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82-543: Massandra or Masandra ( Crimean Tatar : Massandra ; Russian : Массандра ; Ukrainian : Масандра ) is an urban-type settlement in the Yalta Municipality in Crimea . Occupying the spot of an ancient Greek settlement (Tavrida-Ταυρίδα), Masandra was acquired by Counts Potocki in 1783. In the mid-19th century, it passed to Prince Vorontsov Jr, whose father was the governor of New Russia . Enraptured by

164-685: A Turkic "Qun" people came from the northern Chinese borders—"the land of Qitay" (possibly during a part of a migration from further east). After leaving the lands of the Khitans (possibly due to the Khitans' expansion ), the Qun entered the territory of the Śari people, whom the Quns expelled. Marwazi wrote that the Qun were Nestorian Christians . Golden surmised that these Quns might have sprung "from that same conglomeration of Mongolic peoples from which

246-662: A Cuman army under Togortok/Tugorkan and Boniak. Attacked again in 1094 by the Cumans, many Pechenegs were again slain. Some of the Pechenegs fled to Hungary, as the Cumans themselves would do a few decades later. In 1091/1092 the Cumans, under Kopulch, raided Transylvania and Hungary, moving to Bihor and getting as far as the Tisza and Timiș rivers. Loaded with goods and prisoners they then split into three groups, after which they were attacked and defeated by King Ladislaus I. In 1092,

328-582: A disastrous defeat in 1180; Elrut, Konchek's brother died in battle. In 1177, a Cuman army that was allied with Ryazan sacked six cities that belonged to the Berendei and Torkil . In 1183, the Rus' defeated a large Cuman army and captured Khan Kobiak (Kobek) as well as his sons and other notables. Subsequently, Khan Konchek concluded negotiations. Like his son Khan Köten , preceding the Mongol invasion, Khan Konchek

410-400: A few Arab sources), while the name used in Rus' tended to be "Polovtsian". In Turkic languages qu , qun , qūn , quman or qoman means "pale, sallow, cream coloured", "pale yellow", or "yellowish grey". While it is normally assumed that the name referred to the Cumans' hair, Imre Baski—a prominent Turkologist —has suggested that it may have other origins, including: Observing that

492-518: A joint expedition with the Pechenegs against Adrianople in 1078. During that same year the Cumans were also fighting the Rus' . The Russian Primary Chronicle mentions Yemek Cumans who were active in the region of Volga Bulgaria . The vast territory of the Cuman–Kipchak realm consisted of loosely connected tribal units that represented a dominant military force but were never politically united by

574-471: A picturesque setting, Vorontsov in 1881 engaged a team of French architects to design for him a château in the Louis XIII style . He died the following year and construction work was suspended until 1889, when the messuage was purchased by Alexander III of Russia . The tsar asked architect Maximilian Messmacher to finish the palace for his own use but he did not live to see it completed in 1900. During

656-585: A resistance against the relentlessly advancing Mongols led by Jebe and Subutai . The Mongols crossed the Caucasus mountains in pursuit of Muhammad II , the shah of the Khwarezmid Empire , and met and defeated the Cumans in Subcaucasia in 1220. The Cuman khans Danylo Kobiakovych and Yurii Konchakovych died in battle, while the other Cumans, commanded by Khan Köten , managed to get aid from

738-593: A role in the creation of the Second Bulgarian Empire. Cuman and Kipchak tribes joined politically to create the Cuman–Kipchak confederation. ( Tokhara Yabghus , Turk Shahis ) After the Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus' in 1237, many Cumans sought asylum in the Kingdom of Hungary , as many of them had already settled there in the previous decades. The Cumans also played an important role in

820-460: A strong central power; the khans acted on their own initiative. The Cuman–Kipchaks never established a state, instead forming a Cuman–Kipchak confederation ( Cumania /Desht-i Qipchaq/Zemlja Poloveckaja (Polovcian Land)/Pole Poloveckoe (Polovcian Plain)), which stretched from the Danube in the west to Taraz , Kazakhstan in the east. This was possibly due to their facing no prolonged threat before

902-678: A verbalizing suffix to a noun or adjective, as demonstrated in the following examples: тиш ле tiş le tooth- VB тиш ле tiş le Cuman The Cumans or Kumans were a Turkic nomadic people from Central Asia comprising the western branch of the Cuman–Kipchak confederation who spoke the Cuman language . They are referred to as Polovtsy in Rus', Cumans in Western and Kipchaks in Eastern sources. Related to

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984-640: A war that would go on for 175 years. In 1068 at the Battle of the Alta River , the Cumans defeated the armies of the three sons of Yaroslav the Wise , Grand Prince Iziaslav I of Kiev , Prince Sviatoslav of Chernigov , and Prince Vsevolod of Pereyaslavl . After the Cuman victory, they repeatedly invaded Kievan Rus', devastating the land and taking captives, who became either their slaves or were sold at markets in

1066-608: A year, however, as the Rus' had suffered from their raids for decades. But when news reached Kiev that the Mongols were marching along the Dniester River, the Rus' responded. Mstislav of Galich then arranged a council of war in Kiev, which was attended by Mstislav Romanovich , Prince Yuri II of Vladimir-Suzdal and Mstislav Svyatoslavich of Chernigov . The princes promised support to Khan Koten's Cumans and an alliance between

1148-580: Is agglutinating , with the exclusive use of suffixing to express grammatical categories. Generally, suffixes are attached to the ends of word stems, although derivational morphology makes uses of compounding as well. Overall, the grammatical structure of the language is similar to that of other West Kipchak varieties. Crimean Tatar is a pro-drop language with a generally SOV word order . Crimean Tatar, like most Turkic languages, features pervasive vowel harmony , which results in sound changes when suffixes are added to verb or noun stems. Essentially,

1230-651: Is a description of the land of Inner Cumania and parts of the land of Bulgaria." According to the 12th-century Jewish traveler Petachiah of Regensburg "they have no king, only princes and royal families". Cumans interacted with the Rus' principalities, Bulgaria , the Byzantine Empire , and the Wallachian states in the Balkans ; with Armenia and the Kingdom of Georgia (see Kipchaks in Georgia ) in

1312-454: Is fairly complex, inflecting for tense, number, person, aspect, mood and voice. Verbs are conjugated according to the following paradigm: It is possible, albeit rare, for a single verb to contain all of these possible components, as in: Мен Men I ювундырылмадым. yuvundırılmadım. wash- REFL - CAUS - PASS - NEG - PAST - 1SG Мен ювундырылмадым. Men yuvundırılmadım. I wash-REFL-CAUS-PASS-NEG-PAST-1SG "I

1394-400: Is green and grassy with no trees, nor hills, high or low ... there is no means of travelling in this desert except in wagons." The Persian historian Hamdallah Mustawfi (1281–1349) wrote that Cumania has a cold climate and that it has excellent pasturage and numerous cattle and horses. The 14th-century Travels of Sir John Mandeville , note that Cumania is one of the great kingdoms in

1476-767: Is in the Oghuz branch of Turkic languages commonly spoken in Turkey, Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan The formation period of the Crimean Tatar spoken dialects began with the first Turkic invasions of Crimea by Cumans and Pechenegs and ended during the period of the Crimean Khanate . However, the official written languages of the Crimean Khanate were Chagatai and Ottoman Turkish . After Islamization , Crimean Tatars wrote with an Arabic script . In 1876,

1558-470: Is one of the most seriously endangered languages in Europe. Almost all Crimean Tatars are bilingual or multilingual, using the dominant languages of their respective home countries, such as Russian, Turkish, Romanian, Uzbek, Bulgarian or Ukrainian. The Crimean Tatar language consists of three or four dialects. Among them is also the southern dialect, also known as the coastal dialect (yalıboyu, cenübiy), which

1640-911: Is the same as the Turkish alphabet , with two additional characters: Ñ ñ and Q q. In the Russian-annexed " Republic of Crimea " all official communications and education in Crimean Tatar are conducted exclusively in the Cyrillic alphabet. The vowel system of Crimean Tatar is similar to some other Turkic languages. Because high vowels in Crimean Tatar are short and reduced, /i/ and /ɯ/ are realized close to [ɪ] , even though they are phonologically distinct. In addition to these phonemes, Crimean also displays marginal phonemes that occur in borrowed words, especially palatalized consonants . The southern (coastal) dialect substitutes / x / for / q / , e.g. standard qara 'black', southern xara . At

1722-637: The Polovtsy , derived from the Slavic root *polvъ "pale; light yellow; blonde". Polovtsy or Polovec is often said to be derived from the Old East Slavic polovŭ (половъ) "yellow; pale" by the Russians—all meaning "blond". The old Ukrainian word polovtsy (Пóловці), derived from polovo "straw"—means "blond, pale yellow". The western Cumans, or Polovtsy, were also called Sorochinetses by

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1804-507: The Asen dynasty of the Second Bulgarian Empire, or who were in Byzantine service. Cumans at that time also resettled in the Kingdom of Georgia and were Christianized. There they achieved prominent positions , helped Georgians to stop the advance of Seljuk Turks , and helped make Georgia the most powerful kingdom of the region (they were referred to as naqivchaqari). After the death of

1886-810: The Balkans , the Cumans were in contact with all the statal entities. They fought with the Kingdom of Hungary, allied with the Bulgarians of the Second Bulgarian Empire (they were the empire's most effective military component) and with the Vlachs against the Byzantine Empire . A variant of the oldest Turkic chronicle, Oghuzname (The Oghuz Khan's Tale), mentions the Cumans fighting the Magyars, Rus', Romanians (Ulak), and Bashkirs , who had refused to submit to their authority. In alliance with

1968-603: The Black Sea and Constantinople , in turn leading Rus' to again attempt action. Offenses were halted during 1166–1169, when Grand prince Andrey Bogolyubsky , son of Khan Ayepa's daughter, took control of Kiev in 1169 and installed Gleb as his puppet. Gleb brought in "wild" Cumans as well as Oghuz and Berendei units. Later, the princes of the Principality of Chernigov attempted to use Khan Konchek's army against Kievan Rus' and Suzdal . This Chernigov-Cuman alliance suffered

2050-556: The Bulgarians and Vlachs , the Cumans are believed to have played a significant role in the uprising led by brothers Asen and Peter of Tarnovo , resulting in victory over Byzantium and the restoration of Bulgaria's independence in 1185. István Vásáry states that without the active participation of the Cumans, the Vlakho-Bulgarian rebels could never have gained the upper hand over the Byzantines, and ultimately without

2132-631: The Carpathian Mountains and laid siege on Przemyśl, which prompted David Igorevich, an ally of Volodar Rostislavich, to persuade the Cumans, under Khan Boniak and Altunopa, to attack the Hungarians. The Hungarian army was soundly crushed by the Cumans; the Illuminated Chronicle mentions that "rarely did Hungarians suffer such slaughter as in this battle." In 1104 the Cumans were allied with Prince Volodar. In 1106,

2214-656: The Caucasus ; and with the Khwarezm Empire in Central Asia. The Cumans– Kipchaks constituted an important element and were closely associated with the Khwarazmian royal house via marital alliances. The Cumans were also active in commerce with traders from Central Asia to Venice . The Cumans had a commercial interest in Crimea , where they also took tribute from Crimean cities. A major area of commerce

2296-587: The Hypatian Codex , a certain individual is called Kuman , while in the parallel account of the Laurentian Codex he is called Kun (" Polovčinu menem Kunui" , Vásáry considers this a corruption of Kunu , Russian dative of Kun ). Even after the Cumans were no longer the dominant power in their territory, people still referred to the area as Cumania. The Moroccan traveler, Ibn Battuta (1304 – c. 1369), said of Cumania: "This wilderness

2378-533: The Latin Crusaders . Cuman troops continued to be hired throughout the 13th and 14th century by both the Bulgarians and Byzantines. The Cumans who remained east and south of the Carpathian Mountains established a county named Cumania, which was a strong military base in an area consisting of parts of Moldavia and Wallachia . Like most other peoples of medieval Eastern Europe, the Cumans put up

2460-522: The Latin script . The Uniform Turkic Alphabet was replaced in 1938 by a Cyrillic alphabet . During the 1990s and 2000s, the government of the Autonomous Republic of Crimea under Ukraine encouraged replacing the script with a Latin version again, but the Cyrillic has still been widely used (mainly in published literature, newspapers and education). The current Latin-based Crimean Tatar alphabet

2542-778: The Pecheneg , they inhabited a shifting area north of the Black Sea and along the Volga River known as Cumania , from which the Cuman–Kipchaks meddled in the politics of the Caucasus and the Khwarazmian Empire . The Cumans were fierce and formidable nomadic warriors of the Eurasian Steppe who exerted an enduring influence on the medieval Balkans . They were numerous, culturally sophisticated, and militarily powerful. Many eventually settled west of

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2624-526: The Rus' —apparently derived from the Turkic sary chechle "yellow-haired". A similar etymology may have been at work in the name of the Śārī , who also migrated westward ahead of the Qun. However, according to O. Suleymenov polovtsy may come from a Slavic word for "blue-eyed", i.e. the Serbo-Croatian plȃv (пла̑в) means "blue", but this word also means "fair, blonde" and is a cognate of

2706-526: The Second Bulgarian Empire , the Byzantine Empire , the Latin Empire , and the Nicaea Empire 's Anatolia . The Cuman language is attested in some medieval documents and is the best-known of the early Turkic languages . The Codex Cumanicus was a linguistic manual written to help Catholic missionaries communicate with the Cuman people. Cuman appears in ancient Roman texts as

2788-628: The Siberian Sağay dialect . Klyashtorny links Kipchak to qovï , qovuq "unfortunate, unlucky"; yet Golden sees a better match in qïv "good fortune" and adjectival suffix -čāq . Regardless, Golden notes that the ethnonym's original form and etymology "remain a matter of contention and speculation". Kievan Rus' , Mamluk , Hungarian , and Chinese sources preserved the names of many Cuman-Kupchak tribal groupings: Seven Cuman tribes eventually settled in Hungary, namely: Baskakov thought that

2870-648: The Temes river. King Ladislaus offered the Christianity for the Cuman survivors, the majority of them accepted, thus the king settled them in Jászság . The rumor of the losing battle reached the Cuman camp, the Cumans threatened King Ladislaus with revenge and demanded to free the Cuman prisoners. King Ladislaus marched to the Hungarian border to prevent the next invasion. The two armies clashed near Severin ,

2952-585: The Armenian alphabet ), where it was preserved for centuries up to the modern day. The Cumans first encountered the Rus' in 1055, when they advanced towards the Rus' Pereyaslavl principality , but Prince Vsevolod reached an agreement with them thus avoiding a military confrontation. In 1061, however, the Cumans, under the chieftain Sokal, invaded and devastated the Pereyaslavl principality; this began

3034-667: The Black Sea, influencing the politics of Kievan Rus' , the Galicia–Volhynia Principality , the Golden Horde Khanate, the Second Bulgarian Empire , the Kingdom of Serbia , the Kingdom of Hungary , Moldavia , the Kingdom of Georgia , the Byzantine Empire , the Empire of Nicaea , the Latin Empire , and Wallachia , with Cuman immigrants becoming integrated into each country's elite. The Cumans played

3116-558: The Cumans advanced into the Principality of Volhynia , but were repelled by Sviatopolk II . In 1114, the Cumans launched an invasion, from the western Romanian Plain, into the Byzantine Balkans once more. This was followed up by another incursion in 1123/1124. In 1135, the Cumans again invaded the Kingdom of Poland. During the second and third crusades, in 1147 and 1189, crusaders were attacked by Cumans, who were allied to

3198-622: The Cumans and incorporated into the Rus' border-guard system. Khan Boniak launched invasions on Kiev in 1096, 1097, 1105, and 1107. In 1096, Boniak attacked Kiev and burned down the princely palace in Berestove; he also plundered the Kievan Cave Monastery. Boniak was defeated near Lubny in 1107 by the forces of the Kievan Rus' princes. The Cumans led by Boniak crushed the Hungarian army led by Coloman in 1099 and seized

3280-469: The Cumans resumed their raids against the Rus' and also attacked the Kingdom of Poland : and reportedly reached northern cities located in Lithuania . In 1094-1095 the Cumans, led by Tugorkan, in support of the exiled Byzantine pretender Constantine Diogenes (as a pretext to plundering), invaded the Balkans and conquered the Byzantine province of Paristrion . The Cumans then advanced all the way to Adrianople and Anchialos but could not conquer them. In

3362-485: The Cumans were referred to as the "Blond Ones". As stated above, it is unknown whether the name Kipchak referred only to the Kipchaks proper, or to the Cumans as well. The two tribes eventually fused, lived together and probably exchanged weaponry, culture and languages; the Cumans encompassed the western half of the confederation, while the Kipchaks and (presumably) the Kangli/ Kankalis (possibly connected to three Pecheneg tribes known collectively as Kangars) encompassed

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3444-406: The Cumans, it is 25 miles; this city is called Black Cumania. From the city of Black Cumania to the city of Tmutorakan (MaTlUqa), which is called White Cumania, it is 50 miles. White Cumania is a large inhabited city ... Indeed, in this fifth part of the seventh section there is the northern part of the land of Russia and the northern part of the land of Cumania ... In this sixth part there

3526-425: The Cumans, using the name χarteš , meaning "blond", "pale", "fair". It cannot be established whether the Cumans conquered the Kipchaks , if the Śari whom the Quns had defeated were to be identified as Kipchaks, or whether they simply represent the western mass of largely Kipchak-Turkic speaking tribes. The Quns and Śari (whom Czeglédy (1949:47-48,50) identifies with Yellow Uyghurs ) were possibly induced into

3608-413: The Cuman– Kipchaks as Yimek ~ Yemek. Potapov writes that: ... during the period from the end of the 800s to 1230 AD [the Cumans] spread their political influence in the broad steppes from Altai to Crimea and Danube . Irtysh with its adjoining steppes (at least below the lake Zaisan ) was in the sphere of that confederation. Members of the confederation undoubtedly also were the ancestors of

3690-462: The Derbend. The other way is for to go from the city of Turkestan by Persia, and by that way be many journeys by desert. And the third way is that cometh from Comania and then to go by the Great Sea and by the kingdom of Abchaz ... After that, the Comanians that were in servage in Egypt, felt themselves that they were of great power, they chose them a soldan [sultan] amongst them, the which made him to be clept Melechsalan. And in his time entered into

3772-446: The Hungarian army was victorious, King Ladislaus killed Ákos, the Cuman chieftain. The Cumans initially managed to defeat the Grand Prince Vladimir II Monomakh of Kievan Rus' in 1093 at the Battle of the Stugna River , but they were defeated later by the combined forces of Rus principalities led by Monomakh and were forced out of the Rus' borders to the Caucasus. In these battles some Pecheneg and Oghuz groups were liberated from

3854-433: The Hungarian exonym for Cumans—i.e. Kun , Kunok —appeared as Cunus , Cuni in the chronicles and was applied to earlier nomads such as Pechenegs or Oghuzes , György Györffy derived Kun from Huns , instead of Qun , which he kept separate from Kun . However, István Vásáry rejected Györffy's hypothesis and contended that "the Hungarian name of the Cumans must go back to one of their self-appellations, i.e. to Qun ." In

3936-518: The Iberian Gates or the Caucasian Gates) as Porta Caucasica and Porta Cumana . The original meaning of the endonym Cuman is unknown. It is also often unclear whether a particular name refers to the Cumans alone, or to both the Cumans and the Kipchaks , as the two tribes often lived side by side. Most other Turkic-speaking people (as well as most Muslim sources) called the Cumans some variant of "Qipchaqs", while Armenians called them "Xartesk'ns". Qumans were primarily used by Byzantine authors (and

4018-449: The Kayala river in 1185 but was defeated; this battle was immortalized in the Rus' epic poem The Tale of Igor's Campaign , and Alexander Borodin 's opera, Prince Igor . The dynamic pattern of attacks and counterattacks between the Rus' and the Cumans indicates that both rarely, if ever, were able to attain the unity needed to deal a fatal blow. The Cuman attacks on the Rus' often had Caucasian and Danubian European implications. In

4100-412: The Kimek union or took over said union and absorbed the Kimek. As a result, the Kipchaks presumably replaced the Kimeks as the union's dominant group, while the Quns gained ascendancy over the westernmost tribes and became Quman (though difficulties remain with the Qun-Cuman link and how Qun became Cuman, e.g. qun + man "the real Quns"? > * qumman > quman ?). Kimeks were still represented amongst

4182-428: The Moguty, Tatrany, Revugy, Shelьbiry, and Topchaki belonged to the Chorni Klobuky . The original homeland of the Cumans is unknown before their eventual settlement in the Eurasian steppe's western part. Chinese authors mentioned a Tiele tribe named 渾 ( Mand. Hún (< MC * ɦuon ), possibly a transcription of underlying * Qun ) located north of the Tuul River . The writings of al-Marwazi (c. 1120) state that

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4264-422: The Mongol invasion, and it may have either prolonged their existence or quickened their destruction. Robert Wolff states that it was discipline and cohesion that permitted the Cuman–Kipchaks to conquer such a vast territory. Al-Idrīsī states that Cumania got its name from the city of Cumania; he wrote, "From the city of Khazaria to the city of Kirait is 25 miles. From there to Cumanie, which has given its name to

4346-434: The Qitañ sprang"; however, Golden later suggested that the Quns were Turkic . Despite this, it is possible that certain tribes forming a part of the Cuman–Kipchak conglomerate were of Mongolic origin. Golden considers the Ölberli to have originally been Mongolic-speaking and argues that they were pushed westwards as a result of socio-political changes among the Khitans. The Syrian historian Yaqut (1179–1229) also mentions

4428-469: The Qun in The Dictionary of Countries , where he notes that "(the sixth iqlim) begins where the meridian shadow of the equinox is seven, six-tenths, and one-sixth of one-tenth of a foot. Its end exceeds its beginning by only one foot. It begins in the homeland of the Qayi , Qun , Khirkhiz , Kimak , at- Tagazgaz , the lands of the Turkomans , Fārāb, and the country of the Khazars ." The Armenian historian, Matthew of Edessa (died 1144), also mentioned

4510-423: The Rus' and Cumans was formed. It was decided that the Rus' and Cumans would move east to seek and destroy any Mongols they found. The Rus' princes then began mustering their armies and moved towards the rendezvous point. The army of the alliance of the Rus' and Cumans numbered around 80,000. When the alliance reached Pereyaslavl, they were met by a Mongol envoy that tried to persuade them not to fight. This as well as

4592-407: The Rus' princes. As the Mongols were approaching Russia , Khan Köten fled to the court of his son-in-law, Prince Mstislav the Bold of Galich , where he gave "numerous presents: horses, camels, buffaloes and girls. And he presented these gifts to them, and said the following, 'Today the Mongols took away our land and tomorrow they will come and take away yours'." The Cumans were ignored for almost

4674-435: The Slavic root *pȍlje "field" (cf. Polish, Russian pole ), which would therefore imply that Polovtsy were "men of the field" or "men of the steppe" in contrast to the Lipovtsi . In Germanic languages , the Cumans were called Folban , Vallani or Valwe —all derivatives of Proto-Germanic root * falwa- meaning "pale" (> English "fallow"). In the German account by Adam of Bremen , and in Matthaios of Edessa ,

4756-413: The Soviet years, the palace was employed by Joseph Stalin as his dacha . Today, Masandra is known for its viniculture and production of dessert and fortified wines. The Massandra Winery was founded by Prince Lev Golitsyn in 1894. The enoteca of the winery contains about one million bottles of wine. A minor planet, 3298 Massandra , discovered in 1979 by N. Chernykh at Nauchnyj , is named after

4838-414: The Ukrainian government), the other ones being Ukrainian and Russian. Today, more than 260,000 Crimean Tatars live in Crimea . Approximately 120,000 reside in Central Asia (mainly in Uzbekistan ), where their ancestors had been deported in 1944 during World War II by the Soviet Union. However, of all these people, mostly the older generations are the only ones still speaking Crimean Tatar. In 2013,

4920-401: The above; cf. West Slavic Polish płowy , Eastern Slavic polovŭ , Russian polóvyj (поло́вый), Ukrainian polovýj (полови́й). Blonde individuals likely existed among the Kipchaks, yet anthropologically speaking the majority of Turkic peoples had East Asian admixture and generally Kimeks –Kipchaks were dark-haired and brown-eyed. An alternative etymology of Polovtsy is also possible:

5002-446: The area pressed the Oghuz Turks to shift west, which in turn caused the Pechenegs to move to the west of the Dnieper River . Cuman and Rus' attacks contributed to the departure of the Oghuz from the steppes north of the Black Sea . Mahmud al-Kashgari , writing in 1076, says that in the east Cuman territory bordered a town near Talas . The Cumans first entered the Bugeac ( Bessarabia ) at some point around 1068–1078. They launched

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5084-506: The country of the kings of France Saint Louis, and fought with him; and [the soldan] took him and imprisoned him; and this [soldan] was slain by his own servants. And after, they chose another to be soldan, that they clept Tympieman; and he let deliver Saint Louis out of prison for a certain ransom. And after, one of these Comanians reigned, that hight [was called] Cachas, and slew Tympieman, for to be soldan; and made him be clept Melechmenes. In East Slavic languages and Polish, they are known as

5166-435: The different Turkic Crimean dialects were made into a uniform written language by Ismail Gasprinski . A preference was given to the Oghuz dialect of the Yalıboylus, in order to not break the link between the Crimeans and the Turks of the Ottoman Empire . In 1928, the language was reoriented to the middle dialect spoken by the majority of the people. In 1928, the alphabet was replaced with the Uniform Turkic Alphabet based on

5248-403: The eastern half. This confederation and their living together may have made it difficult for historians to write exclusively about either nation. The Kipchaks' folk-etymology posited that their name meant 'hollow tree'; according to them, inside a hollow tree, their original human ancestress gave birth to her son. Németh points to the Siberian qıpčaq "angry, quick-tempered" attested only in

5330-430: The following years, when knights of the First Crusade were passing through the empire, Byzantium offered the Cumans prestige titles and gifts in order to appease them; subsequently good relations ensued. From 1097 to 1099, Sviatopolk II of Kiev requested help from the Cumans against Coloman, King of Hungary , who was involved in a feud with Volodar of Peremyshl , Prince of Przemyśl . King Coloman and his army crossed

5412-505: The language was estimated to be on the brink of extinction, being taught in only around 15 schools in Crimea. Turkey has provided support to Ukraine, to aid in bringing the schools teaching in Crimean Tatar to a modern state. An estimated 5 million people of Crimean origin live in Turkey, descendants of those who emigrated in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Smaller Crimean Tatar communities such as ( Dobrujan Tatars ) are also found in Romania (22,000) and Bulgaria (1,400). Crimean Tatar

5494-507: The military support of the Cumans, the process of Bulgarian restoration could never have been realized. The Cuman participation in the creation of the Second Bulgarian Empire in 1185 and thereafter brought about basic changes in the political and ethnic sphere of Bulgaria and the Balkans. The Cumans were allies in the Bulgarian–Latin Wars with emperor Kaloyan of Bulgaria . In 1205, at the Battle of Adrianople (1205) , 14,000 Cuman light cavalry contributed to Kaloyan's crushing victory over

5576-429: The name of a fortress or gate. The Roman natural philosopher Pliny the Elder (who lived in the 1st century AD), mentions "a fortress, the name of which is Cumania, erected for the purpose of preventing the passage of the innumerable tribes that lay beyond" while describing the "Gates of Caucasus" ( Derbent , or Darial Gorge ),. The Greek philosopher Strabo (died c. 24 AD) refers to the Darial Gorge (also known as

5658-401: The other princes; all of them died." In 1089, Ladislaus I of Hungary defeated the Cumans after they attacked the Kingdom of Hungary . In 1091, the Pechenegs , a semi-nomadic Turkic people of the prairies of southwestern Eurasia , were decisively defeated as an independent force at the Battle of Levounion by the combined forces of a Byzantine army under Emperor Alexios I Komnenos and

5740-433: The preceding segment is voiced or voiceless, or whether the segment demonstrates backness harmony. Consonants that alternate between [k], [q], [g] and [ɣ] are represented as K , alternating [k] and [g] as G , alternating [t] and [d] by D , and alternating [tʃ] and [dʒ] as Ç . Thus, the suffix - şAr could be rendered as "şar" or "şer" depending on the vowel in the morpheme preceding it. Crimean Tatar verbal morphology

5822-431: The present Kumandy [in Altai] and Teleuts, which is evidenced by their language that like the language of the Tobol-Irtysh and Baraba Tatars belongs to the Kypchak group . The Cumans entered the grasslands of the present-day southern Russian steppe in the 11th century AD and went on to assault the Byzantine Empire , the Kingdom of Hungary , the Principality of Pereyaslavl and Kievan Rus' . The Cumans' entry into

5904-497: The real degree of threat has elevated to critically endangered languages in recent years, which are highly likely to face extinction in the coming generations. Crimean language is one of the official languages of the Autonomous Republic of Crimea (Ukraine), along with Ukrainian and Russian. It is also one of the state languages of the Republic of Crimea ( Russian occupation , considered " temporarily occupied territories " by

5986-544: The royal treasury. In 1109, Monomakh launched another raid against the Cumans and captured "1000 tents". In 1111, 1113, and 1116, further raids were launched against the Cumans and resulted in the liberation and incorporation of more Pecheneg and Oghuz tribes. During this time, the Cumans raided the Byzantine Empire and Volga Bulgaria . Volga Bulgaria was attacked again at a later stage, by Khan Ayepa, father-in-law of Grand Prince of Kiev Yuri Dolgorukiy , perhaps at his instigation. The Volga Bulgars in turn poisoned Ayepa "and

6068-635: The same time the southern and some central dialects preserve glottal / h / which is pronounced / x / in the standard language. The northern dialect on the contrary lacks / x / and / f / , substituting / q / for / x / and / p / for / f / . The northern / v / is usually [ w ] , often in the place of / ɣ / , compare standard dağ and northern taw 'mountain' (also in other Oghuz and Kipchak languages, such as Azerbaijani : dağ and Kazakh : taw ). / k / and / ɡ / are usually fronted, close to [ c ] and [ ɟ ] . The grammar of Crimean Tatar, like all Turkic languages,

6150-608: The settlement. Crimean Tatar language A long-term ban on the study of the Crimean Tatar language following the deportation of the Crimean Tatars by the Soviet government has led to the fact that at the moment UNESCO ranked the Crimean Tatar language among the languages under serious threat of extinction ( severely endangered ). However, according to the Institute of Oriental Studies , due to negative situations,

6232-645: The south. The most vulnerable regions were the Principality of Pereyaslavl, the Principality of Novgorod-Seversk and the Principality of Chernigov . The Cumans invaded and plundered the eastern part of the Kingdom of Hungary in 1091. The invading Cumans were leading by chieftain Kapolcs, they broke first in Transylvania , then the territory between the Danube and Tisza rivers. The Cumans tried to leave Hungary with their huge booty and prisoners, but King Ladislaus I of Hungary reached and defeated them near

6314-896: The vowel in a suffix undergoes assimilation to agree in certain categories with the vowel in the stem. The two main types of assimilation that characterize this agreement in Crimean Tatar morphophonology are backness harmony and rounding harmony. Using the transliteration system in Kavitskaya (2010), non-high vowels undergoing backness harmony vary between [a] and [e], and are represented as A . High vowels that undergo both backness and rounding harmony alternate between [i], [y], [ɪ] and [u] and are represented as I . High vowels in suffixes that are never rounded and alternate between [i] and [ɪ] are represented as Y , whereas high vowels in suffixes that are always round and alternate between [u] and [y] are represented as U . Some consonants undergo similar harmonizing changes depending on whether

6396-566: The warlike Monomakh in 1125, Cumans returned to the steppe along the Rus' borders. Fighting resumed in 1128; Rus' sources mention that Sevinch, son of Khan Boniak , expressed the desire to plant his sword "in the Golden gate of Kiev", as his father had done before him. On 20 March 1155, Prince Gleb Yuryevich took Kiev with the help of a Cuman army under the Cuman prince Chemgura. By 1160 Cuman raids into Rus' had become an annual event. These attacks put pressure on Rus' and affected trade routes to

6478-426: The world, but it is not all inhabited. For at one of the parts there is so great cold that no man may dwell there; and in another part there is so great heat that no man may endure it ... And the principal city of Comania is clept [called] Sarak [Serai], that is one of the three ways for to go into India. But by that way, he may not pass no great multitude of people, but if it be in winter. And that passage men clepe

6560-610: Was not forced to wash myself." For the most part, each type of suffix would only appear once in any given word, although it is possible in some circumstances for causative suffixes to double up. Infinitive verbs take the - mAK suffix and can be negated by the addition of the suffix - mA between the verb stem and the infinitive suffix, creating verb constructions that do not easily mirror English. яшамакъ yaşamaq яшамакъ yaşamaq "to live" яшамамакъ yaşamamaq яшамамакъ yaşamamaq "not to live" Verb derivation Novel verb stems are derived chiefly by applying

6642-404: Was successful in creating a more cohesive force out of the many Cuman groups—he united the western and eastern Cuman–Kipchak tribes. Khan Konchek also changed the old Cuman system of government whereby rulership went to the most senior tribal leader; he instead passed it on to his son Koten. Igor Svyatoslavich , prince of the Principality of Novgorod-Seversk, attacked the Cumans in the vicinity of

6724-729: Was the ancient city of Sudak , which Ibn al-Air viewed as the "city of the Qifjaq from which (flow) their material possessions. It is on the Khazar Sea. Ships come to it bearing clothes. The Qifjiqs buy from them and sell them slaves. Burtas furs, beaver, squirrels..." Due to their political dominance, the Cuman language became Crimea's lingua franca . Thus the language was adopted by the Karaite Jewish and Crimean Armenian communities (who produced many documents written in Kipchak with

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