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87-404: [REDACTED] Cheikh Mokrani   † [REDACTED] Boumezrag Mokrani [REDACTED] Cheikh El Haddad   [REDACTED] [REDACTED] El Hadj Bouzid   † The Mokrani Revolt ( Arabic : مقاومة الشيخ المقراني , lit.   'Resistance of Cheikh El-Mokrani'; Berber languages : Unfaq urrumi , lit.   'French insurrection')

174-617: A coup d'état . His concessions only increased the boldness of the monarchists, who had only accepted Louis-Napoléon as president in opposition to the Republic and as a step in the direction of the monarchy. A conflict was now inevitable between his personal policy and the majority of the Chamber, who were divided into legitimists and Orléanists in spite of the death of Louis-Philippe in August 1850. Louis-Napoléon exploited their projects for

261-607: A motion of no confidence in Guizot, hoping that this might satisfy the rioters, but the Chamber of Deputies sided with the premier. The government called a state of emergency , thinking it could rely on the troops of the National Guard, but instead on the morning of 23 February, the Guardsmen sided with the revolutionaries, protecting them from the regular soldiers who by now had been called in. The industrial population of

348-660: A French officer as its head. Many of the indigenous population rallied to the banners of the Cheikh; their wide-spread discontent aggrieved by the ravages of famine, increasing racial oppression by the French and a Christianization policy pursued by the Catholic church. French defeats in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71 undermined the authority of the occupying power. In March 1871 Mohamed El-Mokrani revolted against

435-473: A concession made by Lamartine to popular aspirations, and in exchange for the maintaining of the tricolor flag, he conceded the Republican triptych of Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité , written on the flag, on which a red rosette was also to be added. The first collision took place as to the form which the 1848 Revolution was to take. Lamartine wished for them to maintain their original principles, with

522-461: A fortified enclosure. On the 300 convoys in the convoy, 250 suffered from scurvy, and will die in the weeks following their arrival in New Caledonia according to Roger Pérennès . In Mémoires d'un Communard , Jean Allemane evokes a deadly epidemic of dysentery which decimated the transported people that La Loire had just landed, and who were buried in large numbers. Begun at dawn,

609-411: A government. Odilon Barrot accepted, and Thomas Robert Bugeaud , commander-in-chief of the first military division, who had begun to attack the barricades, was recalled. In the face of the insurrection that had now taken possession of the whole capital, King Louis-Philippe abdicated in favor of his nine-year-old grandson, Prince Philippe, Count of Paris , but under pressure from insurgents who invaded

696-575: A last stopover in Santa Catarina Island , La Loire arrives in Nouméa on October 16, 1874, after a journey of 133 days. There will be around 5 deaths at sea and on November 10, of the same year, the ship "La Loire" left Nouméa to return to France after having disembarked the convicts from Kabylie . On the 40 or 50 Algerians mentioned, 39 were destined for simple deportation to the L'Île-des-Pins , and only one of them for deportation to

783-423: A life of its own after 1846 when the economic crisis encouraged ordinary workers to demand a say over the government. On 14 February 1848, Guizot's government decided to put an end to the banquets, on the grounds of constituting illegal political assembly. On 22 February, striking workers and Republican students took to the streets, demanding an end to Guizot's government, and erected barricades. Odilon Barrot called

870-583: A peaceful issue was at an end. When the questors called upon the Chamber to have posted in all barracks the decree of 6 May 1848 concerning the right of the Assembly to demand the support of the troops if attacked, the Mountain , dreading a restoration of the monarchy, voted with the Bonapartists against the measure, thus disarming the legislative power. Louis-Napoléon saw his opportunity, and organised

957-614: A popular anti-establishment figure and was elected president in 1848. Under the Second Republic's constitution, the president was restricted to a single term. Louis-Napoléon overthrew the republic in an 1851 self-coup d'état , proclaimed himself Emperor Napoleon III , and created the Second French Empire . France's "February Revolution" of 1848 , was the first of the Revolutions of 1848 . The events of

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1044-782: A president "amin", a treasurer named a "ukil" and some men of the village elected to verify the members (patrilineage) or because they are really elder. The first signs of actual revolt appeared in the mutiny of a squadron of the 3rd Regiment of Spahis in January 1871. The spahis (Muslim cavalry troopers in the French Army of Africa ) refused to be sent to fight in metropolitan France, claiming that they were only required to serve in Algeria. This mutiny began in Moudjebeur, near Ksar Boukhari on January 20, 1871, spread to Aïn Guettar (in

1131-451: A restoration of the monarchy, which he knew to be unpopular in the country, and which gave him the opportunity of furthering his own personal ambitions. From 8 August to 12 November 1850 he went about France stating the case for a revision of the constitution in speeches which he varied according to each place; he held reviews, at which cries of "Vive Napoléon!" showed that the army was with him; he superseded General Changarnier , on whose arms

1218-544: A state of siege. Twenty columns of French troops marched on Dellys and Draâ El Mizan . Cheikh al-Haddad and his sons were captured on July 13, after the battle of Icheriden . The revolt only faded after the capture of Bou-Mezrag, Cheikh Mokrani's brother, on January 20, 1872. During the fighting, around 100 European civilians died, along with an unknown number of Algerian civilians. After fighting ceased, more than 200 Kabyles were interned and others deported to Cayenne and New Caledonia , where they were known as Algerians of

1305-403: A unique position in French history. For three years, there was an indecisive struggle between the heterogeneous Assembly and the president, who was silently awaiting his opportunity. He chose as his ministers men with little inclination towards republicanism, with a preference for Orléanists , the chief of whom was Odilon Barrot . In order to strengthen his position, he endeavoured to conciliate

1392-634: The Battle of Waterloo , France had been reconstituted into a monarchy known as the Bourbon Restoration . After a brief period of revolutionary turmoil in 1830 , royal power was again secured in the " July Monarchy ", governed under principles of moderate conservatism and improved relations with the United Kingdom . In 1848, Europe erupted into a mass revolutionary wave in which many citizens challenged their royal leaders. Much of it

1479-571: The Crémieux Decree . Meanwhile, on September 1, 1870, the French army was defeated by the Prussian army in Sedan, and lost the French part of Alsace-Lorraine. The fact that France was at this time defeated by another country brought hope to Algerians. Indeed, the news of the French defeat on its border was spread thanks to the paper news. Then, Algerian protests began in public places, and in

1566-567: The French Second Republic , the country was governed by a Governor General and a large proportion was "military territory". There were tensions between the French colonists and the army; the former favouring the abolition of the military territory as being too protective of the native Algerians. Eventually, on March 9, 1870, the Corps législatif passed a law which would end the military regime in Algeria. When Napoleon III fell and

1653-524: The French coup of 1851 . On the night of 1/2 December 1851, the anniversary of his uncle Napoleon's coronation in 1804 and his victory at Austerlitz in 1805, he dissolved the Chamber, re-established universal suffrage, had all the party leaders arrested, and summoned a new assembly to prolong his term of office for ten years. The deputies who had met under Berryer at the Mairie of the 10th arrondissement to defend

1740-654: The Kabylie . Bou-Mezrag took refuge at Maadid, and later managed to escape the French forces finding allies among the Tuareg tribes of the South. General Delacroix with a small expeditionary force, continued to pursue the rebels beyond Ouargla. Bou-Mezrag Mokrani, who had been for six days without drink or food, was finally captured. The insurrection, which had begun on March 16, 1871, in Medjana, finished on January 20, 1872, with

1827-729: The Medjana plain. The same day, Si Aziz, son of Cheikh al-Haddad, head of the Rahmaniyya order, proclaimed a holy war in the market of Seddouk . Soon 150,000 Kabyles rose, as the revolt spread along the coast first, then into the mountains to the east of the Mitidja and as far as Constantine. It then spread to the Belezma mountains and linked with local insurrections all the way down to the Sahara desert. As they spread towards Algiers itself,

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1914-756: The Third French Republic was proclaimed, the Algerian question fell under the remit of the new Justice Minister, Adolphe Crémieux , and not, as previously, under the Minister of War. At the same time, Algeria was experiencing a period of anarchy. The settlers, hostile to Napoleon III and strongly Republican, took advantage of the fall of the Second Empire to push forward their anti-military agenda. Real authority devolved to town councils and local defence committees, and their pressure resulted in

2001-529: The election of the Constituent Assembly on 4 May 1848. The provisional government having resigned, the republican and anti-socialist majority on 9 May entrusted the supreme power to an Executive Commission consisting of five members: Arago, Pierre Marie de Saint-Georges , Garnier-Pagès , Lamartine , and Ledru-Rollin . The result of the general election, the return of a predominantly moderate, if not monarchical, constituent assembly dashed

2088-481: The faubourgs was welcomed by the National Guard on their way toward the center of Paris. Barricades were raised after the shooting of protestors outside the Guizot manor by soldiers. On 23 February 1848 Premier François Guizot 's cabinet resigned, abandoned by the petite bourgeoisie , on whose support they thought they could depend. The heads of the more left-leaning conservative-liberal monarchist parties, Louis-Mathieu Molé and Adolphe Thiers , declined to form

2175-559: The "caution money" ( cautionnement ) deposited by proprietors and editors of papers with the government as a guarantee of good behaviour. Finally, an interpretation of the law on clubs and political societies suppressed about this time all the republican societies. The president had only joined the cry of "Down with the Republicans!" in Montalembert in the hope of effecting a revision of the constitution without having recourse to

2262-595: The 1830s, their father el-Hadj-Ahmed el-Mokrani (d. 1853), formed an alliance with the French: he allowed the Iron Gates expedition in 1839, becoming khalifa of the Medjana under the supervision of French authorities. This alliance quickly proved to be a subordination - a decree of 1845 abolished the khalifalik of Medjana so that when Mohamed succeeded his father, his title was no more than “ Bachagha  [ fr ] ” ( Turkish : baş ağa = chief commander), and

2349-649: The 6 months after arrival of the ship. [REDACTED] Media related to Mokrani Revolt at Wikimedia Commons Cheikh Mokrani El-Mokrani was a descendant of the rulers of the Kingdom of Ait Abbas , descendants of Abderrahmane of Djebel Ayad. The Amokrane , had been rulers since the sixteenth century of the Kalâa of Ait Abbas in the Bibans and of the Medjana region. In the 1830s, Cheikh Mokrani's father Ahmed El Mokrani (d. 1853), had chosen to ally himself with

2436-450: The Alma and Palestro massacres. After reading the indictment, including the whole so-called Palestro affair, which lasted about an hour and a half, the president of the assize court urged the jurors to follow on the notebook that was given to them, and where the name of each offender was written at the top of a page, the individual examination which will be carried out and to take notes due to

2523-574: The France government decided to repress this movement which impacted both people and agriculture. The late 1860s were hard for the people of Algeria: between 1866 and 1868 they lived through drought, exceptionally cold winters, an epidemic of cholera and an earthquake. More than 10% of the Kabyle population died during this period. Thus, at the end of the 1860s, Algeria was exhausted and the demography at its worst. To sum up all those events, on March 9, 1870,

2610-635: The French government decided to put a civilian regime in Algeria, which gave more advantages to French colonizers. In 1870, the creditors demanded to be repaid and the French authorities reneged on the loan on the pretext of the Franco-Prussian War , leaving Mohamed forced to pawn his own possessions. On June 12, 1869, Marshall MacMahon , the Governor General, advised the French government that “the Kabyles will stay peaceful as long as they see no possibility of driving us out of their country.” Under

2697-478: The French invaders. It was Ahmed El Mokrani who had allowed the Iron Gates expedition of 1839 and he had become khalifa of the Medjana under the tutelage of the French authorities. This alliance had soon revealed itself to be a form of subordination - a decree of 1845 abolished the khalifalik of Medjana so that when Mohamed succeeded his father, as the choice of the French Arab Bureaux, his title

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2784-671: The French occupation. The specialist in history Malika Ouennoughi drew up a list of these 40 deportees, whose names follow: On May 18, 1874, the leaders of the Mokrani Revolt were embarked at the Port of Brest  [ fr ] in the 9th convoy of deportees from the ship La Loire placed under the orders of captain Adolphe Lucien Mottez  [ fr ] (1822-1892). They numbered 50 Algerian deportees, and were reinforced with 280 other French convicts from

2871-587: The French, providing sole leadership of the rising and joined by Bordj-Bou-Arréridj. The latter was assisted by his brother Boumezrag and his cousin El-Hadj Bouzid; plus Sheikh Mohand Meziane Ahaddad of Saddouk Oufella, a great scholar theologian of the Zaouia Tarahmanit who joined this uprising with his tribe. Using his position and influence on the Rahmania brotherhood Sheikh Mohand-Amokrane

2958-509: The June Days, the working classes were also alienated from it. The Duke of Wellington wrote at this time, "France needs a Napoleon ! I cannot yet see him..." The granting of universal suffrage to a society with Imperialist sympathies would benefit reactionaries, which culminated in the election of Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte as president of the republic. The new constitution , proclaiming a democratic republic, direct universal suffrage, and

3045-524: The Pacific . Bou-Mezrag Mokrani was condemned to death by a court in Constantine on March 27, 1873. The Kabylie region was subjected to a collective fine of 36 million francs, and 450,000 hectares of land were confiscated and given to new settlers, many of whom were refugees from Alsace-Lorraine , especially in the region of Constantine. The repression and confiscations forced a lot of Kabyles to leave

3132-490: The South of Algeria, people committees were established to organize the revolt. A number of causes have been suggested for the Mokrani revolt. There was a general dissatisfaction among Kabyle notables because of the steady erosion of their authority by the colonial authorities. At the same time, ordinary people were concerned about the imposition of civilian rule on March 9, 1870, which they interpreted as imposing domination by

3219-467: The abolition of the privileged position of property, which they viewed as the only obstacle to equality, and as an emblem hoisted the red flag (the 1791 red flag was, however, the symbol not merely of the French Revolution , but rather of martial law and of order ). The other party wished to maintain society on the basis of its traditional institutions, and rallied around the tricolore . As

3306-423: The arrest of Bou-Mezrag. A third part of Algeria had been affected by the rising and there had been about 200.000 combatants under the rebel flag. The exile of the brother of El-Mokrani and the whole family to the New Caledonia occurred shortly afterwards. Together with them 212 persons, called Kabyles du Pacifique , who had participated in the revolt were tried and deported by French authorities to labor camps on

3393-439: The bourgeois-aligned battalions of the National Guard. Meanwhile, the national workshops were unable to provide remunerative work for the genuine unemployed, and of the thousands who applied, the greater number were employed in aimless digging and refilling of trenches; soon even this expedient failed, and those for whom work could not be invented were given a half wage of 1 franc a day. On 21 June, Alfred de Falloux decided in

3480-560: The burial of the corpses was a task which often did not end until nightfall, and the men who had died of dysentery presented a morbid spectacle. More than two hundred convicts who had come by the Loire died almost immediately after their disembarkation. However Louis-José Barbançon reports that on the civil status registers of the Bagne of L'Île-des-Pins , which were very well kept, only 28 deaths of convicts who came by "La Loire" appeared in

3567-495: The chamber of the Chamber of Deputies , leaders leaned in favor of the insurrection and prepared a provisional government; a (second) republic was then proclaimed by Alphonse de Lamartine . The provisional government , with Dupont de l'Eure as its president, consisted of Lamartine for foreign affairs, Crémieux for justice, Ledru-Rollin for the interior, Carnot for public instruction, Goudchaux for finance, Arago for

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3654-464: The constitution and proclaim the deposition of Louis Napoleon were scattered by the troops at Mazas and Mont Valérien . The resistance organized by the republicans within Paris under Victor Hugo was soon subdued by the intoxicated soldiers. The more serious resistance in the départements was crushed by declaring a state of siege and by the "mixed commissions." The plebiscite of 20 December ratified by

3741-514: The country. After the end of the hostilities of the insurrection of Cheikh Mokrani , the Algerian rebel leaders who were captured alive appeared before the Assize Court of Algiers on December 27, 1872, on a count of indictment and an act of accusation linked to the sacking of the French colonies, the assassinations, fires and looting which sparked heated debates on this extremely important affair. Several criminal charges weighed on each of

3828-651: The cousin of Mokrani as well as Cheikh El Haddad , head of the Rahmaniyya Sufi order. Cheikh Mokrani (full name el-Hadj-Mohamed el-Mokrani) and his brother Boumezrag (full name Ahmed Bou-Mezrag) came from a noble family - the Ait Abbas dynasty (a branch of the Hafsids of Béjaïa ), the Amokrane , rulers, since the sixteenth century of the Kalâa of Ait Abbas in the Bibans and of the Medjana region. In

3915-466: The decree of 24 February, the provisional government had solemnly accepted the principle of the "right to work," and decided to establish " National Workshops " for the unemployed; at the same time, a sort of industrial parliament was established at the Luxembourg Palace , under the presidency of Louis Blanc , with the object of preparing a scheme for the organization of labor; and, lastly, by

4002-496: The decree of 8 March, the property qualification for enrolment in the National Guard had been abolished and the workmen were supplied with arms. The socialists thus formed a sort of state-within-a-state , complete with a government and an armed force. On 15 May, an armed mob, headed by Raspail , Blanqui and Barbès , and assisted by the proletariat-aligned Guard, attempted to overwhelm the Assembly, but were defeated by

4089-427: The deputies in a special assembly. It was in vain that Jules Grévy , in the name of those who perceived the obvious and inevitable risk of creating, under the name of a president, a monarch and more than a king, proposed that the head of the state should be no more than a removable president of the ministerial council. Lamartine, thinking that he was sure to be the choice of the electors under universal suffrage, won over

4176-465: The direction of the Church. A conservative electoral law was passed on 31 May. It required each voter to prove three years' residence at his current address by way of entries in the record of direct taxes. This effectively repealed universal suffrage: factory workers, who moved fairly often, were thus disenfranchised. The law of 16 July aggravated the severity of the press restrictions by re-establishing

4263-597: The general movement of reaction, the president demanded that he should set up a Liberal government. The pope's dilatory reply having been accepted by the French ministry, the president replaced it on 1 November, by the Fould -Rocher cabinet. This looked like a declaration of war against the Catholic and monarchist majority in the Legislative Assembly, which had been elected on 28 May in a moment of panic. But

4350-552: The hopes of those who had looked for the establishment, by a peaceful revolution, of their ideal socialist state. but they were not prepared to yield without a struggle, and in Paris itself they commanded a formidable force. In spite of the preponderance of the "tricolor" party in the provisional government, so long as the voice of France had not spoken, the socialists, supported by the Parisian proletariat, had exercised an influence on policy disproportionate to their relative numbers. By

4437-493: The increase in the number of combatants who joined it and its extension to the west, north and the east where outposts of the colonial army were encircled in several areas. After having won several battles, Mohamed El-Mokrani was killed on May 5, 1871, at Taouraga. His tomb is located in Kollaa N'at-Abbas (Bgayet)( Béjaïa ). Under the command of his brother Boumzrag (Boumezreg), the uprising continued until January 20, 1872. Boumzrag

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4524-616: The insurgents took Lakhdaria (Palestro), 60 km east of the capital, on the 14th of April. By April, 250 tribes had risen, or nearly a third of Algeria's population. One hundred thousand “mujahidin”, poorly armed and disorganised, were launching random raids and attacks. The military authorities brought in reinforcements for the Army of Africa; Admiral de Gueydon , who took over as Governor General on March 29, replacing Special Commissioner Alexis Lambert  [ fr ] , mobilised 22,000 soldiers. Advancing from Palestro towards Algiers,

4611-566: The insurrectionary Paris Commune also played a part. Indeed, from March 18 until May 28, 1871, Paris was under the Commune, which was an autonomous commune administered under direct democracy principles. This Commune was also the hope to found a social and democratic Republic. Thus, the episode of the Paris Commune resonated in Algeria as a new possibility to take over the French administration established in Algeria. Several months before

4698-502: The island of New Caledonia. Mokrani's descendants still live on the island. French Second Republic The French Second Republic ( French : Deuxième République Française or La II République ), officially the French Republic ( République française ), was the second republican government of France . It existed from 1848 until its dissolution in 1852. Following the final defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte at

4785-559: The jails of Fort Quélern , and at their head the marabout Cheikh Boumerdassi . This ship arrived on June 7, at the anchorage of the port of Île-d'Aix , where it embarked 700 passengers, including 40 women, and 320 other French deportees. On June 9, he left for Nouméa , and it was therefore the 9th convoy of deportees that left France to then stop on June 23, in Santa Cruz de Tenerife , to arrive in Nouméa on October 16, 1874. After

4872-589: The last eight years advanced sufficiently in the public estimation to be elected to the Constituent Assembly in 1848 by five departments. He owed this rapid increase of popularity partly to blunders of the government of July, which had unwisely aroused the memory of the country, filled as it was with recollections of the Empire, and partly to Louis Napoléon's campaign carried on from his prison at Ham by means of pamphlets of socialistic tendencies. Moreover,

4959-444: The left of the dynastic parties, the monarchy was criticized by Republicans (a mixture of Radicals and socialists ) for being insufficiently democratic: its electoral system was based on a narrow, privileged electorate of property owners and therefore excluded workers. During the 1840s several petitions requesting electoral reform ( universal manhood suffrage ) had been issued by the National Guard but had been rejected by both of

5046-535: The length of the debates. The leaders of the Mokrani Revolt after their capture and trial in 1873 were either executed, subjected to forced labor, or deported and exiled to the Pacific and New Caledonia . A convoy of 40 Kabyle insurrectional leaders was undertaken on the ship La Loire on June 5, 1874, towards the L'Île-des-Pins for deportation. They were the symbols of Algerian resistance against

5133-404: The main dynastic parties. Political meetings dedicated to this issue were banned by the government, and electoral reformers' therefore bypassed the ban by holding a series of 'banquets' (1847–1848), events where the political debate was disguised as dinner speeches. This movement began overseen by Odilon Barrot's moderate center-left liberal critics of Guizot's conservative government but took on

5220-435: The matter which puts me at odds with you; I can only repeat to you what you already know - I do not wish to be the agent of the civil government..... I am preparing myself to fight you; today let each of us take up his rifle." The spahi mutiny was reignited after March 16, 1871, when Mokrani took charge of it. On March 16, he led six thousand men in an assault on Bordj Bou Arreridj . On April 8, French troops regained control of

5307-453: The monarchists, led by Thiers and the committee of the Rue de Poitiers, were no longer content even with the safe dictatorship of the upright Cavaignac, and joined forces with the Bonapartists. On 10 December the peasants gave over 5,000,000 votes to a name: Napoléon, which stood for order at all costs, against 1,400,000 for Cavaignac. Henri Georges Boulay de la Meurthe was elected vice president,

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5394-441: The name of the parliamentary commission on labour that the workmen should be discharged within three days and those who were able-bodied should be forced to enlist in the armed forces. After this, the June Days Uprising broke out, over the course of 24–26 June, when the eastern industrial quarter of Paris, led by Pujol, fought the western quarter, led by Louis-Eugène Cavaignac , who had been appointed dictator. The socialist party

5481-398: The navy, and Burdeau for war. Garnier-Pagès was mayor of Paris. But, in 1830, the republican-socialist party set up a rival government at the Hôtel de Ville (city hall), including Louis Blanc , Armand Marrast , Ferdinand Flocon , and Alexandre Martin , known as Albert L'Ouvrier ("Albert the Worker"), which bid fair to involve discord and civil war. But this time the Palais Bourbon

5568-428: The offender who all, without exception, had taken part in the insurrection. The prosecution of the court made charges which weighed on each of the accused for the crimes alleged against these main leaders and leaders of the 1871 insurrection. The list of these incarcerated rebel leaders is as follows: A long list was then enumerated of the names of other subordinate rebel Algerian leaders and natives who participated in

5655-427: The parliament relied for the projected monarchical coup d'état ; he replaced his Orléanist ministry with obscure men devoted to his own cause, such as Morny , Fleury and Persigny , and gathered round him officers of the African army, broken men like General Saint-Arnaud ; in fact he practically declared open war. His reply to the votes of censure passed by the Assembly, and their refusal to increase his civil list

5742-430: The power and prestige of France against that of Austria, as beginning the work of European renovation and reconstruction which he already looked upon as his mission. French troops under Oudinot marched into Rome. This provoked an insurrection in Paris in favour of the Roman Republic , that of the Château d'Eau, which was crushed on 13 June 1849. On the other hand, when the pope, though only just restored, began to yield to

5829-456: The president again pretended to be playing the game of the Orléanists, as he had done in the case of the Constituent Assembly. The complementary elections of March and April 1850 resulted in an unexpected victory for the republicans which alarmed the conservative leaders, Thiers, Berryer and Montalembert . The president and the Assembly co-operated in the passage of the Loi Falloux of 15 March 1850, which again placed university instruction under

5916-402: The president, who was elected for four years by direct universal suffrage, i.e. on a broader basis than that of the Assembly, and was not eligible for re-election. He was to choose his ministers, who, like him, would be responsible to the Assembly. Finally, a revision of the constitution was made practically impossible; it involved obtaining three times in succession a majority of three-quarters of

6003-461: The reactionary parties, without committing himself to any of them. The chief instance of this was the expedition to Rome voted by the Catholics, to restore the temporal authority of Pope Pius IX , who had fled Rome in fear of the nationalists and republicans. ( Garibaldi and Mazzini had been elected to a Constitutional Assembly.) The pope called for international intervention to restore him in his temporal power. The French president moved to establish

6090-401: The rebels were stopped at Boudouaou (Alma) on April 22, 1871, by colonel Alexandre Fourchault under the command of General Orphis Léon Lallemand ; on May 5, Mohamed el-Mokrani died fighting at Oued Soufflat, halfway between Lakhdaria (Palestro) and Bouira in an encounter with the troops of General Félix Gustave Saussier  [ fr ] . On 25 April, the Governor General declared

6177-399: The region of modern Khemissa , near Souk Ahras ) on January 23, 1871, and soon reached El Tarf and Bouhadjar . The mutiny at Aïn Guettar involved the mass desertion of several hundred men and the killing of several officers. It took on a particular significance for the Rezgui family, whose members maintained that France, recently defeated by the Prussians , was a spent force and that now

6264-521: The revolution led to the end of the 1830–1848 Orleans Monarchy and led to the creation of the Second Republic. The Revolution of 1830 , part of a wave of similar regime changes across Europe, had put an end to the monarchy of the Bourbon Restoration and installed a more liberal constitutional monarchy under the Orleans dynasty governed predominantly by Guizot's conservative-liberal center-right and Thiers' progressive-liberal center-left. But to

6351-461: The separation of powers, was promulgated on 4 November 1848. Under the new constitution, there was to be a single permanent Assembly of 750 members elected for a term of three years by the scrutin de liste . The Assembly would elect members of a Council of State to serve for six years. Laws would be proposed by the Council of State, to be voted on by the Assembly. The executive power was delegated to

6438-422: The settlers, with encroachments on their land and loss of autonomy. The Cremieux Decree of October 24, 1870, which gave French nationality to Algerian Jews, was possibly another cause of the unrest. However some historians view this as doubtful, pointing out that this story only started to spread after the revolt was over. This explanation of the revolt was particularly widespread among French antisemites . News of

6525-426: The start of the insurrections, Kabyle village communities multiply gatherings of electing village assemblies ("tiǧmaʿīn", Arabic "ǧamāʿa") despite the colonial authorities having banned them from doing so. It must be emphasised that those "ǧamāʿa" were managing bodies to the population, therefore an obstacle to French policy . On social matters those assemblies would decide rules for the community. They were composed with

6612-513: The support of the Chamber, which did not even take the precaution of rendering ineligible the members of families which had reigned over France. It made the presidency an office dependent upon popular acclamation. The election was keenly contested; the democratic republicans adopted as their candidate Ledru-Rollin, the "pure republicans" Cavaignac, and the recently reorganized Imperialist party Prince Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte . Unknown in 1835, and forgotten or despised since 1840, Louis Napoleon had in

6699-403: The whole country as supreme, whereas the revolutionaries under Ledru-Rollin wished for the Republic of Paris to hold a monopoly on political power. On 5 March the government, under the pressure of the Parisian clubs, decided in favor of an immediate reference to the people, and direct universal suffrage , and adjourned it until 26 April. This added the uneducated masses to the electorate and led to

6786-549: Was able to overcome dissension in the rebel camp and retake Bordj-Bou-Arreridj . The members of the Rahamania Brotherhood: disciples of the Sheik Ahaddad (El Haddad); played an eminent part in the success of the insurrection of El Mokrani (Amokrane), in particular after Sheikh Ahaddad (El Haddad) had proclaimed war against the French on April 8, 1871. The insurrection acquired a general character through

6873-413: Was captured and deported to New Caledonia ; a French island in the Pacific. After the arrest of Sheik-el-Haddad, the jihad continued under Bouamama . There were also other small insurrectionary movements at Blessed-Menaceur, where rebel forces besieged Cherchel, Zurich, Vesoul-Benian and Hammam-Rirha. This movement was also crushed. From July to September 1872, French forces had still to completely subdue

6960-405: Was defeated and afterwards its members were deported. But the republic had been discredited and had already become unpopular with both the peasants, who were exasperated by the new land tax of 45 centimes imposed in order to fill the empty treasury, and with the bourgeoisie, who were intimidated by the power of the revolutionary clubs and disadvantaged by the economic stagnation. By the "massacres" of

7047-873: Was led by France in the February Revolution , overthrowing King Louis-Philippe . Radical and liberal factions of the population convened the French Second Republic in 1848. Attempting to restore the First French Republic's values on human rights and constitutional government, they adopted the motto of the First Republic ; Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité . The republic was plagued with tribalist tendencies of its leading factions: royalists, proto-socialists , liberals, and conservatives. In this environment, Napoleon's nephew, Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte , established himself as

7134-493: Was no more than “bachagha” ( Turkish : baş ağa =chief commander). After the death of Ahmed Amokrane, the French authorities appointed Mohamed El- Mokrani in his place. However following dissension with the French administration, he resigned from his position in March 1871. This conflict happened as a result of the colonial authorities disregarding Amokrane, creating a French-populated commune at Bordj Bou Arréridj and appointing

7221-474: Was not victorious over the Hôtel de Ville. It had to consent to a fusion of the two bodies, in which, however, the predominating elements were the moderate Republicans. It was uncertain what the policy of the new government would be. One party seeing that despite the changes in the last sixty years of all political institutions, the position of the people had not been improved, demanded a reform of society itself,

7308-544: Was part of the administration of the Bureaux arabes . During the hardships of 1867, he gave his personal guarantee, at the request of the authorities, for important loans. The background of the revolt is as important as the revolt itself. In 1830, French army took over Algiers. After that, France colonized the country, setting up its own administration all over Algeria. Shortly after 1830, a resistance rose up, led by Abd al-Kader, which lasted till 1847. French administrations and

7395-506: Was the most important local uprising against France in Algeria since the conquest in 1830. The revolt broke out on March 16, 1871, with the uprising of more than 250 tribes, around a third of the population of the country. It was led by the Kabyles of the Biban mountains commanded by Cheikh Mokrani and his brother Bou-Mezrag el-Mokrani  [ ar ] and El hadj Bouzid who was

7482-505: Was the time for a general uprising. The Hanenchas responded to this call, killing fourteen colonists in their territory; Souk Ahras was besieged from 26th to 28 January, before being relieved by a French column, who then put down the insurgency and condemned five men to death. Mokrani submitted his resignation as bachagha in March 1871, but the army replied that only the civil government could now accept it. In reply, Mokrani wrote to General Augeraud, subdivisional commander at Sétif: "You know

7569-406: Was to hint at a vast communistic plot in order to scare the bourgeoisie, and to denounce the electoral law of 31 May 1850, in order to gain the support of the mass of the people. The Assembly retaliated by throwing out the proposal for a partial reform of that article of the constitution which prohibited the re-election of the president and the re-establishment of universal suffrage (July). All hope of

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