Is more likely, leading to immunodeficiency. Three groups of HIV-1 have been identified on the basis of differences in the envelope ( env ) region: M, N, and O. Group M is the most prevalent and is subdivided into eight subtypes (or clades ), based on the whole genome, which are geographically distinct. The most prevalent are subtypes B (found mainly in North America and Europe), A and D (found mainly in Africa), and C (found mainly in Africa and Asia); these subtypes form branches in

3162-561: Is present as both free virus particles and virus within infected immune cells . Research has shown (for both same-sex and opposite-sex couples) that HIV is not contagious during sexual intercourse without a condom if the HIV-positive partner has a consistently undetectable viral load . HIV infects vital cells in the human immune system, such as helper T cells (specifically CD4 T cells), macrophages , and dendritic cells . HIV infection leads to low levels of CD4 T cells through

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3264-412: Is tightly bound to nucleocapsid proteins, p7, and enzymes needed for the development of the virion such as reverse transcriptase , proteases , ribonuclease and integrase . A matrix composed of the viral protein p17 surrounds the capsid ensuring the integrity of the virion particle. This is, in turn, surrounded by the viral envelope , that is composed of the lipid bilayer taken from the membrane of

3366-534: Is unknown how often such mixed packaging occurs under natural conditions. Bonhoeffer et al. suggested that template switching by reverse transcriptase acts as a repair process to deal with breaks in the single-stranded RNA genome. In addition, Hu and Temin suggested that recombination is an adaptation for repair of damage in the RNA genomes. Strand switching (copy-choice recombination) by reverse transcriptase could generate an undamaged copy of genomic DNA from two damaged single-stranded RNA genome copies. This view of

3468-638: The African green monkey (SIVagm) and sooty mangabey (SIVsmm) are thought to have a long evolutionary history with their hosts. These hosts have adapted to the presence of the virus, which is present at high levels in the host's blood, but evokes only a mild immune response, does not cause the development of simian AIDS, and does not undergo the extensive mutation and recombination typical of HIV infection in humans. In contrast, when these strains infect species that have not adapted to SIV ("heterologous" or similar hosts such as rhesus or cynomologus macaques ),

3570-544: The CCR5-Δ32 mutation are resistant to infection by the R5 virus, as the mutation leaves HIV unable to bind to this co-receptor, reducing its ability to infect target cells. Sexual intercourse is the major mode of HIV transmission. Both X4 and R5 HIV are present in the seminal fluid , which enables the virus to be transmitted from a male to his sexual partner . The virions can then infect numerous cellular targets and disseminate into

3672-445: The adsorption of glycoproteins on its surface to receptors on the target cell followed by fusion of the viral envelope with the target cell membrane and the release of the HIV capsid into the cell. Entry to the cell begins through interaction of the trimeric envelope complex ( gp160 spike) on the HIV viral envelope and both CD4 and a chemokine co-receptor (generally either CCR5 or CXCR4 , but others are known to interact) on

3774-421: The gag polyproteins still need to be cleaved into the actual matrix, capsid and nucleocapsid proteins. This cleavage is mediated by the packaged viral protease and can be inhibited by antiretroviral drugs of the protease inhibitor class. The various structural components then assemble to produce a mature HIV virion. Only mature virions are then able to infect another cell. The classical process of infection of

3876-514: The microtubule -based transport to the nucleus, the viral single-strand RNA genome is transcribed into double-strand DNA, which is then integrated into a host chromosome. HIV can infect dendritic cells (DCs) by this CD4-CCR5 route, but another route using mannose-specific C-type lectin receptors such as DC-SIGN can also be used. DCs are one of the first cells encountered by the virus during sexual transmission. They are currently thought to play an important role by transmitting HIV to T cells when

3978-403: The phylogenetic tree representing the lineage of the M group of HIV-1. Co-infection with distinct subtypes gives rise to circulating recombinant forms (CRFs). In 2000, the last year in which an analysis of global subtype prevalence was made, 47.2% of infections worldwide were of subtype C, 26.7% were of subtype A/CRF02_AG, 12.3% were of subtype B, 5.3% were of subtype D, 3.2% were of CRF_AE, and

4080-438: The α -chemokine receptor, CXCR4 , for entry. Dual-tropic HIV-1 strains are thought to be transitional strains of HIV-1 and thus are able to use both CCR5 and CXCR4 as co-receptors for viral entry. The α -chemokine SDF-1 , a ligand for CXCR4, suppresses replication of T-tropic HIV-1 isolates. It does this by down-regulating the expression of CXCR4 on the surface of HIV target cells. M-tropic HIV-1 isolates that use only

4182-427: The β -chemokine receptor, CCR5 , for entry and are thus able to replicate in both macrophages and CD4 T cells. This CCR5 co-receptor is used by almost all primary HIV-1 isolates regardless of viral genetic subtype. Indeed, macrophages play a key role in several critical aspects of HIV infection. They appear to be the first cells infected by HIV and perhaps the source of HIV production when CD4 cells become depleted in

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4284-451: The 2019 Viacom-CBS merger). Network 10 is one of Australia's three commercial free-to-air channels. Its parent company, Ten Network Holdings was bought by CBS Corporation on 16 November 2017, in turn becoming part of ViacomCBS Networks International, later Paramount International Networks following the 2019 Viacom-CBS merger. VIVA Media GmbH (until 2004 VIVA Media AG ) was a music television network originating from Germany. It

4386-587: The CCR5 receptor are termed R5; those that use only CXCR4 are termed X4, and those that use both, X4R5. However, the use of co-receptors alone does not explain viral tropism, as not all R5 viruses are able to use CCR5 on macrophages for a productive infection and HIV can also infect a subtype of myeloid dendritic cells , which probably constitute a reservoir that maintains infection when CD4 T cell numbers have declined to extremely low levels. Some people are resistant to certain strains of HIV. For example, people with

4488-405: The DIS (dimerization initiation signal) hairpin is exposed. The formation of the gRNA dimer is mediated by a 'kissing' interaction between the DIS hairpin loops of the gRNA monomers. At the same time, certain guanosine residues in the gRNA are made available for binding of the nucleocapsid (NC) protein leading to the subsequent virion assembly. The labile gRNA dimer has been also reported to achieve

4590-419: The HIV env gene, allows the virus to attach to target cells and fuse the viral envelope with the target cell's membrane releasing the viral contents into the cell and initiating the infectious cycle. As the sole viral protein on the surface of the virus, the envelope protein is a major target for HIV vaccine efforts. Over half of the mass of the trimeric envelope spike is N-linked glycans . The density

4692-521: The HIV epidemic. This season also planned some gay scenes that were meant to tackle the HIV/AIDs spread among the gay people. According to Georgia Arnold the executive producer of the drama series, the actual plan had to be pulled back to avoid controversy since it was a delicate matter in Kenya . The third season of the series, dubbed Shuga Naija , was shot and set in Nigeria, produced in partnership with

4794-441: The HIV protein-coding sequences is translated. Mature HIV mRNAs are exported from the nucleus into the cytoplasm , where they are translated to produce HIV proteins, including Rev . As the newly produced Rev protein is produced it moves to the nucleus, where it binds to full-length, unspliced copies of virus RNAs and allows them to leave the nucleus. Some of these full-length RNAs function as mRNAs that are translated to produce

4896-570: The HIV virological synapse in vivo . The many dissemination mechanisms available to HIV contribute to the virus' ongoing replication in spite of anti-retroviral therapies. HIV differs from many viruses in that it has very high genetic variability . This diversity is a result of its fast replication cycle , with the generation of about 10 virions every day, coupled with a high mutation rate of approximately 3 x 10 per nucleotide base per cycle of replication and recombinogenic properties of reverse transcriptase. This complex scenario leads to

4998-526: The LTR promoter acting by binding the TAR RNA element. The TAR may also be processed into microRNAs that regulate the apoptosis genes ERCC1 and IER3 . The rev protein (p19) is involved in shuttling RNAs from the nucleus and the cytoplasm by binding to the RRE RNA element. The vif protein (p23) prevents the action of APOBEC3G (a cellular protein that deaminates cytidine to uridine in

5100-554: The National Agency for the Control of AIDS (NACA). It is directed by Biyi Bandele and stars Tiwa Savage , Chris Attoh , Maria Okanrende , Emmanuel Ikubese, Sharon Ezeamaka , Efa Iwara, Olumide Oworu, Dorcas Shola Fapson , Rahama Sadau, Okezie Morro, Timini Egbuson , Kachi Nnochiri, Sanni Mu'azu and Leonora Okine . Shuga Naija tells the story of several Lagos youths and how they deal with love, sex and relationships. It

5202-545: The Public Relations Health category for its focus on love, emotions, and sexual behavior amongst Kenyan youth. In 2013, production of the series was moved to Nigeria, where the third and subsequent seasons are set. Dubbed " Shuga Naija ", the new version is a multimedia campaign which educates youths on HIV/AIDS , safe sex and teen pregnancy . Shuga also touches on maternal and child health, family planning, gender-based violence, and women empowerment. It

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5304-433: The U.S.: Although IFA can be used to confirm infection in these ambiguous cases, this assay is not widely used. In general, a second specimen should be collected more than a month later and retested for persons with indeterminate western blot results. Although much less commonly available, nucleic acid testing (e.g., viral RNA or proviral DNA amplification method) can also help diagnosis in certain situations. In addition,

5406-409: The adaptive benefit of recombination in HIV could explain why each HIV particle contains two complete genomes, rather than one. Furthermore, the view that recombination is a repair process implies that the benefit of repair can occur at each replication cycle, and that this benefit can be realized whether or not the two genomes differ genetically. On the view that recombination in HIV is a repair process,

5508-423: The advent of AIDS. HIV-positive patients acquire an enormously broad spectrum of opportunistic infections, which was particularly problematic prior to the onset of HAART therapies; however, the same infections are reported among HIV-infected patients examined post-mortem following the onset of antiretroviral therapies. Thus, during the course of infection, viral adaptation to the use of CXCR4 instead of CCR5 may be

5610-403: The animals develop AIDS and the virus generates genetic diversity similar to what is seen in human HIV infection. Chimpanzee SIV (SIVcpz), the closest genetic relative of HIV-1, is associated with increased mortality and AIDS-like symptoms in its natural host. SIVcpz appears to have been transmitted relatively recently to chimpanzee and human populations, so their hosts have not yet adapted to

5712-545: The average survival time after infection with HIV is estimated to be 9 to 11 years, depending on the HIV subtype . In most cases, HIV is a sexually transmitted infection and occurs by contact with or transfer of blood , pre-ejaculate , semen , and vaginal fluids . Non-sexual transmission can occur from an infected mother to her infant during pregnancy , during childbirth by exposure to her blood or vaginal fluid, and through breast milk . Within these bodily fluids, HIV

5814-592: The cell as new virus particles that will begin the replication cycle anew. Two types of HIV have been characterized: HIV-1 and HIV-2. HIV-1 is the virus that was initially discovered and termed both lymphadenopathy associated virus (LAV) and human T-lymphotropic virus 3 (HTLV-III). HIV-1 is more virulent and more infective than HIV-2, and is the cause of the majority of HIV infections globally. The lower infectivity of HIV-2, compared to HIV-1, implies that fewer of those exposed to HIV-2 will be infected per exposure. Due to its relatively poor capacity for transmission, HIV-2

5916-470: The cell types a virus infects. HIV can infect a variety of immune cells such as CD4 T cells , macrophages , and microglial cells . HIV-1 entry to macrophages and CD4 T cells is mediated through interaction of the virion envelope glycoproteins (gp120) with the CD4 molecule on the target cells' membrane and also with chemokine co-receptors . Macrophage-tropic (M-tropic) strains of HIV-1, or non- syncytia -inducing strains (NSI; now called R5 viruses ) use

6018-459: The collapse of the extracellular portion of gp41 into a hairpin shape. This loop structure brings the virus and cell membranes close together, allowing fusion of the membranes and subsequent entry of the viral capsid. After HIV has bound to the target cell, the HIV RNA and various enzymes, including reverse transcriptase, integrase, ribonuclease, and protease, are injected into the cell. During

6120-416: The conglomerate on 29 April 2024. Since 14 January 2020, this division consists of two brand groups (Entertainment and Youth Brands, Kids and Family), and three regional hubs (UK & Australia, EMEAA and Americas). Paramount Networks UK & Australia , formerly ViacomCBS Networks UK and Australia is a regional subsidiary of Paramount Global launched on 14 January 2020 and headquartered in London with

6222-687: The conversation about HIV. This was one of the darkest seasons of Shuga as it featured the death of a character. The sixth series of Shuga returned to Nigeria and premiered on March 7, 2018. Set against the backdrop of a bustling Lagos metropolis, where we see the northern and southern communities blended together. In this new season we meet a host of new characters dealing with coming of age drama. Friendships are tested, relationships reach risky heights, and secrets threaten to break family ties. Starring: Timini Egubson reprising his role from previous seasons as Toby. Sharon Ezeamaka, Jemima Osunde , Rahama Sadau, Adebukola Oladipupo, Moses Akerele , Abayomi Alvin with

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6324-437: The cultures and experiences of our diverse international audiences," while driving the growth in acquisitions and engagement of Paramount+ worldwide. It is led by Maria Kyriacou, president of broadcast and studios, international markets. On 1 May 2014, Viacom acquired free-to-air channels from Channel 5 Broadcasting Ltd, in turn becoming part of ViacomCBS Networks International, (later Paramount International Networks following

6426-447: The development of AIDS. HIV is a member of the genus Lentivirus , part of the family Retroviridae . Lentiviruses have many morphologies and biological properties in common. Many species are infected by lentiviruses, which are characteristically responsible for long-duration illnesses with a long incubation period . Lentiviruses are transmitted as single-stranded , positive- sense , enveloped RNA viruses . Upon entry into

6528-577: The development of stable recombinant forms of the viral spike by the introduction of an intersubunit disulphide bond and an isoleucine to proline mutation ( radical replacement of an amino acid) in gp41. The so-called SOSIP trimers not only reproduce the antigenic properties of the native viral spike, but also display the same degree of immature glycans as presented on the native virus. Recombinant trimeric viral spikes are promising vaccine candidates as they display less non-neutralising epitopes than recombinant monomeric gp120, which act to suppress

6630-575: The disclosure of HIV status. The fifth season was called "Shuga: Down South" and it was based in South Africa. It premiered on March 17, 2017. It was set in the cool clubs, hangouts and schools of Johannesburg’s Braamfontein , and the township of “Zenzele”. Starring Vanessa Mdee , Samke Makhoba , Nick Mutuma , Given Stuurman , Mohau Cele , Lerato Walaza and Emmanuel Ikubese , with cameo performances from Seyi Shay and Kwesta . The seasons themes included abusive relationships, sexual assault, back alley abortions, and "blessers" in addition to continuing

6732-575: The first spin-offs were launched in Poland and Switzerland in 2000. VIVA Austria was launched in May 2012, 15% of the channel's programming consists of Austrian music, music tops, and lifestyle programming focused on the Austrian market. The channels marketing and promotion are managed by Goldback Media. Before 2012, VIVA Germany aired across Austria with localized advertising and sponsorship for Austria. VIVA Germany VIVA Switzerland VIVA Poland

6834-431: The generation of many variants of HIV in a single infected patient in the course of one day. This variability is compounded when a single cell is simultaneously infected by two or more different strains of HIV. When simultaneous infection occurs, the genome of progeny virions may be composed of RNA strands from two different strains. This hybrid virion then infects a new cell where it undergoes replication. As this happens,

6936-576: The generation of recombinational variation would be a consequence, but not the cause of, the evolution of template switching. HIV-1 infection causes chronic inflammation and production of reactive oxygen species . Thus, the HIV genome may be vulnerable to oxidative damage , including breaks in the single-stranded RNA. For HIV, as well as for viruses in general, successful infection depends on overcoming host defense strategies that often include production of genome-damaging reactive oxygen species. Thus, Michod et al. suggested that recombination by viruses

7038-552: The genetic information that is transmitted from parental to progeny genomes. Viral recombination produces genetic variation that likely contributes to the evolution of resistance to anti-retroviral therapy . Recombination may also contribute, in principle, to overcoming the immune defenses of the host. Yet, for the adaptive advantages of genetic variation to be realized, the two viral genomes packaged in individual infecting virus particles need to have arisen from separate progenitor parental viruses of differing genetic constitution. It

7140-508: The head writers on the show and also directed the episodes. The filming, lighting and makeup was done by the actors themselves. HIV The human immunodeficiency viruses ( HIV ) are two species of Lentivirus (a subgroup of retrovirus ) that infect humans. Over time, they cause acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), a condition in which progressive failure of the immune system allows life-threatening opportunistic infections and cancers to thrive. Without treatment,

7242-415: The immune response to target epitopes. The RNA genome consists of at least seven structural landmarks ( LTR , TAR , RRE , PE, SLIP, CRS, and INS), and nine genes ( gag , pol , and env , tat , rev , nef , vif , vpr , vpu , and sometimes a tenth tev , which is a fusion of tat , env and rev ), encoding 19 proteins. Three of these genes, gag , pol , and env , contain information needed to make

7344-521: The integrated DNA provirus is transcribed into RNA. The full-length genomic RNAs (gRNA) can be packaged into new viral particles in a pseudodiploid form. The selectivity in the packaging is explained by the structural properties of the dimeric conformer of the gRNA. The gRNA dimer is characterized by a tandem three-way junction within the gRNA monomer, in which the SD and AUG hairpins , responsible for splicing and translation respectively, are sequestered and

7446-410: The patient. Macrophages and microglial cells are the cells infected by HIV in the central nervous system . In the tonsils and adenoids of HIV-infected patients, macrophages fuse into multinucleated giant cells that produce huge amounts of virus. T-tropic strains of HIV-1, or syncytia -inducing strains (SI; now called X4 viruses ) replicate in primary CD4 T cells as well as in macrophages and use

7548-663: The production, broadcasting and promotion of its brands outside of the United States. These brands include Paramount Network , Comedy Central , MTV , Nickelodeon and BET , as well as CBS -branded channels co-owned with AMC Networks International . PIN also owned a 30% stake in the Rainbow S.p.A. animation studio in Italy from 2011 to 2023 and a stake (majority, then later minority) in Viacom18 , an Indian joint venture with domestic partner TV18 , from 2007 to 2024. The division

7650-406: The remaining 5.3% were composed of other subtypes and CRFs. Most HIV-1 research is focused on subtype B; few laboratories focus on the other subtypes. The existence of a fourth group, "P", has been hypothesised based on a virus isolated in 2009. The strain is apparently derived from gorilla SIV (SIVgor), first isolated from western lowland gorillas in 2006. HIV-2's closest relative is SIVsm,

7752-425: The reverse transcriptase, by jumping back and forth between the two different RNA templates, will generate a newly synthesized retroviral DNA sequence that is a recombinant between the two parental genomes. This recombination is most obvious when it occurs between subtypes. The closely related simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) has evolved into many strains, classified by the natural host species. SIV strains of

7854-604: The series took place in Kenya ( Nairobi and Malindi ) in August – September 2011. The title song for “Shuga: Love, Sex, Money” debuted on MTV Base (DStv Channel 322) on Saint Valentine's Day in 2012. Other artists that featured in the soundtrack included Camp Mulla , Flavour , P-Square , Wyre , Madtraxx, J Martins, and Stella Mwangi . Season two premiered on 10 February 2012 at the Kenya National Museums . This season comprised six episodes which were followed by

7956-519: The single-stranded viral DNA and/or interferes with reverse transcription ). The vpr protein (p14) arrests cell division at G2/M . The nef protein (p27) down-regulates CD4 (the major viral receptor), as well as the MHC class I and class II molecules. Nef also interacts with SH3 domains . The vpu protein (p16) influences the release of new virus particles from infected cells. The ends of each strand of HIV RNA contain an RNA sequence called

8058-412: The site of cell-to-cell contact, close apposition of cells, which minimizes fluid-phase diffusion of virions, and clustering of HIV entry receptors on the target cell towards the contact zone. Cell-to-cell spread is thought to be particularly important in lymphoid tissues , where CD4 T cells are densely packed and likely to interact frequently. Intravital imaging studies have supported the concept of

8160-673: The specimen is reported as repeatedly reactive and undergoes confirmatory testing with a more specific supplemental test (e.g., a polymerase chain reaction (PCR), western blot or, less commonly, an immunofluorescence assay (IFA)). Only specimens that are repeatedly reactive by ELISA and positive by IFA or PCR or reactive by western blot are considered HIV-positive and indicative of HIV infection. Specimens that are repeatedly ELISA-reactive occasionally provide an indeterminate western blot result, which may be either an incomplete antibody response to HIV in an infected person or nonspecific reactions in an uninfected person. HIV deaths in 2014 excluding

8262-556: The structural proteins Gag and Env. Gag proteins bind to copies of the virus RNA genome to package them into new virus particles. HIV-1 and HIV-2 appear to package their RNA differently. HIV-1 will bind to any appropriate RNA. HIV-2 will preferentially bind to the mRNA that was used to create the Gag protein itself. Two RNA genomes are encapsidated in each HIV-1 particle (see Structure and genome of HIV ). Upon infection and replication catalyzed by reverse transcriptase, recombination between

8364-496: The structural proteins for new virus particles. For example, env codes for a protein called gp160 that is cut in two by a cellular protease to form gp120 and gp41. The six remaining genes, tat , rev , nef , vif , vpr , and vpu (or vpx in the case of HIV-2), are regulatory genes for proteins that control the ability of HIV to infect cells, produce new copies of virus (replicate), or cause disease. The two tat proteins (p16 and p14) are transcriptional transactivators for

8466-427: The target cell surface. Gp120 binds to integrin α 4 β 7 activating LFA-1 , the central integrin involved in the establishment of virological synapses , which facilitate efficient cell-to-cell spreading of HIV-1. The gp160 spike contains binding domains for both CD4 and chemokine receptors. The first step in fusion involves the high-affinity attachment of the CD4 binding domains of gp120 to CD4. Once gp120

8568-413: The target cell, the viral RNA genome is converted (reverse transcribed) into double-stranded DNA by a virally encoded enzyme, reverse transcriptase , that is transported along with the viral genome in the virus particle. The resulting viral DNA is then imported into the cell nucleus and integrated into the cellular DNA by a virally encoded enzyme, integrase , and host co-factors . Once integrated,

8670-414: The two HIV envelope glycoproteins, gp41 and gp120 . These are transported to the plasma membrane of the host cell where gp41 anchors gp120 to the membrane of the infected cell. The Gag (p55) and Gag-Pol (p160) polyproteins also associate with the inner surface of the plasma membrane along with the HIV genomic RNA as the forming virion begins to bud from the host cell. The budded virion is still immature as

8772-484: The two genomes can occur. Recombination occurs as the single-strand, positive-sense RNA genomes are reverse transcribed to form DNA. During reverse transcription, the nascent DNA can switch multiple times between the two copies of the viral RNA. This form of recombination is known as copy-choice. Recombination events may occur throughout the genome. Anywhere from two to 20 recombination events per genome may occur at each replication cycle, and these events can rapidly shuffle

8874-570: The viral DNA into the host cell's genome is carried out by another viral enzyme called integrase . The integrated viral DNA may then lie dormant, in the latent stage of HIV infection. To actively produce the virus, certain cellular transcription factors need to be present, the most important of which is NF- κ B (nuclear factor kappa B), which is upregulated when T cells become activated. This means that those cells most likely to be targeted, entered and subsequently killed by HIV are those actively fighting infection. During viral replication,

8976-536: The virus in its adaptation to avoid innate restriction factors present in host cells. Adaptation to use normal cellular machinery to enable transmission and productive infection has also aided the establishment of HIV-2 replication in humans. A survival strategy for any infectious agent is not to kill its host, but ultimately become a commensal organism. Having achieved a low pathogenicity, over time, variants that are more successful at transmission will be selected. The HIV virion enters macrophages and CD4 T cells by

9078-425: The virus is captured in the mucosa by DCs. The presence of FEZ-1 , which occurs naturally in neurons , is believed to prevent the infection of cells by HIV. HIV-1 entry, as well as entry of many other retroviruses, has long been believed to occur exclusively at the plasma membrane. More recently, however, productive infection by pH -independent, clathrin-mediated endocytosis of HIV-1 has also been reported and

9180-463: The virus may become latent , allowing the virus and its host cell to avoid detection by the immune system, for an indeterminate amount of time. The virus can remain dormant in the human body for up to ten years after primary infection; during this period the virus does not cause symptoms. Alternatively, the integrated viral DNA may be transcribed , producing new RNA genomes and viral proteins, using host cell resources, that are packaged and released from

9282-403: The virus to evade the body's immune system. The reverse transcriptase also has ribonuclease activity that degrades the viral RNA during the synthesis of cDNA, as well as DNA-dependent DNA polymerase activity that creates a sense DNA from the antisense cDNA. Together, the cDNA and its complement form a double-stranded viral DNA that is then transported into the cell nucleus . The integration of

9384-540: The virus. This virus has also lost a function of the nef gene that is present in most SIVs. For non-pathogenic SIV variants, nef suppresses T cell activation through the CD3 marker. Nef 's function in non-pathogenic forms of SIV is to downregulate expression of inflammatory cytokines , MHC-1 , and signals that affect T cell trafficking. In HIV-1 and SIVcpz, nef does not inhibit T-cell activation and it has lost this function. Without this function, T cell depletion

9486-475: The whole organism. However, a selection process leads to a predominant transmission of the R5 virus through this pathway. In patients infected with subtype B HIV-1, there is often a co-receptor switch in late-stage disease and T-tropic variants that can infect a variety of T cells through CXCR4. These variants then replicate more aggressively with heightened virulence that causes rapid T cell depletion, immune system collapse, and opportunistic infections that mark

9588-515: Was I Am Frankie for Nickelodeon. Following the Viacom-CBS merger, it was rebranded to ViacomCBS International Studios (or simply VIS). On 24 June 2020, both ViacomCBS International Studios and sister sibling Miramax is planning on to co-produce The Turkish Detective , the series adaptation of the novels. On 2 September 2020, it returned to production with Mexico's backdoor structure On 7 October 2020, ViacomCBS International Studios revealed

9690-481: Was a Polish music channel launched on 10 June 2000 by the German VIVA Media AG. On 17 July 2012, the channel stopped being an FTA network and was pulled off from Eutelsat Hot Bird 13A satellite. In 2014, the station canceled local production shows. In 2015 - 2017, the station canceled all reality TV shows and continued playing only electronic dance music. Before the new broadcast schedule, the station

9792-669: Was announced in June 2013 that new seasons of Shuga would be produced in Nigeria At the unveiling event, it was stated that the new series will have a whole new look; with predominantly Nigerian cast and crew. Speaking on the transition, Alex Okosi, the Managing Director of Viacom International Media Networks Africa says producing the project in Nigeria will help the realization of the series due to Nigeria's flourishing entertainment industry. According to Business Day ; "When it

9894-491: Was created from a rebrand of predecessor Viacom's MTV Networks, which included MTV , BET , VH1 and Nickelodeon , to include Comedy Central . MTV Asia was a leader against rival Channel V in China, India and South Korea in 1999. Currently led by Pamela "Pam" Kaufman as part of her broader role as president and CEO of international markets, the division under one of its previous names " Viacom International Media Networks "

9996-449: Was founded as an alternative to MTV by Time Warner executives Tom McGrath and Peter Bogner with Rudi Dolezal and Hannes Rossacher from DoRo Productions , which created music videos. The channel was a broadcast of VIVA Germany as VIVA Media AG in 1993 later in 1995 of Viva Zwei launch, and has been owned by their former competitor Viacom , the parent company of MTV , since 2004. Viva channels exist in some European countries;

10098-406: Was playing Polish and international pop, dance, rock, and hip hop music. VIVA Hungary was a music channel launched on 27 June 1997 as Z+. Like its sister channels, the channel features localized music videos, programming, presenters, and chart shows. The channel started to use the new logo on 2 April 2012. The channel ended broadcast on 3 October 2017 replaced by MTV Music. VIVA UK & Ireland

10200-425: Was previously led from 2011 to 2016 by Robert "Bob" Bakish , in one of his many roles at the conglomerate, having joined Paramount Global's predecessor, Viacom, in its first incarnation in 1997. In 2016, Bakish got promoted to CEO of the second incarnation of Viacom and stayed on as such following its merger with CBS Corporation to form ViacomCBS, renamed Paramount Global in 2022. He stepped down as CEO and left

10302-490: Was produced in partnership with Nigeria's "National Agency for the Control of AIDS" (NACA). Season 5 of the series was unveiled in partnership with Unitaid , the Global Innovation Fund , and Paramount . Season 3 of the series was broadcast via 88 television stations across the world, with estimated household viewers of over 550 million. Season one comprised three episodes that followed the lives and love of

10404-448: Was recently suggested to constitute the only route of productive entry. Shortly after the viral capsid enters the cell, an enzyme called reverse transcriptase liberates the positive-sense single-stranded RNA genome from the attached viral proteins and copies it into a complementary DNA (cDNA) molecule. The process of reverse transcription is extremely error-prone, and the resulting mutations may cause drug resistance or allow

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