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121-642: De Meinweg National Park ( Nationaal Park De Meinweg ) is a national park in Limburg , Netherlands. It is about 1800 hectares (7 sq. mi.) in size and was established in 1995. In 2002 it became part of the Maas-Swalm-Nette park, a transboundary protected area on the German/Dutch border, covering 10,000 hectares (40 sq. mi.). Limburg (Netherlands) Limburg had a population of about 1,128,000 as of January 2023. Its main municipalities are

242-569: A condominium , sovereignty over this city was held jointly by the Prince-Bishopric of Liège and the Duchy of Brabant . Also, the central and northern part of present-day Limburg belonged to different political entities, notably the Duchy of Jülich and the Duchy of Guelders . By the late Middle Ages most of the present day territory of Limburg had been partitioned to the Duchy of Brabant,

363-405: A subspecies of modern human as Homo sapiens neanderthalensis . This would necessitate the classification of modern humans as H. sapiens sapiens . A large part of the controversy stems from the vagueness of the term "species", as it is generally used to distinguish two genetically isolated populations, but admixture between modern humans and Neanderthals is known to have occurred. However,

484-644: A Neanderthal in a modern business suit and hat to emphasise that they would be, more or less, indistinguishable from modern humans had they survived into the present. William Golding 's 1955 novel The Inheritors depicts Neanderthals as much more emotional and civilised. However, Boule's image continued to influence works until the 1960s. In modern-day, Neanderthal reconstructions are often very humanlike. Hybridisation between Neanderthals and early modern humans had been suggested early on, such as by English anthropologist Thomas Huxley in 1890, Danish ethnographer Hans Peder Steensby in 1907, and Coon in 1962. In

605-650: A Neanderthal/ H. heidelbergensis lineage. Eight hundred thousand years ago has H. antecessor as the LCA, but different variations of this model would push the date back to 1 million years ago. However, a 2020 analysis of H. antecessor enamel proteomes suggests that H. antecessor is related but not a direct ancestor. DNA studies have yielded various results for the Neanderthal/human divergence time, such as 538–315, 553–321, 565–503, 654–475, 690–550, 765–550, 741–317, and 800–520,000 years ago; and

726-636: A cold climate, but they may also have been adaptations for sprinting in the warmer, forested landscape that Neanderthals often inhabited. They had cold-specific adaptations, such as specialised body-fat storage and an enlarged nose to warm air (although the nose could have been caused by genetic drift ). Average Neanderthal men stood around 165 cm (5 ft 5 in) and women 153 cm (5 ft 0 in) tall, similar to pre-industrial modern Europeans. The braincases of Neanderthal men and women averaged about 1,600 cm (98 cu in) and 1,300 cm (79 cu in), respectively, which

847-489: A combination of these factors. Neanderthals lived in a high-stress environment with high trauma rates, and about 80% died before the age of 40. The total population of Neanderthals remained low, and interbreeding with humans tended toward a loss of Neanderthal genes over time. They lacked effective long-distance networks. Despite this, there is evidence of regional cultures and regular communication between communities, possibly moving between caves seasonally. For much of

968-543: A dental analysis concluded before 800,000 years ago. Neanderthals and Denisovans are more closely related to each other than they are to modern humans, meaning the Neanderthal/Denisovan split occurred after their split with modern humans. Assuming a mutation rate of 1 × 10 or 0.5 × 10 per base pair (bp) per year, the Neanderthal/Denisovan split occurred around either 236–190,000 or 473–381,000 years ago, respectively. Using 1.1 × 10 per generation with

1089-562: A different group of archaic humans, in Siberia. Around 1–4% of genomes of Eurasians , Indigenous Australians , Melanesians , Native Americans and North Africans is of Neanderthal ancestry, while most inhabitants of sub-Saharan Africa have around 0.3% of Neanderthal genes, save possible traces from early sapiens-to-Neanderthal gene flow and/or more recent back-migration of Eurasians to Africa. In all, about 20% of distinctly Neanderthal gene variants survive in modern humans. Although many of

1210-612: A distinct species, though some regard it as a subspecies of Homo sapiens ) who lived in Eurasia until about 40,000 years ago. The type specimen , Neanderthal 1 , was found in 1856 in the Neander Valley in present-day Germany. It is not clear when the line of Neanderthals split from that of modern humans ; studies have produced various times ranging from 315,000 to more than 800,000 years ago. The date of divergence of Neanderthals from their ancestor H. heidelbergensis

1331-450: A height of 322.4 metres (1,058 ft) above NAP , rising approximately 110 metres above the village Vaals, where three countries ( Netherlands , Belgium and Germany ) border each other at the so-called " Three-country-point ". Limburg's main river is the Meuse , which passes through the province's entire length from south to north. Limburg's surface is largely formed by deposits from

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1452-442: A high-quality Neanderthal genome preserved in a toe bone from Denisova Cave, Siberia. Homo sapiens Denisovan from Denisova Cave Denisovan from Baishiya Karst Cave Neanderthal from Denisova Cave Neanderthal from Sidrón Cave Neanderthal from Vindija Cave Neanderthals are hominids in the genus Homo , humans, and generally classified as a distinct species , H. neanderthalensis , although sometimes as

1573-609: A lack of evidence of Southern Scandinavian occupation is (at least during the Eemian interglacial) due to the former explanation and a lack of research in the area. Middle Palaeolithic artefacts have been found up to 60°N on the Russian plains, but these are more likely attributed to modern humans. A 2017 study claimed the presence of Homo at the 130,000-year-old Californian Cerutti Mastodon site in North America, but this

1694-669: A large number of towns and villages were destroyed by bombings and artillery battles. Various cemeteries, too, bear witness to this dark chapter in Limburg's history. Almost 8,500 American soldiers, who perished during the liberation of the Netherlands, lie buried at the Netherlands American Cemetery and Memorial in Margraten . Other big war cemeteries are to be found at Overloon ( British soldiers) and

1815-958: A larger cerebellum . Neanderthal brains also have larger occipital lobes (relating to the classic occurrence of an occipital bun in Neanderthal skull anatomy, as well as the greater width of their skulls), which implies internal differences in the proportionality of brain-internal regions, relative to Homo sapiens, consistent with external measurements obtained with fossil skulls. Their brains also have larger temporal lobe poles, wider orbitofrontal cortex, and larger olfactory bulbs, suggesting potential differences in language comprehension and associations with emotions ( temporal functions ), decision making (the orbitofrontal cortex ) and sense of smell ( olfactory bulbs ). Their brains also show different rates of brain growth and development. Such differences, while slight, would have been visible to natural selection and may underlie and explain differences in

1936-408: A larger diaphragm and possibly greater lung capacity . The lung capacity of Kebara 2 was estimated to have been 9.04 L (2.39 US gal), compared to the average human capacity of 6 L (1.6 US gal) for males and 4.7 L (1.2 US gal) for females. The Neanderthal chest was also more pronounced (expanded front-to-back, or antero-posteriorly). The sacrum (where

2057-548: A legitimate species. The most influential specimen was La Chapelle-aux-Saints 1 ("The Old Man") from La Chapelle-aux-Saints , France. French palaeontologist Marcellin Boule authored several publications, among the first to establish palaeontology as a science, detailing the specimen, but reconstructed him as slouching, ape-like, and only remotely related to modern humans. The 1912 'discovery' of Piltdown Man (a hoax), appearing much more similar to modern humans than Neanderthals,

2178-568: A lengthening of the head (phase 1), which then led to other changes in skull anatomy (phase 2). However, Neanderthal anatomy may not have been driven entirely by adapting to cold weather. Accretion holds that Neanderthals slowly evolved over time from the ancestral H. heidelbergensis , divided into four stages: early-pre-Neanderthals ( MIS 12 , Elster glaciation ), pre-Neanderthals (MIS 11 – 9 , Holstein interglacial ), early Neanderthals (MIS 7– 5 , Saale glaciation – Eemian ), and classic Neanderthals (MIS 4–3, Würm glaciation ). Numerous dates for

2299-643: A loss of economic importance. Limburg was the scene of many bloody battles during the Eighty Years' War (1568–1648), in which the Dutch Republic threw off Habsburg Spanish rule. At the Battle of Mookerheyde (14 April 1574), two brothers of Prince William of Orange-Nassau and thousands of " Dutch " mercenaries died. Most Limburgians fought on the Spanish side, being Catholics and being opposed to

2420-588: A major character in The Three Musketeers by Alexandre Dumas, père (1802–1870). The modern boundaries of Dutch Limburg, along with its neighbour, Belgian Limburg, were basically set during the period after the French Revolution , which erased much of the " ancien regime " of Europe, with all its old boundaries and titles. These two provinces were part of a new French département , named (like many départements ) after

2541-542: A more forward direction, by comparison. Neanderthal eyeballs are larger than those of modern humans. One study proposed that this was due to Neanderthals having enhanced visual abilities, at the expense of neocortical and social development. However, this study was rejected by other researchers who concluded that eyeball size does not offer any evidence for the cognitive abilities of Neanderthal or modern humans. The projected Neanderthal nose and paranasal sinuses have generally been explained as having warmed air as it entered

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2662-400: A more recent mitochondrial LCA (observable by studying mtDNA) and Y chromosome LCA. This likely resulted from an interbreeding event subsequent to the Neanderthal/Denisovan split. This involved either introgression coming from an unknown archaic human into Denisovans, or introgression from an earlier unidentified modern human wave from Africa into Neanderthals. The fact that the mtDNA of

2783-544: A new generation every 29 years, the time is 744,000 years ago. Using 5 × 10 nucleotide sites per year, it is 616,000 years ago. Using the latter dates, the split had likely already occurred by the time hominins spread out across Europe, and unique Neanderthal features had begun evolving by 600–500,000 years ago. Before splitting, Neanderthal/Denisovans (or "Neandersovans") migrating out of Africa into Europe apparently interbred with an unidentified "superarchaic" human species who were already present there; these superarchaics were

2904-504: A protrusion on the back of the skull, although it is within the range of variation for modern humans who have it. It is caused by the cranial base and temporal bones being placed higher and more towards the front of the skull, and a flatter skullcap . The Neanderthal face is characterised by subnasal as well as mid-facial prognathism , where the zygomatic arches are positioned in a rearward location relative to modern humans, while their maxillary bones and nasal bones are positioned in

3025-603: A rather large jaw which was once cited as a response to a large bite force evidenced by heavy wearing of Neanderthal front teeth (the "anterior dental loading" hypothesis), but similar wearing trends are seen in contemporary humans. It could also have evolved to fit larger teeth in the jaw, which would better resist wear and abrasion, and the increased wear on the front teeth compared to the back teeth probably stems from repetitive use. Neanderthal dental wear patterns are most similar to those of modern Inuit. The incisors are large and shovel-shaped, and, compared to modern humans, there

3146-615: A result of the Battle of Worringen , then in the 15th century under the Duchy of Burgundy . By 1473, the Lands of Overmaas and the Duchy of Limburg formed one unified delegation to the States General of the Burgundian Netherlands . Both the terms Overmaas and Limburg came to be used loosely to refer to this sparsely populated province of the so-called Seventeen Provinces . Maastricht was never part of this polity: as

3267-464: A second variation of BNC2 was also present, which in modern populations is associated with darker skin colour in the UK Biobank . DNA analysis of three Neanderthal females from southeastern Europe indicates that they had brown eyes, dark skin colour and brown hair, with one having red hair. In modern humans, skin and hair colour is regulated by the melanocyte-stimulating hormone —which increases

3388-524: A skull, shares several physical attributes with Neanderthals, although these may be the result of convergent evolution rather than Neanderthals extending their range to the Pacific Ocean. The northernmost bound is generally accepted to have been 55°N , with unambiguous sites known between 50 – 53°N , although this is difficult to assess because glacial advances destroy most human remains, and palaeoanthropologist Trine Kellberg Nielsen has argued that

3509-418: A whole. Dialects in the north, nearby Venray and Gennep , are classified as Kleverlandish and are closely connected to the dialects in the northeast of Brabant (Land van Cuijk) and the region of Nijmegen . Dialects in the southeast (near Aachen ) are closer to Ripuarian and are sometimes classified as Southeast Limburgish . Dialects in the western part of Limburg, surrounding Weert , are influenced by

3630-573: A wide array of food, mainly hoofed mammals , but also megafauna , plants, small mammals, birds, and aquatic and marine resources. Although they were probably apex predators , they still competed with cave lions , cave hyenas and other large predators. A number of examples of symbolic thought and Palaeolithic art have been inconclusively attributed to Neanderthals, namely possible ornaments made from bird claws and feathers, shells, collections of unusual objects including crystals and fossils, engravings, music production (possibly indicated by

3751-631: A ~430,000 years old early Neanderthal-line archaic human from Sima de los Huesos in Spain is more closely related to those of Denisovans than to other Neanderthals or modern humans has been cited as evidence in favour of the latter hypothesis. It is largely thought that H. heidelbergensis was the last common ancestor of Neanderthals, Denisovans and modern humans before populations became isolated in Europe, Asia and Africa, respectively. The taxonomic distinction between H. heidelbergensis and Neanderthals

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3872-490: Is also unclear. The oldest potential Neanderthal bones date to 430,000 years ago, but the classification remains uncertain. Neanderthals are known from numerous fossils, especially from after 130,000 years ago. The reasons for Neanderthal extinction are disputed. Theories for their extinction include demographic factors such as small population size and inbreeding, competitive replacement, interbreeding and assimilation with modern humans, change of climate, disease, or

3993-567: Is always Neandertaler ("inhabitant of the Neander Valley"), whereas Neandertal always refers to the valley. The valley itself was named after the late 17th century German theologian and hymn writer Joachim Neander , who often visited the area. His name in turn means 'new man', being a learned Graecisation of the German surname Neumann . Neanderthal can be pronounced using the /t/ (as in / n i ˈ æ n d ər t ɑː l / ) or

4114-647: Is appointed by the King and the cabinet of the Netherlands. Since December 2021 Emile Roemer ( SP ) has been holding the office of governor. Since the 2011 elections the Christian Democratic Appeal (CDA) was the largest party in the council, although the Party for Freedom (PVV) won the most votes during the election. However, two members of the PVV left the party, taking their seats with them, which lost

4235-623: Is considerably larger than the modern human average (1,260 cm (77 cu in) and 1,130 cm (69 cu in), respectively). The Neanderthal skull was more elongated and the brain had smaller parietal lobes and cerebellum, but larger temporal, occipital and orbitofrontal regions. The 2010 Neanderthal genome project 's draft report presented evidence for interbreeding between Neanderthals and modern humans . It possibly occurred 316,000 to 219,000 years ago, but more likely 100,000 years ago and again 65,000 years ago. Neanderthals also appear to have interbred with Denisovans ,

4356-467: Is largely considered implausible. It is unknown how the rapidly fluctuating climate of the last glacial period ( Dansgaard–Oeschger events ) impacted Neanderthals, as warming periods would produce more favourable temperatures but encourage forest growth and deter megafauna, whereas frigid periods would produce the opposite. However, Neanderthals may have preferred a forested landscape. Stable environments with mild mean annual temperatures may have been

4477-484: Is limited by the amount of food it can obtain, which in turn is limited by its technology. Innovation increases with population, but if the population is too low, innovation will not occur very rapidly and the population will remain low. This is consistent with the apparent 150,000 year stagnation in Neanderthal lithic technology. In a sample of 206 Neanderthals, based on the abundance of young and mature adults in comparison to other age demographics, about 80% of them above

4598-685: Is located on the Chemelot campus in Sittard-Geleen , which is bounded by the Chemelot Industrial Park, one of Western Europe's biggest industrial sites. At this moment 8000 people work at Chemelot, of which 1000 are active at the Campus. The innovation and licensing division Stamicarbon of DSM was sold in 2009 to Maire Tecnimont, the parent company of an engineering, main contracting and licensing group that operates worldwide in

4719-442: Is most similar to that of Inuit and Siberian Yupiks among modern humans —and shorter limbs result in higher retention of body heat. Nonetheless, Neanderthals from more temperate climates—such as Iberia—still retain the "hyperarctic" physique. In 2019, English anthropologist John Stewart and colleagues suggested Neanderthals instead were adapted for sprinting, because of evidence of Neanderthals preferring warmer wooded areas over

4840-513: Is mostly based on a fossil gap in Europe between 300 and 243,000 years ago during marine isotope stage 8. "Neanderthals", by convention, are fossils which date to after this gap. DNA from archaic humans from the 430,000-year-old Sima de los Huesos site in Spain indicate that they are more closely related to Neanderthals than to Denisovans, indicating that the split between Neanderthals and Denisovans must predate this time. The 400,000-year-old Aroeira 3 skull may also represent an early member of

4961-550: Is the official language and the one most used, Limburgish is currently considered a regional language as described in the a page of the Dutch Government. It has been an official regional language since 1997 and it receives moderate protection under Chapter 2 of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages . The German and Belgian governments do not recognise it as an official language. Before

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5082-483: The Altai Mountains in southern Siberia. Pre- and early Neanderthals, on the other hand, seem to have continuously occupied only France, Spain and Italy, although some appear to have moved out of this "core-area" to form temporary settlements eastward (although without leaving Europe). Nonetheless, southwestern France has the highest density of sites for pre-, early and classic Neanderthals. The Neanderthals were

5203-907: The Calvinist Hollanders . In the early modern era, Limburg was largely divided between the Spanish Netherlands (the Austrian Netherlands after 1714), Prussia , the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands , the Prince-Bishopric of Liège and many small independent fiefs . In 1673, Louis XIV personally commanded the siege of Maastricht by French troops. During the siege, one of his brigadiers, Charles de Batz-Castelmore d'Artagnan , perished. He subsequently became known as

5324-512: The Divje Babe flute ), and Spanish cave paintings contentiously dated to before 65,000 years ago. Some claims of religious beliefs have been made. Neanderthals were likely capable of speech, possibly articulate, although the complexity of their language is not known. Compared with modern humans, Neanderthals had a more robust build and proportionally shorter limbs. Researchers often explain these features as adaptations to conserve heat in

5445-588: The Dukes of Brabant . During this long period, from the Middle Ages until the French Revolution , they were sometimes referred to collectively under one name (Overmaas or Limburg). After 1794, it was the French Republic which unified the region, along with Belgian Limburg, and removed all ties to the old feudal society (the ancien regime ). The new name, as with all the names of the départements ,

5566-666: The European Community (now European Union ) held a summit in Maastricht. At that summit, the "Treaty on European Union" or so-called Maastricht Treaty was signed by the European Community member states. With that treaty, the European Union came into existence. Limburg mijn Vaderland (Limburg my Fatherland) is the official anthem of both Belgian and Dutch Limburg. Although standard Dutch

5687-748: The Ysselsteyn German war cemetery was constructed in the Municipality of Venray for the 31,000 German soldiers who died. According to the research of Herman van Rens, the residents of Limburg were especially active in hiding local and refugee Jews during the Holocaust , to the extent that the Jewish population even increased during the war. Jews in hiding were three times as likely to survive in Limburg as in Amsterdam. In December 1991,

5808-402: The body mass index for Neanderthal males was calculated to be 26.9–28.2, which in modern humans correlates to being overweight . This indicates a very robust build. The Neanderthal LEPR gene concerned with storing fat and body heat production is similar to that of the woolly mammoth , and so was likely an adaptation for cold climate. The neck vertebrae of Neanderthals are thicker from

5929-462: The pelvis connects to the spine ) was more vertically inclined, and was placed lower in relation to the pelvis, causing the spine to be less curved (exhibit less lordosis ) and to fold in on itself somewhat (to be invaginated). In modern populations, this condition affects just a proportion of the population, and is known as a lumbarised sacrum. Such modifications to the spine would have enhanced side-to-side (mediolateral) flexion , better supporting

6050-731: The 10th century, the Eastern kingdom consolidated its control of Lotharingia and became the Holy Roman Empire . In the first decades of this empire the founding imperial family had close ties to areas in what is today northern Limburg. The emperor Otto III for instance was born in 980 in Kessel , practically on the current border between Limburg and North Rhine-Westphalia , just east from Gennep . In 1080 in Genneperhuis  [ nl ] , just north of Gennep, Norbert of Gennep

6171-533: The 140- to 120,000-year-old Israeli Nesher Ramla remains, which feature a mix of Neanderthal and more ancient H. erectus traits, represent one such source population which recolonised Europe following a glacial period. Like modern humans, Neanderthals probably descended from a very small population with an effective population —the number of individuals who can bear or father children—of 3,000 to 12,000 approximately. However, Neanderthals maintained this very low population, proliferating weakly harmful genes due to

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6292-478: The 1911 The Quest for Fire by J.-H. Rosny aîné and the 1927 The Grisly Folk by H. G. Wells in which they are depicted as monsters. In 1911, Scottish anthropologist Arthur Keith reconstructed La Chapelle-aux-Saints 1 as an immediate precursor to modern humans, sitting next to a fire, producing tools, wearing a necklace, and having a more humanlike posture, but this failed to garner much scientific rapport, and Keith later abandoned his thesis in 1915. By

6413-682: The 20th century, most newspapers were in French or in German, and schools in Maastricht taught French, as the city has historic ties with the Belgian city of Liège . Other parts of the province taught German. Limburgish is spoken by an estimated 1.6 million people in Dutch Limburg, Belgian Limburg , and Germany. There are many different dialects of Limburgish; almost every town and village has its own. A lot of isoglosses cross through Limburg. No single dialect can fully represent Limburgish as

6534-587: The Duchy of Gelderland, the Duchy of Jülich, the Prince-Bishopric of Liège or the Electorate of Cologne . These dukes, prince-bishops and prince-electors were nominal subordinates of the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, but in practice acted as independent sovereigns who were often at war with each other. These conflicts were often fought in and over Limburg, contributing to its fragmentation and

6655-689: The Italian Visogliano and Fontana Ranuccio sites indicate that Neanderthal dental features had evolved by around 450–430,000 years ago during the Middle Pleistocene . There are two main hypotheses regarding the evolution of Neanderthals following the Neanderthal/human split: two-phase and accretion. Two-phase argues that a single major environmental event—such as the Saale glaciation —caused European H. heidelbergensis to increase rapidly in body size and robustness, as well as undergoing

6776-478: The Kingdom of the Netherlands, was reincorporated into the latter with the 1867 Treaty of London , though the term "Duchy of Limburg" remained in some official use until February 1907. Another idiosyncrasy survives today: the head of the province, referred to as the "King's Commissioner" in other provinces, is addressed as "Governor" in Limburg. The Second World War cost the lives of many civilians in Limburg, and

6897-517: The Maas river route, made it a much-coveted region among Europe's major powers. Romans , Carolingians , Habsburg Spaniards , Prussians , Habsburg Austrians and France have all ruled parts of Limburg. The first inhabitants of whom traces have been found were Neanderthals who camped in South Limburg. In Neolithic times, flint was mined in underground mines. Julius Caesar conquered

7018-438: The Maas valley became more culturally and politically one of the most important regions in Europe. In 714 Susteren Abbey was founded, as far as is known the first proprietary abbey in the current Netherlands. The main benefactor was Plectrude , the consort of Pepin of Herstal . Charles Martel was born in nearby Herstal . Charlemagne made Aachen , today a German city which has suburban sprawl stretching into South Limburg,

7139-722: The Meuse after the Congress of Vienna, the Dutch province of Limburg (excluding the cities of Maastricht and Venlo because without them Limburg's population equalled that of the Province of Luxembourg, 150,000 ), was joined to the German Confederation between 5 September 1839 and 23 August 1866 as the Duchy of Limburg . On 11 May 1867, the Duchy, which from 1839 on had been de jure a separate polity in personal union with

7260-739: The Meuse, consisting of river clay, fertile loessial soil and large deposits of pebblestone, currently being quarried for the construction industry. In the north of the province, further away from the riverbed, the soil primarily consists of sand and peat. Limburg makes up one region of the International Organization for Standardization world region code system, having the code ISO 3166-2:NL -LI. The province of Limburg has 31 municipalities. From North to South: Gennep , Venray , Venlo , Weert , Roermond , Thorn , Sittard , Geleen , Heerlen , Valkenburg , Kerkrade , Maastricht , Vaals . The Gross domestic product (GDP) of

7381-456: The Neanderthal braincase to that of a chimpanzee and argued that they were "incapable of moral and [ theistic ] conceptions". The first Neanderthal remains— Engis 2 (a skull)—were discovered in 1829 by Dutch/Belgian prehistorian Philippe-Charles Schmerling in the Grottes d'Engis , Belgium. He concluded that these "poorly developed" human remains must have been buried at the same time and by

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7502-525: The Neanderthal line. It is possible that gene flow between Western Europe and Africa during the Middle Pleistocene, may have obscured Neanderthal characteristics in some Middle Pleistocene European hominin specimens, such those from Ceprano , Italy, and Sićevo Gorge , Serbia. The fossil record is much more complete from 130,000 years ago onwards, and specimens from this period make up the bulk of known Neanderthal skeletons. Dental remains from

7623-484: The Neanderthal/human split have been suggested. The date of around 250,000 years ago cites " H. helmei " as being the last common ancestor (LCA), and the split is associated with the Levallois technique of making stone tools. The date of about 400,000 years ago uses H. heidelbergensis as the LCA. Estimates of 600,000 years ago assume that " H. rhodesiensis " was the LCA, which split off into modern human lineage and

7744-597: The PVV their number one status. Since the 2015 elections the CDA (11 seats) has again been the largest party, followed by the PVV (9 seats) and the Socialist Party (SP) (8 seats). The province's daily affairs are taken care of by the Provincial-Executive ( Gedeputeerde Staten ), which are also headed by the King's Commissioner; its members ( gedeputeerden ) can be compared with ministers. Results of

7865-633: The Romans upon this route. The area became strongly Romanized. Bishop Servatius introduced Christianity in Roman Maastricht, where he died in 384. Maastricht appears to have taken over from Tongeren for some time as regional capital for the Romanized and Christian population, before the bishopric was re-established in Liège , 25 kilometres (16 mi) south of Maastricht. As Roman authority in

7986-538: The Treaty of Meerssen, effective Frankish power in the area of the current Netherlands more or less collapsed. For two or more years a large Viking army, operating from a place on or near the Meuse called Ascloa (or Hasloa or Haslon), wrought havoc in the neighbourhood. The damage was such that the emperor, Charles the Fat was forced to assemble a large multinational army, that in 882 unsuccessfully besieged this island . In

8107-484: The abilities to create fire , build cave hearths (to cook food, keep warm, defend themselves from animals, placing it at the centre of their homes), make adhesive birch bark tar , craft at least simple clothes similar to blankets and ponchos, weave, go seafaring through the Mediterranean, make use of medicinal plants , treat severe injuries, store food, and use various cooking techniques such as roasting , boiling , and smoking . Neanderthals consumed

8228-429: The absence of Neanderthal-derived patrilineal Y-chromosome and matrilineal mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) in modern humans, along with the underrepresentation of Neanderthal X chromosome DNA, could imply reduced fertility or frequent sterility of some hybrid crosses, representing a partial biological reproductive barrier between the groups, and therefore species distinction. In 2014 geneticist Svante Pääbo summarised

8349-401: The actual function would be unclear, so they may not be a good indicator of evolutionary pressures to evolve such a nose. Further, a computer reconstruction of the Neanderthal nose and predicted soft tissue patterns shows some similarities to those of modern Arctic peoples, potentially meaning the noses of both populations convergently evolved for breathing cold, dry air. Neanderthals featured

8470-597: The age of 20 died before reaching 40. This high mortality rate was probably due to their high-stress environment. However, it has also been estimated that the age pyramids for Neanderthals and contemporary modern humans were the same. Infant mortality was estimated to have been very high for Neanderthals, about 43% in northern Eurasia. Neanderthals had more robust and stockier builds than typical modern humans, wider and barrel-shaped rib cages; wider pelvises; and proportionally shorter forearms and forelegs. Based on 45 Neanderthal long bones from 14 men and 7 women,

8591-432: The area in 53 BC, and wrote that he had extinguished the name of the Eburones , the inhabitants of most of the area of current Limburg, as a punishment for their revolt under Ambiorix . The north–south route along the Maas was crossed by the Via Belgica , a road crossing South Limburg and connecting the two local capitals of Tongeren and Cologne . Mosa Trajectum (Maastricht) and Coriovallum (Heerlen) were founded by

8712-399: The area under the direct lordship of the old Duchy did not overlap at all with the modern Belgian and Dutch provinces named after it today, though the medieval Duchy was a high status title in the region. On the other hand, while the Duchy's effective power was limited, the Duchy and what is now South Limburg (referred to as Overmaas) did have a long history of connection under the lordship of

8833-462: The area weakened, Franks took over from the Romans, but the area came to flourish under their rule, with Cologne continuing to be the most important local capital. The Maas valley, especially the middle and southern part of the current province, formed an important part of the heartland of Merovingian Austrasia . With the rise of the Carolingian dynasty, who were themselves from this region,

8954-422: The average height was 164 to 168 cm (5 ft 5 in to 5 ft 6 in) for males and 152 to 156 cm (5 ft 0 in to 5 ft 1 in) for females. For comparison, the average height of 20 males and 10 females Upper Palaeolithic humans is, respectively, 176.2 cm (5 ft 9.4 in) and 162.9 cm (5 ft 4.1 in), although this decreases by 10 cm (4 in) nearer

9075-489: The average was about 1,478 cm (90.2 cu in) disregarding sex, and modern human brain size is suggested to have decreased since the Upper Palaeolithic. The largest Neanderthal brain, Amud 1 , was calculated to be 1,736 cm (105.9 cu in), one of the largest ever recorded in hominids. Both Neanderthal and human infants measure about 400 cm (24 cu in). When viewed from

9196-750: The border between the Western- and Eastern Frankish kingdoms, placing most of the current Dutch province of Limburg on the western boundary of the Eastern Frankish kingdom, with Belgian Limburg in the Western Kingdom. In the Treaty of Ribemont of 888, the Eastern Kingdom was granted control of the whole of Lotharingia, including all of the modern Netherlands and Luxembourg, and most of modern Belgium. The region of Thorn, Netherlands

9317-574: The capital of the Frankish empire . After the death of Charlemagne, the Frankish dominions were again split between kings. While the Austrasian lands remained a separate "Middle Kingdom", sometimes now referred to as Lotharingia , in the treaties of Verdun (843), and Prüm (855), in the 870 Treaty of Meerssen , signed in South Limburg itself, Lotharingia was divided. The river Meuse became

9438-637: The colder mammoth steppe , and DNA analysis indicating a higher proportion of fast-twitch muscle fibres in Neanderthals than in modern humans. He explained their body proportions and greater muscle mass as adaptations to sprinting as opposed to the endurance-oriented modern human physique , as persistence hunting may only be effective in hot climates where the hunter can run prey to the point of heat exhaustion ( hyperthermia ). They had longer heel bones , reducing their ability for endurance running, and their shorter limbs would have reduced moment arm at

9559-429: The controversy, describing such " taxonomic wars" as unresolvable, "since there is no definition of species perfectly describing the case". Neanderthals are thought to have been more closely related to Denisovans than to modern humans. Likewise, Neanderthals and Denisovans share a more recent last common ancestor (LCA) than to modern humans, based on nuclear DNA (nDNA). However, Neanderthals and modern humans share

9680-581: The cranium, thigh bones, right arm, left humerus and ulna , left ilium (hip bone), part of the right shoulder blade , and pieces of the ribs . Following Charles Darwin 's On the Origin of Species , Fuhlrott and Schaaffhausen argued the bones represented an ancient modern human form; Schaaffhausen, a social Darwinist , believed that humans linearly progressed from savage to civilised, and so concluded that Neanderthals were barbarous cave-dwellers. Fuhlrott and Schaaffhausen met opposition namely from

9801-470: The descendants of a very early migration out of Africa around 1.9 mya. Pre- and early Neanderthals, living before the Eemian interglacial (130,000 years ago), are poorly known and come mostly from Western European sites. From 130,000 years ago onwards, the quality of the fossil record increases dramatically with classic Neanderthals, who are recorded from Western, Central, Eastern and Mediterranean Europe, as well as Southwest , Central and Northern Asia up to

9922-558: The early 2000s, supposed hybrid specimens were discovered: Lagar Velho 1 and Muierii 1 . However, similar anatomy could also have been caused by adapting to a similar environment rather than interbreeding. Neanderthal admixture was found to be present in modern populations in 2010 with the mapping of the first Neanderthal genome sequence. This was based on three specimens in Vindija Cave , Croatia, which contained almost 4% archaic DNA (allowing for near complete sequencing of

10043-475: The early 20th century, European researchers depicted Neanderthals as primitive, unintelligent and brutish. Although knowledge and perception of them has markedly changed since then in the scientific community, the image of the unevolved caveman archetype remains prevalent in popular culture. In truth, Neanderthal technology was quite sophisticated. It includes the Mousterian stone-tool industry as well as

10164-538: The elections for the States-Provincial : The Provincial-Executive 2023–2027 consists of the following parties: BBB, CDA, VVD, PvdA and SP. Limburg is a salient of the Netherlands into Belgium. Compared to the rest of the Netherlands the southern part of Limburg is less flat, slightly undulated. The highest point in the continental Netherlands is the Vaalserberg (meaning 'mountain' of Vaals) with

10285-659: The end of the period based on 21 males and 15 females; and the average in the year 1900 was 163 cm (5 ft 4 in) and 152.7 cm (5 ft 0 in), respectively. The fossil record shows that adult Neanderthals varied from about 147.5 to 177 cm (4 ft 10 in to 5 ft 10 in) in height, although some may have grown much taller (73.8 to 184.8 cm based on footprint length and from 65.8 to 189.3 cm based on footprint width). For Neanderthal weight, samples of 26 specimens found an average of 77.6 kg (171 lb) for males and 66.4 kg (146 lb) for females. Using 76 kg (168 lb),

10406-489: The etymology of Limbourg. The second part, "bourg" or "burg" is common in placenames, and refers to a fortified town. The first part is often suggested to refer to lime or linden trees (species of Tilia ). The historian Jean-Louis Kupper has proposed that its founder Frederick, Duke of Lower Lorraine named it after Limburg Abbey in Germany. He favours a derivation from a Germanic word "lint" meaning "dragon". Ironically

10527-430: The finalization of the separation of Belgium from the Netherlands which had begun in 1830. The two Limburgs had been brought together under French revolutionary administration some decades earlier, but they and the surrounding region shared much of their history. For long periods of history however, the region was not united under the same rule. For centuries, the strategic location of the current province, stretching along

10648-494: The first human species to permanently occupy Europe as the continent was only sporadically occupied by earlier humans. The southernmost find was recorded at Shuqba Cave , Levant; reports of Neanderthals from the North African Jebel Irhoud and Haua Fteah have been reidentified as H. sapiens . Their easternmost presence is recorded at Denisova Cave , Siberia 85°E ; the southeast Chinese Maba Man ,

10769-399: The front to the rear and transversely than those of (most) modern humans, leading to stability, possibly to accommodate a different head shape and size. Although the Neanderthal thorax (where the ribcage is) was similar in size to modern humans, the longer and straighter ribs would have equated to a widened mid-lower thorax and stronger breathing in the lower thorax, which are indicative of

10890-403: The gene variants inherited from Neanderthals may have been detrimental and selected out, Neanderthal introgression appears to have affected the modern human immune system , and is also implicated in several other biological functions and structures, but a large portion appears to be non-coding DNA . Neanderthals are named after the Neander Valley in which the first identified specimen

11011-400: The genome). However, there was approximately 1 error for every 200 letters ( base pairs ) based on the implausibly high mutation rate, probably due to the preservation of the sample. In 2012, British-American geneticist Graham Coop hypothesised that they instead found evidence of a different archaic human species interbreeding with modern humans, which was disproven in 2013 by the sequencing of

11132-526: The individual reconstructed on the basis of the skull was occasionally called "the Neanderthal man". The binomial name Homo neanderthalensis —extending the name "Neanderthal man" from the individual specimen to the entire species, and formally recognising it as distinct from humans—was first proposed by Irish geologist William King in a paper read to the 33rd British Science Association in 1863. However, in 1864, he recommended that Neanderthals and modern humans be classified in different genera as he compared

11253-522: The limbs, allowing for greater net rotational force at the wrists and ankles, causing faster acceleration. In 1981, American palaeoanthropologist Erik Trinkaus made note of this alternate explanation, but considered it less likely. Neanderthals had less developed chins, sloping foreheads, and longer, broader, more projecting noses. The Neanderthal skull is typically more elongated, but also wider, and less globular than that of most modern humans, and features much more of an occipital bun , or "chignon",

11374-419: The lungs and retained moisture ("nasal radiator" hypothesis); if their noses were wider, it would differ to the generally narrowed shape in cold-adapted creatures, and that it would have been caused instead by genetic drift . Also, the sinuses reconstructed wide are not grossly large, being comparable in size to those of modern humans. However, if sinus size is not an important factor for breathing cold air, then

11495-494: The material record in things like social behaviours, technological innovation and artistic output. The lack of sunlight most likely led to the proliferation of lighter skin in Neanderthals; however, it has been recently claimed that light skin in modern Europeans was not particularly prolific until perhaps the Bronze Age . Genetically, BNC2 was present in Neanderthals, which is associated with light skin colour; however,

11616-527: The medieval name to be lost, insisted that it be changed to " Province of Limburg ". As such, the name of the new province was derived from the old Duchy of Limburg that had existed until 1795 on the east bank of the Meuse river. When the Catholic and French -speaking Belgians split away from the mainly Calvinist northern Netherlands in the Belgian Revolution of 1830, the Province of Limburg

11737-475: The middle of the century, based on the exposure of Piltdown Man as a hoax as well as a reexamination of La Chapelle-aux-Saints 1 (who had osteoarthritis which caused slouching in life) and new discoveries, the scientific community began to rework its understanding of Neanderthals. Ideas such as Neanderthal behaviour, intelligence and culture were being discussed, and a more humanlike image of them emerged. In 1939, American anthropologist Carleton Coon reconstructed

11858-528: The most suitable Neanderthal habitats. Populations may have peaked in cold but not extreme intervals, such as marine isotope stages 8 and 6 (respectively, 300,000 and 191,000 years ago during the Saale glaciation). It is possible their range expanded and contracted as the ice retreated and grew, respectively, to avoid permafrost areas, residing in certain refuge zones during glacial maxima. In 2021, Israeli anthropologist Israel Hershkovitz and colleagues suggested

11979-461: The neighbouring dialects of southeast Brabant , which means that the tone is more Brabantic than in the rest of Limburg. The provincial council ( States-Provincial - Provinciale Staten ) has 47 seats, and is headed by a King's Commissioner ( Commissaris van de Koning ) who unofficially is called the Governor . While the provincial council is elected by the inhabitants, the King's Commissioner

12100-987: The oil, gas & petrochemicals, power, infrastructure and civil engineering sectors. Stamicarbon is based in Sittard-Geleen. VDL Nedcar in Born ( Sittard-Geleen ) is the only large-scale car manufacturer in the Netherlands, currently manufacturing MINIs and BMW X1s . Other industries include rockwool in Roermond, Océ copiers and printers manufacturers in Venlo and a paper factory in Maastricht. There are four large beer breweries in Limburg. Neanderthals Neanderthals ( / n i ˈ æ n d ər ˌ t ɑː l , n eɪ -, - ˌ θ ɑː l / nee- AN -də(r)- TAHL , nay-, -⁠ THAHL ; Homo neanderthalensis or H. sapiens neanderthalensis ) are an extinct group of archaic humans (generally regarded as

12221-454: The pain by moving several government offices (including Stichting Pensioenfonds ABP and CBS Statistics Netherlands ) to Heerlen. The state-owned corporation that once mined in Limburg, DSM , is now a major chemical company, still operating in Limburg. In 2002 DSM sold its petrochemical division (naphtha crackers and polyolefin plants) to SABIC of Saudi Arabia. In 2010, the agro and melamine business groups were sold to OCI Nitrogen . SABIC

12342-487: The period of the Neanderthal/modern human transition, and Neanderthals may have been at a demographic disadvantage due to a lower fertility rate, a higher infant mortality rate, or a combination of the two. Estimates giving a total population in the higher tens of thousands are contested. A consistently low population may be explained in the context of the " Boserupian Trap ": a population's carrying capacity

12463-440: The prolific pathologist Rudolf Virchow who argued against defining new species based on only a single find. In 1872, Virchow erroneously interpreted Neanderthal characteristics as evidence of senility , disease and malformation instead of archaicness, which stalled Neanderthal research until the end of the century. By the early 20th century, numerous other Neanderthal discoveries were made, establishing H. neanderthalensis as

12584-510: The proportion of eumelanin (black pigment) to phaeomelanin (red pigment)—which is encoded by the MC1R gene. There are five known variants in modern humans of the gene which cause loss-of-function and are associated with light skin and hair colour, and another unknown variant in Neanderthals (the R307G variant) which could be associated with pale skin and red hair. The R307G variant was identified in

12705-560: The province was €44.5 billion in 2018, accounting for 5.7% of the Netherlands economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was €34,700 or 115% of the EU27 average in the same year. In the past peat and coal were mined in Limburg. In 1965–75 the coal mines were finally closed. As a result, 60,000 people lost their jobs in the two coal mining areas, Heerlen-Kerkrade-Brunssum and Sittard-Geleen. A difficult period of economic readjustment started. The Dutch government partly eased

12826-460: The provincial capital Maastricht (population 120,837 as of January 2022), Venlo (population 102,176) in the northeast, as well as Sittard-Geleen (population 91,760, bordering both Belgium and Germany) and Heerlen (population 86,874) in the south. More than half of the population, approximately 650,000 people, live in the south of Limburg, which corresponds to roughly one-third of the province's area proper. In South Limburg , most people live in

12947-455: The rear, the Neanderthal braincase has lower, wider, rounder appearance than in anatomically modern humans. This characteristic shape is referred to as "en bombe" (bomb-like), and is unique to Neanderthals, with all other hominid species (including most modern humans) generally having narrow and relatively upright cranial vaults, when viewed from behind. The Neanderthal brain would have been characterised by relatively smaller parietal lobes and

13068-480: The reduced effectivity of natural selection . Various studies, using mtDNA analysis, yield varying effective populations, such as about 1,000 to 5,000; 5,000 to 9,000 remaining constant; or 3,000 to 25,000 steadily increasing until 52,000 years ago before declining until extinction. Archaeological evidence suggests that there was a tenfold increase in the modern human population in Western Europe during

13189-770: The river running through it, " Meuse-Inférieure ", meaning simply "lower Maas". Following the Napoleonic Era , the great powers (the United Kingdom , Prussia , the Austrian Empire , the Russian Empire and France ) left the region to the new United Kingdom of the Netherlands in the Congress of Vienna in 1815. A new province was formed which was to receive the name "Maastricht" after its capital. The first king, William I , who did not want

13310-702: The same causes as the co-existing remains of extinct animal species. In 1848, Gibraltar 1 from Forbes' Quarry was presented to the Gibraltar Scientific Society by their Secretary Lieutenant Edmund Henry Réné Flint, but was thought to be a modern human skull. In 1856, local schoolteacher Johann Carl Fuhlrott recognised bones from Kleine Feldhofer Grotte in Neander Valley—Neanderthal 1 (the holotype specimen )—as distinct from modern humans, and gave them to German anthropologist Hermann Schaaffhausen to study in 1857. It comprised

13431-540: The same, about 285  N (64 lbf) and 255 N (57 lbf) in modern human males and females, respectively. The Neanderthal braincase averages 1,640 cm (100 cu in) for males and 1,460 cm (89 cu in) for females, which is significantly larger than the averages for all groups of extant humans; for example, modern European males average 1,362 cm (83.1 cu in) and females 1,201 cm (73.3 cu in). For 28 modern human specimens from 190,000 to 25,000 years ago,

13552-413: The standard English pronunciation of th with the fricative / θ / (as / n i ˈ æ n d ər θ ɔː l / ). The latter pronunciation, nevertheless, has no basis in the original German word which is pronounced always with a t regardless of the historical spelling. Neanderthal 1 , the type specimen , was known as the "Neanderthal cranium" or "Neanderthal skull" in anthropological literature, and

13673-457: The urban agglomerations of Maastricht, Parkstad and Sittard-Geleen. Limburg's name derives from the Belgian fortified town of the same name, Limbourg-sur-Vesdre , now in the nearby Liège Province , immediately south of Limburg. The name of Limbourg-sur-Vesdre was important to the region because it had been the seat of the medieval Duchy of Limburg . There are several proposals concerning

13794-442: The wider lower thorax. It is claimed by some that this feature would be normal for all Homo , even tropically-adapted Homo ergaster or erectus , with the condition of a narrower thorax in most modern humans being a unique characteristic. Body proportions are usually cited as being "hyperarctic" as adaptations to the cold, because they are similar to those of human populations which developed in cold climates —the Neanderthal build

13915-425: Was an unusually high frequency of taurodontism , a condition where the molars are bulkier due to an enlarged pulp (tooth core). Taurodontism was once thought to have been a distinguishing characteristic of Neanderthals which lent some mechanical advantage or stemmed from repetitive use, but was more likely simply a product of genetic drift. The bite force of Neanderthals and modern humans is now thought to be about

14036-572: Was at first almost entirely under Belgian rule. However, by the 1839 Treaty of London , the province was divided in two, with the eastern part going to the Netherlands and the western part to Belgium, a division that remains today. With the Treaty of London, what is now the Belgian Province of Luxembourg was handed over to Belgium and removed from the German Confederation . To appease Prussia, which had also lost access to

14157-431: Was based on natural features such as rivers, in this case Meuse-Inférieure or Neder-Maas ("Lower Meuse"). After the defeat of Napoleon the newly created United Kingdom of the Netherlands desired a new name for this province. It was decided that the historic connection to the duchy of Limburg was to be restored, albeit only in name. The current province Limburg of the Netherlands only came into existence in 1839, after

14278-659: Was born as a son of the count of Gennep. He was the founder of the order of the Premonstratensians . South Limburg in the early Middle Ages was mainly made up of the lordships of Valkenburg  [ de ] , Dalhem , and Herzogenrath . All of these lands were, however, united with the Duchy of Limburg, under the rule of the Duchy of Brabant , when they were known collectively as the Lands of Overmaas  [ nl ; de ] . The Duchy of Limburg and its dependencies first came under Brabantian control in 1288, as

14399-519: Was drained and about 975 a swamp nearby the Roman road between Maastricht and Nijmegen . Bishop Ansfried of Utrecht founded a Benedictine nunnery. This developed from the 12th century into a secular Stift or convent . The principal of the Stift was the abbess . She was assisted by a chapter of at most twenty ladies of the highest nobility . During the period of West Frankish control under

14520-465: Was found. The valley was spelled Neanderthal and the species was spelled Neanderthaler in German until the spelling reform of 1901 . The spelling Neandertal for the species is occasionally seen in English, even in scientific publications, but the scientific name, H. neanderthalensis , is always spelled with th according to the principle of priority . The vernacular name of the species in German

14641-412: Was used as evidence that multiple different and unrelated branches of primitive humans existed, and supported Boule's reconstruction of H. neanderthalensis as a far distant relative and an evolutionary dead-end . He fuelled the popular image of Neanderthals as barbarous, slouching, club-wielding primitives; this image was reproduced for several decades and popularised in science fiction works, such as

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