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119-812: The university originates in the Moscow Higher Courses for Women founded by Vladimir Guerrier in 1872. It was subsequently reconstituted several times. In 1918 it admitted men and became the Second Moscow State University, then was reformed without its Medical and Chemical Technology schools as the Moscow State Pedagogical Institute, which for a time was known as the Moscow State V. I. Lenin Pedagogical Institute. In 1990,

238-591: A Methodology for the Human Sciences". "Response to a Question from the Novy Mir Editorial Staff" is a transcript of comments made by Bakhtin to a reporter from a monthly journal called Novy Mir that was widely read by Soviet intellectuals. The transcript expresses Bakhtin's opinion of literary scholarship whereby he highlights some of its shortcomings and makes suggestions for improvement. "The Bildungsroman and Its Significance in

357-620: A Philosophy of the Act and Author and Hero in Aesthetic Activity are indebted to the philosophical trends of the time—particularly the Marburg school neo-Kantianism of Hermann Cohen, including Ernst Cassirer , Max Scheler and, to a lesser extent, Nicolai Hartmann . Bakhtin began to be discovered by scholars in 1963, but it was only after his death in 1975 that authors such as Julia Kristeva and Tzvetan Todorov brought Bakhtin to

476-452: A Philosophy of the Act was first published in the USSR in 1986 with the title K filosofii postupka . The manuscript, written between 1919 and 1921, was found in bad condition with pages missing and sections of text that were illegible. Consequently, this philosophical essay appears today as a fragment of an unfinished work. Toward a Philosophy of the Act comprises only an introduction, of which

595-516: A basic principle of Dostoevsky's art: love and hate, faith and atheism, loftiness and degradation, love of life and self-destruction, purity and vice, etc. "everything in his world lives on the very border of its opposite." Carnivalization and its generic counterpart— Menippean satire —were not a part of the earlier book, but Bakhtin discusses them at great length in the chapter "Characteristics of Genre and Plot Composition in Dostoesky's Works" in

714-480: A certificate of moral conduct and political integrity from the governor general, two photographs and, without fail, permission from the eldest man in the family or spouse. The number of students in the courses at that time was quite high: in the first year after the opening of the courses, it reached 70 (most of the students moved from the Lubensky courses), then until 1878 it fluctuated between 103–107, and from 1879

833-515: A chapter on the concept of carnival and published with the title Problems of Dostoyevsky's Poetics ; Rabelais and His World, which explores the openness of the Rabelaisian novel; The Dialogic Imagination, whereby the four essays that comprise the work introduce the concepts of dialogism, heteroglossia, and chronotope; and Speech Genres and Other Late Essays, a collection of essays in which Bakhtin concerns himself with method and culture. In

952-479: A classic of Renaissance studies, Bakhtin concerns himself with the openness of Gargantua and Pantagruel ; however, the book itself also serves as an example of such openness. Throughout the text, Bakhtin attempts two things: he seeks to recover sections of Gargantua and Pantagruel that, in the past, were either ignored or suppressed, and conducts an analysis of the Renaissance social system in order to discover

1071-713: A cost of one million Roubles . From 1924 to 1930, the University's rector was Albert Petrovich Pinkevich , an educationist and author of The New Education in the Soviet Republic , who became a victim of Stalin's Great Purge , "disappearing" in 1937 to a Gulag labour camp . In 1930, the Second Moscow University was divided into three separate institutions: the Second Moscow State Medical Institute (now

1190-489: A degrading reification of a person's soul, a discounting of its freedom and its unfinalizability... Dostoevsky always represents a person on the threshold of a final decision, at a moment of crisis, at an unfinalizable, and unpredeterminable , turning point for their soul." ' Carnivalization ' is a term used by Bakhtin to describe the techniques Dostoevsky uses to disarm this increasingly ubiquitous enemy and make true intersubjective dialogue possible. The "carnival sense of

1309-818: A distinction between dialectic and dialogics and comments on the difference between the text and the aesthetic object. It is here also, that Bakhtin differentiates himself from the Formalists , who, he felt, underestimated the importance of content while oversimplifying change, and the Structuralists , who too rigidly adhered to the concept of "code." Some of the works which bear the names of Bakhtin's close friends V. N. Voloshinov and P. N. Medvedev have been attributed to Bakhtin – particularly Marxism and Philosophy of Language and The Formal Method in Literary Scholarship . These claims originated in

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1428-618: A fascination with the body, particularly its little-glorified or 'lower strata' parts, and dichotomies between 'high' or 'low'." The high and low binary is particularly relevant in communication as certain verbiage is considered high, while slang is considered low. Moreover, much of popular communication including television shows, books, and movies fall into high and low brow categories. This is particularly prevalent in Bakhtin's native Russia, where postmodernist writers such as Boris Akunin have worked to change low brow communication forms (such as

1547-858: A large group of professors and teachers left the university, most of whom began to work at the Courses. By 1912, 227 professors, teachers, lecturers and assistants were involved in the courses, more than a third of whom had doctoral or master's degrees; among them: former rector of Moscow University Alexander A. Manuilov , astronomer Pavel K. Shternberg , mathematician Nikolay A. Izvolsky, biologists Mikhail A. Menzbier and Nikolai K. Koltsov , physiologists Mikhail N. Shaternikov and Lazar S. Minor , philosophers Leo M. Lopatin , Pavel I. Novgorodtsev , historians Matvei K. Lyubavsky , Yury V. Gotye, Ivan V. Tsvetaev. Alexandre A. Kiesewetter, sociologist Veniamin M. Khvostov, biologist Lev A.Tarassevitch, historian of philosophy Alexander V. Kubitsky. There were also women among

1666-597: A member-correspondent of the USSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, and an honored scientist of the RSFSR . Eugenia Gertsyk noted Russian translator and literary figure from the Silver Age . Alexandra Glagoleva-Arkadieva the first Russian woman and physicist to become internationally known for her physics research on medical imaging using X-rays , mechanisms for generating microwaves , and spectrometry in

1785-591: A novel. Other genres, however, cannot emulate the novel without damaging their own distinct identity. "From the Prehistory of Novelistic Discourse" is a less traditional essay in which Bakhtin reveals how various different texts from the past have ultimately come together to form the modern novel. "Forms of Time and of the Chronotope in the Novel" introduces Bakhtin's concept of chronotope . This essay applies

1904-494: A plurality of independent and unmerged voices and consciousnesses, a genuine polyphony of fully valid voices ..." Later he defines it as "the event of interaction between autonomous and internally unfinalized consciousnesses." During World War II Bakhtin submitted a dissertation on the French Renaissance writer François Rabelais which was not defended until some years later. The controversial ideas discussed within

2023-880: A position at the Historical Institute and provided consulting services for the State Publishing House. It is at this time that Bakhtin decided to share his work with the public, but, just before "On the Question of the Methodology of Aesthetics in Written Works" was to be published, the journal in which it was to appear stopped publication. This work was eventually published 51 years later. Repression and misplacement of his manuscripts would plague Bakhtin throughout his career. In 1929, "Problems of Dostoevsky's Art", Bakhtin's first major work,

2142-457: A private institution, receiving part of the funds from the Ministry of Public Education. The term of study in courses in 1900 increased to four years. The newly opened courses had two departments – historical-philosophical and physical-mathematical. In 1906, according to the new Charter, the faculty structure of the Courses was established. In addition to the two existing ones, a Medical Faculty

2261-554: A result of the breadth of topics with which he dealt, Bakhtin has influenced such Western schools of theory as Neo-Marxism , Structuralism , Social constructionism , and Semiotics . Bakhtin's works have also been useful in anthropology, especially theories of ritual. However, his influence on such groups has, somewhat paradoxically, resulted in narrowing the scope of Bakhtin's work. According to Clark and Holquist, rarely do those who incorporate Bakhtin's ideas into theories of their own appreciate his work in its entirety. While Bakhtin

2380-566: A schoolteacher for two years. It was at that time that the first " Bakhtin Circle " formed. The group consisted of intellectuals with varying interests, but all shared a love for the discussion of literary, religious, and political topics. Included in this group were Valentin Voloshinov and, eventually, P. N. Medvedev , who joined the group later in Vitebsk . Vitebsk was "a cultural centre of

2499-480: A sense of identity. The I-for-the-other serves as an amalgamation of the way in which others view the subject. Conversely, other-for-me describes the way in which others incorporate the subject's perceptions of them into their own identities. Identity, as Bakhtin describes it here, does not belong merely to the individual. Instead, it is shared by all. During his time in Leningrad, Bakhtin shifted his view away from

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2618-442: A sharp satirical focus on contemporary ideas and issues. Bakhtin credits Dostoevsky with revitalizing the genre and enhancing it with his own innovation in form and structure: the polyphonic novel. According to Bakhtin, Dostoevsky was the creator of the polyphonic novel , and it was a fundamentally new genre that could not be analysed according to preconceived frameworks and schema that might be useful for other manifestations of

2737-509: A short section of this work was published and given the title "Art and Responsibility". This piece constitutes Bakhtin's first published work. Bakhtin relocated to Vitebsk in 1920. It was here, in 1921, that Bakhtin married Elena Aleksandrovna Okolovich. Later, in 1923, Bakhtin was diagnosed with osteomyelitis , a bone disease that ultimately led to amputation of a leg in 1938. This illness hampered his productivity and rendered him an invalid. In 1924, Bakhtin moved to Leningrad , where he assumed

2856-417: A well-known researcher of the work of Fyodor M. Dostoevsky , the author of the most complete scientific biography of Vissarion G. Belinsky . In 1910, Nadezhda Nikolaevna Sushkina (1889–1975), a soil scientist and microbiologist, graduated from the natural department and was the first to assess the influence of microorganisms on the composition of natural formations.   In 1907–1914, Bella Rosenfeld ,

2975-659: A year for 10 scholarships. In 1872–1873, the courses were located on Volkhonka in downtown Moscow, in 1873–1876 – in the premises of the Museum of Applied Knowledge on Prechistenka 32, and in 1877–1888 – in a building specially built for the Polytechnic Museum . Regular students had to provide a certificate of secondary education upon entry or pass entrance exams in Russian and general history, Russian and general literature. The listeners also submitted an autobiography,

3094-611: Is "the apotheosis of unfinalizability". Carnival, through its temporary dissolution or reversal of conventions, generates the 'threshold' situations where disparate individuals come together and express themselves on an equal footing, without the oppressive constraints of social objectification: the usual preordained hierarchy of persons and values becomes an occasion for laughter, its absence an opportunity for creative interaction. In carnival, "opposites come together, look at one another, are reflected in one another, know and understand one another." Bakhtin sees carnivalization in this sense as

3213-468: Is also key, especially when the two are related in terms of culture. Kim states that "culture as Geertz and Bakhtin allude to can be generally transmitted through communication or reciprocal interaction such as a dialogue." According to Leslie Baxter, "Bakhtin's life work can be understood as a critique of the monologization of the human experience that he perceived in the dominant linguistic, literary, philosophical, and political theories of his time." He

3332-478: Is basic to the human experience." Culture and communication become inextricably linked, as one's understanding of a given utterance, text, or message, is contingent upon one's cultural background and experience. Kim argues that "his ideas of art as a vehicle oriented towards interaction with its audience in order to express or communicate any sort of intention is reminiscent of Clifford Geertz 's theories on culture." Sheckels contends that "what [... Bakhtin] terms

3451-613: Is inevitable and even necessary, it can never be the whole truth, devoid of the living response. Bakhtin is critical of what he calls the monologic tradition in Western thought that seeks to finalize humanity, and individual humans, in this way. He argues that Dostoevsky always wrote in opposition to ways of thinking that turn human beings into objects (scientific, economic, social, psychological etc.) – conceptual frameworks that enclose people in an alien web of definition and causation, robbing them of freedom and responsibility: "He saw in it

3570-480: Is known for a series of concepts that have been used and adapted in a number of disciplines: dialogism , the carnivalesque , the chronotope, heteroglossia and "outsidedness" (the English translation of a Russian term vnenakhodimost, sometimes rendered into English—from French rather than from Russian—as "exotopy"). Together these concepts outline a distinctive philosophy of language and culture that has at its center

3689-443: Is traditionally seen as a literary critic, there can be no denying his impact on the realm of rhetorical theory . Among his many theories and ideas Bakhtin indicates that style is a developmental process, occurring within both the user of language and language itself. His work instills in the reader an awareness of tone and expression that arises from the careful formation of verbal phrasing. By means of his writing, Bakhtin has enriched

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3808-554: The Russian Academy of Sciences and the Russian Academy of Education in 2010. The Prometei publishing house, of Moscow, sometimes spelled Prometey, is attached to the University. Moscow Higher Courses for Women The Higher Courses for Women in Moscow ( Russian : Московские высшие женские курсы , romanized :  Moskovskiye Vysshiye Zhenskiye Kursy , lit.   'Moscow Higher Women's Courses')

3927-637: The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic in 1955. 55°43′57″N 37°34′35″E  /  55.73250°N 37.57639°E  / 55.73250; 37.57639 Mikhail Bakhtin Mikhail Mikhailovich Bakhtin ( / b ʌ x ˈ t iː n / bukh- TEEN ; Russian: Михаи́л Миха́йлович Бахти́н , IPA: [mʲɪxɐˈil mʲɪˈxajləvʲɪdʑ bɐxˈtʲin] ; 16 November [ O.S. 4 November] 1895 – 7 March 1975)

4046-765: The Russian State Medical University ; the Moscow State Institute of Fine Chemical Technology (now the Moscow State University of Fine Chemical Technologies ) and the Moscow State Pedagogical Institute, based on the teaching faculty. By the mid-1930s the Yiddish department, now part of the Institute and headed by Meir Wiener , had become one of the world's leading centres of Yiddish scholarship. In 1960 it

4165-488: The far infrared regions of the electromagnetic spectrum . Srbui Lisitsian was an Armenian-Soviet ethnographer known for her development of a novel mathematical method for describing folk dance precisely using film techniques. Olga Tsuberbiller was a Russian mathematician noted for her creation of the textbook Problems and Exercises in Analytic Geometry was designated as an Honored Scientist of

4284-442: The picaro created by Ilf and Petrov , left its mark on Bakhtin." He later transferred to Petrograd Imperial University to join his brother Nikolai. It is here that Bakhtin was greatly influenced by the classicist F. F. Zelinsky , whose works contain the beginnings of concepts elaborated by Bakhtin. Bakhtin completed his studies in 1918. He then moved to a small city in western Russia, Nevel ( Pskov Oblast ), where he worked as

4403-437: The 'carnivalesque' is tied to the body and the public exhibition of its more private functions [...] it served also as a communication event [...] anti-authority communication events [...] can also be deemed 'carnivalesque'." Essentially, the act of turning society around through communication, whether it be in the form of text, protest, or otherwise serves as a communicative form of carnival, according to Bakhtin. Steele furthers

4522-468: The 1920s there was a "Bakhtin school" in Russia, in line with the discourse analysis of Ferdinand de Saussure and Roman Jakobson . He is known today for his interest in a wide variety of subjects, ideas, vocabularies, and periods, as well as his use of authorial disguises, and for his influence (alongside György Lukács ) on the growth of Western scholarship on the novel as a premiere literary genre. As

4641-530: The 80s believed that they had won a great success over the revolution by forbidding the admission of girls to the Higher Women's Courses. But ten years later, they themselves were convinced of their mistake and began to think about restoring courses. Like its Saint Petersburg counterpart, the Guerrier Courses was established to prevent Russian women from studying abroad, which they had done since

4760-887: The Auditorium Building of the Courses (now the main building of the Moscow Pedagogical State University , it is depicted on the current emblem of the Moscow State Pedagogical University.). 1911 became a milestone in the life of the Moscow Higher Women's Courses. In connection with the outbreak of a conflict between the Imperial Moscow University and the Minister of Public Education Lev A. Kasso (named Kasso Case ),

4879-524: The Council of Courses approved the “Regulations on leaving students at the Moscow Higher Women's Courses”, which allows leaving graduates at the faculty to prepare them for teaching on the proposal of a professor (professors) for 2 years. In 1913, Aleksandr F. Kots ' zoological collection was acquired for Courses, which laid the foundation for the Darwin Museum . In the 1915–1916 academic year,

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4998-488: The Department of Russian and World Literature. In 1961, Bakhtin's deteriorating health forced him to retire, and in 1969, in search of medical attention, he moved back to Moscow, where he lived until his death in 1975. Bakhtin's works and ideas gained popularity only after his death, and he endured difficult conditions for much of his professional life, a time in which information was often seen as dangerous and therefore

5117-456: The European novel. Dostoevsky does not describe characters and contrive plot within the context of a single authorial reality: rather his function as author is to illuminate the self-consciousness of the characters so that each participates on their own terms, in their own voice, according to their own ideas about themselves and the world. Bakhtin calls this multi-voiced reality "polyphony": "

5236-598: The History of Realism " is a fragment from one of Bakhtin's lost books. The publishing house to which Bakhtin had submitted the full manuscript was blown up during the German invasion and Bakhtin was in possession of only the prospectus. However, due to a shortage of paper, Bakhtin began using this remaining section to roll cigarettes. So only a portion of the opening section remains. This remaining section deals primarily with Goethe . "The Problem of Speech Genres " deals with

5355-515: The I cannot maintain neutrality toward moral and ethical demands which manifest themselves as one's voice of consciousness. It is here also that Bakhtin introduces an "architectonic" or schematic model of the human psyche, consisting of three components: "I-for-myself", "I-for-the-other", and "other-for-me". The I-for-myself is an unreliable source of identity; Bakhtin argues that it is the I-for-the-other through which human beings develop

5474-482: The Institute regained the status of university and thus its present name. In May 1872 the Russian Minister of Education, Count Dmitry Tolstoy , consented to the opening by Professor Guerrier of " Higher Women's Courses " as a private educational institution and approved Regulations for this purpose. In November 1872, the first building of the Moscow Higher Women's Courses was opened at Volkhonka, ushering in

5593-470: The Middle Ages), Professor Vasily O. Klyuchevsky (Russian history), Rector of Moscow University, Professor Vladimir S. Solovyov (history of philosophy), L. M. Lopatin (history of philosophy), Vladimir I. Guerrier (history), Professor Nikolay I. Storozhenko (general literature), Professor N. S. Tikhonravov (ancient Russian literature), Fyodor I. Buslayev (art history). Since 1877, the history of

5712-472: The Minister of Public Education Count Dmitry A. Tolstoy to sanction a higher school for women in Moscow. In May 1872, the Minister of Public Education, Count D. A. Tolstoy, agreed to the opening of higher women's courses in Moscow as a private educational institution and approved the "Regulations on Higher Women's Courses". On November 1, 1872, at Volkhonka 16, in the building of the First Men's Gymnasium,

5831-484: The Ministry of Education prevented the admission of new students to Guerrier's courses, and they ended in 1888. Following the end of the Guerrier courses, public lectures for women were organized systematically, most of them given by the same teachers, and in the same premises, as before. The public lectures lasted until 1892, when they were closed by the government. From 1886 there were also collective lessons. In 1900

5950-487: The Moscow Higher Women's Courses were granted the right to conduct final exams and issue diplomas of higher education. By 1918, the courses numbered 8.3 thousand students, second only to Moscow State University . On the initiative of former students, the "Society for the Delivery of Funds to Moscow Higher Women's Courses" was established. During 1900–1913 the number of female students increased from 223 to 7155. However,

6069-487: The Novel" (1934–1935). It is through the essays contained within The Dialogic Imagination that Bakhtin introduces the concepts of heteroglossia , dialogism and chronotope , making a significant contribution to the realm of literary scholarship. Bakhtin explains the generation of meaning through the "primacy of context over text" (heteroglossia), the hybrid nature of language ( polyglossia ) and

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6188-533: The Novel". In 1936, living in Saransk , he became an obscure figure in a provincial college, dropping out of view and teaching only occasionally. In 1937, Bakhtin moved to Kimry , a town located one hundred kilometers from Moscow. Here, he completed work on a book concerning the 18th-century German novel, which was subsequently accepted by the Sovetskii Pisatel' Publishing House. However, the only copy of

6307-682: The Physical Chemistry Building, now the Moscow Academy of Fine Chemical Technology. In 1915-1916, the Moscow Higher Women's Courses, sometimes called the Moscow University for Women, received the right of issuing diplomas. By 1918, the institution had 8,300 thousand students. In 1918, the University was renamed the Second Moscow State University and was often called also the Second Moscow University, beginning to admit men as well as women. During this period,

6426-586: The Russian language and ancient Russian literature was taught by V. F. Miller . Later, Aleksandr I. Chuprov (political economy), Aleksandr G. Stoletov (physics), and Professor A. A. Shakhov (history of foreign literature). The work of the courses was supervised by the Pedagogical Council, headed by Professor Sergey M. Solovyov . The trustee committee of the courses included E. K. Stankevich (nee - Bodisko (1824–1904), wife of A. V. Stankevich ), Kozma T. Soldatyonkov , E. I. Guerrier. For 16 years,

6545-695: The Text in Linguistics, Philology, and the Human Sciences: An Experiment in Philosophical Analysis" is a compilation of the thoughts Bakhtin recorded in his notebooks. These notes focus mostly on the problems of the text, but various other sections of the paper discuss topics he has taken up elsewhere, such as speech genres, the status of the author, and the distinct nature of the human sciences. However, "The Problem of

6664-426: The Text" deals primarily with dialogue and the way in which a text relates to its context. Speakers, Bakhtin claims, shape an utterance according to three variables: the object of discourse, the immediate addressee, and a superaddressee . This is what Bakhtin describes as the tertiary nature of dialogue. "From Notes Made in 1970–71" appears also as a collection of fragments extracted from notebooks Bakhtin kept during

6783-763: The absence of V. I. Guerrier, who was abroad, Vladimir I. Vernadsky was elected director. However, due to the fact that Vernadsky was simultaneously elected assistant rector of the Imperial Moscow University, he never took up his duties in the Courses. In the same year, Sergey A. Chaplygin was elected director of courses. The courses were taught by such outstanding scientists as Vladimir I. Vernadsky (with his student V. V. Karandeev ), Sergey A. Chaplygin , Sergey S. Nametkin , Nikolay D. Zelinsky , Alexander A. Eichenwald , Boleslav K. Mlodzeevskii , Aleksandr N. Reformatsky, Ivan A. Ilyin , Alexander V. Zinger, Bogdan A. Kistyakovski and others. One of

6902-548: The annual graduation was no more than 30% of the number of applicants, which was due to the inability of the students to withstand heavy teaching loads and most of the time to study on their own. Courses became one of the largest universities in the Russian Empire . According to the protocol of the commission of the People's Commissariat of Education of the RSFSR dated October 16, 1918, the Moscow Higher Women's Courses

7021-652: The attention of the Francophone world, and from there his popularity in the United States, the United Kingdom, and many other countries continued to grow. In the late 1980s, Bakhtin's work experienced a surge of popularity in the West. Bakhtin's primary works include Toward a Philosophy of the Act, an unfinished portion of a philosophical essay; Problems of Dostoyevsky's Art, to which Bakhtin later added

7140-465: The balance between language that was permitted and language that was not. It is by means of this analysis that Bakhtin pinpoints two important subtexts: the first is carnival ( carnivalesque ) which Bakhtin describes as a social institution, and the second is grotesque realism which is defined as a literary mode. Thus, in Rabelais and His World Bakhtin studies the interaction between the social and

7259-560: The claims that all discourse is in essence a dialogical exchange and that this endows all language with a particular ethical or ethico-political force. As a literary theorist, Bakhtin is associated with the Russian Formalists , and his work is compared with that of Juri Lotman ; in 1963 Roman Jakobson mentioned him as one of the few intelligent critics of Formalism. During the 1920s, Bakhtin's work tended to focus on ethics and aesthetics in general. Early pieces such as Towards

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7378-474: The clinical base of the Medical Faculty. In the 1906–1907 academic year, the subject cycle system of teaching was introduced in the courses instead of the course system with specialization in the senior year. New curricula were also approved at all faculties. 15 hours a week were allotted for the study of compulsory subjects. Until 1905, V. I. Guerrier was again the director of the courses. In 1905, in

7497-411: The concept in order to further demonstrate the distinctive quality of the novel. The word chronotope literally means "time space" (a concept he refers to that of Einstein) and is defined by Bakhtin as "the intrinsic connectedness of temporal and spatial relationships that are artistically expressed in literature." In writing, an author must create entire worlds and, in doing so, is forced to make use of

7616-538: The courses issued 41 diplomas, which gave the right to teach in the senior classes of women's gymnasiums, in addition, 322 students passed the final exams, which gave them the right to teach in the junior classes of gymnasiums. In 1886, the Ministry of Public Education , represented by Minister I.D. Delyanov, forbade admission to all higher women's courses, motivating this measure by the need to develop new curricula and transfer courses to state support and in 1888 they have been closed. The feeble-minded people who ruled in

7735-400: The courses were attended by: Vera Muromtseva, the future wife of Ivan A. Bunin , translator, publicist; a close friend of Anton P. Chekhov , Lidia Mizinova , an actress, translator, memoirist, literary and theater critic, who became the prototype of Nina Zarechnaya in the play " The Seagull "; Nadezhda Afanasyevna Bulgakova, sister of Mikhail A. Bulgakov . Vera Stepanovna Nechayeva became

7854-524: The degree of Qualified Specialist, permitting a graduate to teach, was awarded after five years. The Seventh International Bakhtin Conference took place at the University in June 1995. The University now has eighteen faculties and 103 departments, some 20,000 students, and a faculty of 225 professors and over nine hundred assistant professors. Seventeen staff members were full and corresponding members of

7973-505: The difference between Saussurean linguistics and language as a living dialogue (translinguistics). In a relatively short space, this essay takes up a topic about which Bakhtin had planned to write a book, making the essay a rather dense and complex read. It is here that Bakhtin distinguishes between literary and everyday language. According to Bakhtin, genres exist not merely in language, but rather in communication. In dealing with genres, Bakhtin indicates that they have been studied only within

8092-431: The early 1970s and received their earliest full articulation in English in Clark and Holquist's 1984 biography of Bakhtin. In the years since then, however, most scholars have come to agree that Vološinov and Medvedev ought to be considered the true authors of these works. Although Bakhtin undoubtedly influenced these scholars and may even have had a hand in composing the works attributed to them, it now seems clear that if it

8211-490: The era of higher education for women in Russia. Initially, courses were for two years and were in humanities and natural sciences . At first, there were two departments, History & Philology and Physics & Mathematics. In Moscow alone, 1,232 women were admitted to the courses between 1872 and 1886. A female student attending a course became known as a kursistka . While still a young doctor, Anton Chekhov paid for his sister Masha to attend Guerrier courses. In 1886,

8330-482: The experience of verbal and written expression which ultimately aids the formal teaching of writing. Some even suggest that Bakhtin introduces a new meaning to rhetoric because of his tendency to reject the separation of language and ideology. According to Leslie Baxter , for Bakhtin, "all language use is riddled with multiple voices (to be understood more generally as discourses, ideologies, perspectives, or themes)" and thus "meaning-making in general can be understood as

8449-411: The first few pages are missing, and part one of the full text. However, Bakhtin's intentions for the work were not altogether lost: he provided an outline in the introduction, in which he stated that the essay was to contain four parts. The first part of the essay provides an analysis of performed acts or deeds that comprise "the world actually experienced", as opposed to "the merely thinkable world." For

8568-523: The first wife of Marc Chagall , studied at the courses.   In 1917, Lidia Karlovna Lepin (1891-1985), a specialist in physical and colloidal chemistry, a future academician of the Academy of Sciences of the Latvian SSR , graduated from the course. Vera Varsanofieva was the first woman to be awarded the degree of Doctor of Geological and Mineralogical Sciences, geologist, geomorphologist ,

8687-514: The first women professors was Olga N. Tsuberbiller , a graduate of courses, the author of the textbook on Analytic Geometry, "Problems and Exercises in Analytic Geometry", which was reprinted many times. Since 1910, Professor N. D. Vinogradov began to read a course in the history of pedagogical teachings . In 1905, the Moscow City Council decided to provide courses free of charge with a land plot on Devichye Pole . On June 3, 1907,

8806-468: The grand opening of the Moscow Higher Women's Courses (courses of Professor V. I. Guerrier) took place, where professors of the Imperial Moscow University, priest A. M. Ivantsov–Platonov, S. M. Solovyov spoke and V. I. Guerriere. The course budget consisted of tuition fees and voluntary donations. The first donations came from Guerrier's wife Evdokia Ivanovna, her aunt E. K. Stankevich (500 rubles annually) and K. T. Soldatenkov (100 rubles annually). 13% of

8925-496: The historical and philological faculty at the local university (the Odessa University ). Katerina Clark and Michael Holquist write: "Odessa..., like Vilnius, was an appropriate setting for a chapter in the life of a man who was to become the philosopher of heteroglossia and carnival . The same sense of fun and irreverence that gave birth to Babel 's Rabelaisian gangster or to the tricks and deceptions of Ostap Bender ,

9044-440: The history of laughter, Bakhtin advances the notion of its therapeutic and liberating force, arguing that "laughing truth ... degraded power". The Dialogic Imagination (first published as a whole in 1975) is a compilation of four essays concerning language and the novel: " Epic and Novel " (1941), "From the Prehistory of Novelistic Discourse" (1940), "Forms of Time and of the Chronotope in the Novel" (1937–1938), and "Discourse in

9163-443: The idea of carnivalesque in communication as she argues that it is found in corporate communication. Steele states "that ritualized sales meetings, annual employee picnics, retirement roasts and similar corporate events fit the category of carnival." Carnival cannot help but be linked to communication and culture as Steele points out that "in addition to qualities of inversion, ambivalence, and excess, carnival's themes typically include

9282-495: The interplay of those voices." Bakhtin has been called "the philosopher of human communication". Kim argues that Bakhtin's theories of dialogue and literary representation are potentially applicable to virtually all academic disciplines in the human sciences. According to White, Bakhtin's dialogism represents a methodological turn towards "the messy reality of communication, in all its many language forms." While Bakhtin's works focused primarily on text, interpersonal communication

9401-611: The laying of educational buildings took place (architect S. U. Solovyov ) on a land plot along Malaya Tsaritsynskaya Street (now Malaya Pirogovskaya street). In 1908, the buildings of the Faculty of Physics and Chemistry ( now part of Moscow State University of Fine Chemical Technologies )  and the Anatomical Theater (architect A. N. Sokolov) (nowadays part of Russian National Research Medical University ) were opened on Trubetskoy Lane (now Kholzunova Lane ), and in 1913,

9520-441: The literary, as well as the meaning of the body and the material bodily lower stratum. In Rabelais and His World , Bakhtin intentionally refers to the distinction between official festivities and folk festivities . While official festivities aim to supply a legacy for authority, folk festivities have a critical centrifugal social function. Carnival, in this sense is categorized as a folk festivity by Bakhtin. In his chapter on

9639-507: The manuscript disappeared during the upheaval caused by the German invasion of 1941. After the amputation of a leg in 1938, Bakhtin's health improved and he became more prolific. In 1940, and until the end of World War II , Bakhtin lived in Moscow, where he submitted a dissertation on François Rabelais to the Gorky Institute of World Literature to obtain a postgraduate title, although the dissertation could not be defended until

9758-646: The name Moscow Higher Women's Courses was instituted, and in 1906 a School of Medicine was launched. Courses were taught by scholars. In 1907, educational buildings by the architect Soloviev opened in Little Tsaritsyn Street, now Small Pirogovskay Street. This is now the main building of the Moscow State Pedagogical University. In 1908 came the Anatomical Theatre, now the Russian State Medical University, and

9877-440: The novel's distinct nature by contrasting it with the epic . By doing so, Bakhtin shows that the novel is well-suited to the post-industrial civilization in which we live because it flourishes on diversity. It is this same diversity that the epic attempts to eliminate from the world. According to Bakhtin, the novel as a genre is unique in that it is able to embrace, ingest, and devour other genres while still maintaining its status as

9996-624: The number of students gradually increased, reaching 256 in the 1884/85 academic year. In 1881, a new humanitarian discipline was introduced in the courses – the history of philosophy. Lectures at the courses were given by well-known professors of Moscow University (it was specifically stipulated in the Charter that mainly university professors would be invited as teachers). Among the first teachers were: Professor Fyodor A. Bredikhin (physics, astronomy), Professor Alexander N. Veselovsky (Russian literature), Professor Pavel G. Vinogradov (History of

10115-413: The organizing categories of the real world in which the author lives. For this reason chronotope is a concept that engages reality. The final essay, "Discourse in the Novel", is one of Bakhtin's most complete statements concerning his philosophy of language. It is here that Bakhtin provides a model for a history of discourse and introduces the concept of heteroglossia. The term heteroglossia refers to

10234-461: The philosophy characteristic of his early works and towards the notion of dialogue . It was at this time that he began his engagement with the work of Fyodor Dostoevsky . Problems of Dostoevsky's Poetics is considered to be Bakhtin's seminal work, a work in which he introduces a number of important concepts. The work was originally published in Russia as Problems of Dostoevsky's Creative Art ( Russian : Проблемы творчества Достоевского) in 1929, but

10353-426: The problems of method and the nature of culture. There are six essays that comprise this compilation: "Response to a Question from the Novy Mir Editorial Staff", "The Bildungsroman and Its Significance in the History of Realism", "The Problem of Speech Genres", "The Problem of the Text in Linguistics, Philology, and the Human Sciences: An Experiment in Philosophical Analysis", "From Notes Made in 1970–71", and "Toward

10472-400: The qualities of a language that are extralinguistic, but common to all languages. These include qualities such as perspective, evaluation, and ideological positioning. In this way most languages are incapable of neutrality, for every word is inextricably bound to the context in which it exists. In Speech Genres and Other Late Essays Bakhtin moves away from the novel and concerns himself with

10591-494: The realm of rhetoric and literature , but each discipline draws largely on genres that exist outside both rhetoric and literature. These extraliterary genres have remained largely unexplored. Bakhtin makes the distinction between primary genres and secondary genres, whereby primary genres legislate those words, phrases, and expressions that are acceptable in everyday life, and secondary genres are characterized by various types of text such as legal, scientific, etc. "The Problem of

10710-486: The region" the perfect place for Bakhtin "and other intellectuals [to organize] lectures, debates and concerts." German philosophy was the topic talked about most frequently and, from this point forward, Bakhtin considered himself more a philosopher than a literary scholar. It was in Nevel, also, that Bakhtin worked tirelessly on a large work concerning moral philosophy that was never published in its entirety. However, in 1919,

10829-498: The relation between utterances ( intertextuality ). Heteroglossia is "the base condition governing the operation of meaning in any utterance ." To make an utterance means to "appropriate the words of others and populate them with one's own intention." Bakhtin's deep insights on dialogicality represent a substantive shift from views on the nature of language and knowledge by major thinkers such as Ferdinand de Saussure and Immanuel Kant . In "Epic and Novel", Bakhtin demonstrates

10948-465: The revised version. He traces the origins of Menippean satire back to ancient Greece, briefly describes a number of historical examples of the genre , and examines its essential characteristics. These characteristics include intensified comicality, freedom from established constraints, bold use of fantastic situations for the testing of truth, abrupt changes, inserted genres and multi-tonality, parodies, oxymorons, scandal scenes, inappropriate behaviour, and

11067-454: The sale of books and postcards printed in their own printing house. Initially, training was designed for 2 years, and since 1879, according to the new Charter, 3 years. The Moscow courses had a historical and philological orientation, the compulsory subjects were approved: the history of Russia and general history, Russian literature and general literature, the history of civilization and the history of art, physics.  For those who wished, it

11186-546: The sources of income for the courses were dividends from bonds purchased by Guerrier with a portion of the income from the activities of the courses. In addition, additionally (1%) the course participants collected money to purchase books for the course library. To replenish the course budget, Guerrier staged charity performances at the Solodovnikov Theatre. For income from performances in 1883, 46 listeners were given allowances. In addition, funds were sought through

11305-525: The staff of the University included Dmitri Ivanovich Sakharov, the father of Andrei Sakharov . From 1926, the University included a Department of Yiddish Language and Literature, the primary purpose of which was to train teachers for the Soviet Union's Yiddish language primary and secondary schools. In 1927, day care nurseries for the children of students were in place, and in 1928 new buildings to provide accommodation for 1,000 students were built at

11424-452: The staff of the courses: Maria Egorovna Becker, assistant to the course inspector; Olga Aleksandrovna Alferova, librarian; Nina Evgenievna Vedeneeva, assistant of the Department of Inorganic Chemistry (1914) and the Department of Physics (1916). In 1911, women were finally accepted at the Russian universities. In 1912, Courses graduates for the first time received the right to take exams at the Imperial Moscow University. On November 17, 1912,

11543-712: The state of his health, Bakhtin's sentence was commuted to exile to Kazakhstan , where he and his wife spent six years in Kustanai (now Kostanay). In 1936, they moved to Saransk (then in Mordovian ASSR , now the Republic of Mordovia ), where Bakhtin taught at the Mordovian Pedagogical Institute . During the six years he spent working as a book-keeper in the town of Kustanai , he wrote several important essays, including "Discourse in

11662-406: The supernumerary professor of general history of Moscow University, V.I. Guerrier, sent a note to the trustee of the Moscow educational district, Prince A.P. Shirinsky-Shikhmatov, about the advisability of opening higher women's courses in Moscow, to which he added the draft "Regulations on Higher Women's Courses", in which he outlined the purpose and program of the created courses. Guerrier persuaded

11781-409: The three subsequent and unfinished parts of Toward a Philosophy of the Act , Bakhtin states the topics he intended to discuss: the second part would have dealt with aesthetic activity and the ethics of artistic creation; the third with the ethics of politics; and the fourth with religion. Toward a Philosophy of the Act reveals a Bakhtin in the process of developing his moral system by decentralizing

11900-415: The universities were closed to women in Russia in 1863. The courses provided university level education, but in contrast to the courses for men, they were not allowed to issue any formal degree, nor were they given government funding. They were closed in 1888 but opened again in 1900. In 1900, graduates of secondary educational institutions from 41 provinces entered the courses. The new courses were no longer

12019-420: The war ended. In 1946 and 1949, the defense of this dissertation divided the scholars of Moscow into two groups: those official opponents guiding the defense, who accepted the original and unorthodox manuscript, and those other professors who were against the manuscript's acceptance. The book's earthy, anarchic topic was the cause of many arguments that ceased only when the government intervened. Ultimately, Bakhtin

12138-549: The work caused much disagreement, and it was consequently decided that Bakhtin be denied his higher doctorate . Thus, due to its content, Rabelais and Folk Culture of the Middle Ages and Renaissance was not published until 1965, at which time it was given the title Rabelais and His World (Russian: Творчество Франсуа Рабле и народная культура средневековья и Ренессанса, Tvorčestvo Fransua Rable i narodnaja kul'tura srednevekov'ja i Renessansa ). In Rabelais and His World ,

12257-596: The work of Kant , with a focus on ethics and aesthetics . It is here that Bakhtin lays out three claims regarding the acknowledgment of the uniqueness of one's participation in Being: Bakhtin further states: "It is in relation to the whole actual unity that my unique thought arises from my unique place in Being." Bakhtin deals with the concept of morality whereby he attributes the predominating legalistic notion of morality to human moral action. According to Bakhtin,

12376-516: The world", a way of thinking and experiencing that Bakhtin identifies in ancient and medieval carnival traditions, has been transposed into a literary tradition that reaches its peak in Dostoevsky's novels. The concept suggests an ethos where normal hierarchies, social roles, proper behaviors and assumed truths are subverted in favor of the "joyful relativity" of free participation in the festival. According to Morson and Emerson , Bakhtin's carnival

12495-478: The world, the ultimate word of the world and about the world has not yet been spoken, the world is open and free, everything is still in the future and will always be in the future. On the individual level, this means that a person can never be entirely externally defined: the ability to never be fully enclosed by others' objectifications is essential to subjective consciousness. Though external finalization (definition, description, causal or genetic explanation etc)

12614-480: The years of 1970 and 1971. It is here that Bakhtin discusses interpretation and its endless possibilities. According to Bakhtin, humans have a habit of making narrow interpretations, but such limited interpretations only serve to weaken the richness of the past. The final essay, "Toward a Methodology for the Human Sciences", originates from notes Bakhtin wrote during the mid-seventies and is the last piece of writing Bakhtin produced before he died. In this essay he makes

12733-437: Was "critical of efforts to reduce the unfinalizable, open, and multivocal process of meaning-making in determinate, closed, totalizing ways." For Baxter, Bakhtin's dialogism enables communication scholars to conceive of difference in new ways. The background of a subject must be taken into consideration when conducting research into their understanding of any text, since "a dialogic perspective argues that difference (of all kinds)

12852-431: Was a Russian philosopher , literary critic and scholar who worked on literary theory , ethics, and the philosophy of language . His writings, on a variety of subjects, inspired scholars working in a number of different traditions ( Marxism , semiotics , structuralism , religious criticism) and in disciplines as diverse as literary criticism, history, philosophy, sociology, anthropology and psychology. Although Bakhtin

12971-606: Was a university for women between 1872 and 1918 (with a break in 1888–1900), after which they were transformed into the 2nd Moscow State University. It was one of the largest and most prominent women's higher education institutions in the Russian Empire , second only to the Bestuzhev Courses in Saint Petersburg . It was founded and administered by Vladimir I. Guerrier . At the beginning of 1871,

13090-754: Was active in the debates on aesthetics and literature that took place in the Soviet Union in the 1920s, his distinctive position did not become well known until he was rediscovered by Russian scholars in the 1960s. Bakhtin was born in Oryol , Russia , to an old family of the nobility. His father was the manager of a bank and worked in several cities. For this reason Bakhtin spent his early childhood years in Oryol, in Vilnius , and then in Odessa , where in 1913 he joined

13209-541: Was combined with the Moscow City Pedagogical Institute. In 1967, a Western writer on Russia called the Institute "...probably the most prestigious pedagogical institute in the USSR". Its student body then numbered 10,500. The Institute regained the title of a University in 1990. In the year 1996-97, it had 12,000 students and six hundred academic staff. During that time, a Bachelor's degree was awarded after four years of academic study, while

13328-682: Was denied a higher doctoral degree ( Doctor of Sciences ) and granted a lesser degree ( Candidate of Sciences , a research doctorate ), by the State Accrediting Bureau. Later, Bakhtin was invited back to Saransk, where he took on the position of chair of the General Literature Department at the Mordovian Pedagogical Institute. When, in 1957, the Institute changed from a teachers' college to a university, Bakhtin became head of

13447-496: Was necessary to attribute authorship of these works to one person, Voloshinov and Medvedev respectively should receive credit. Bakhtin had a difficult life and career, and few of his works were published in an authoritative form during his lifetime. As a result, there is substantial disagreement over matters that are normally taken for granted: in which discipline he worked (was he a philosopher or literary critic?), how to periodize his work, and even which texts he wrote (see below). He

13566-409: Was often hidden. As a result, the details provided now are often of uncertain accuracy. Also contributing to the imprecision of these details is the limited access to Russian archival information during Bakhtin's life. It was only after the archives became public that scholars realized that much of what they thought they knew about Bakhtin's life was false or skewed, largely by Bakhtin himself. Toward

13685-579: Was opened (now the Russian National Research Medical University named after N.I. Pirogov ), which made the structure of the courses close to the structure of a classical university (before the revolution, universities in Russia, as a rule, consisted of four faculties: historical – philological, physical and mathematical, medical and legal). Since 1911, the Bakhrushinskaya Hospital has become

13804-559: Was published. It is here that Bakhtin introduces the concept of dialogism . However, just as this book was introduced, on 8 December 1928, right before Voskresenie 's 10th anniversary, Meyer, Bakhtin and a number of others associated with Voskresenie were apprehended by the Soviet secret police, the OGPU (Hirschkop 1999: p. 168). The leaders received sentences of up to ten years in labor camps of Solovki , though after an appeal to consider

13923-410: Was revised and extended in 1963 under the new title. It is the later work that is best known in the West. The concept of unfinalizability is particularly important to Bakhtin's analysis of Dostoevsky's approach to character, although he frequently discussed it in other contexts. He summarises the general principle behind unfinalizability in Dostoevsky thus: Nothing conclusive has yet taken place in

14042-486: Was supposed to teach foreign languages, mathematics and hygiene. Classes were paid: 30 rubles a year were paid for the entire course of a student, and 10 rubles a year for a separate subject–volunteers. In 1875, the fee was 50 rubles a year; then – 100 rubles a year. In the total volume of incoming financial resources, tuition fees amounted to more than 75%; part of the funds (up to 7%) were voluntary donations; from 1875 to 1882 Moscow Merchant Administration allocated 500 rubles

14161-576: Was transformed into the 2nd Moscow State University (later split into several institutions, including the Moscow State Pedagogical University ). In 1882–1885, Maria Pavlovna Chekhova studied at the courses, after which she taught history and geography for 18 years at the private Moscow women's gymnasium L. F. Rzhevskaya. The graduates of the Higher Women's Courses of this period were: Zinaida Ivanova ( Zinaida Mirovich ) and Ekaterina Kletnova . At different times,

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