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75-784: Seven scribes and illuminators, working in the scriptorium built by the crusaders in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem , were involved in the creation of the psalter . It measures 21.6 centimetres by 14 centimetres. This manuscript forms part of the Egerton Collection in the British Library in London. The first twenty-four illustrations, on each side of the first twelve folios , depict scenes from

150-409: A Christian. She suffered martyrdom on 21 January 304, aged 12 or 13. Her high-ranking suitors, slighted by her resolute devotion to religious purity, sought to persecute her for her beliefs. Her father urged her to deny God, but she refused, and she was dragged naked through the streets to a brothel , then tried and sentenced to death. She was eventually beheaded , after attempts for her to be burnt at

225-484: A crusader king, perhaps Fulk. There is a carving of a falcon above him, which is possibly a clue that the king is Fulk, as "falcon" and "Fulk" in Old French were both Fouque . Another bird name, fulica , was possibly also implied here as a pun on the king's name. Underneath the falcon, the word herodius is carved, Latin for gyrfalcon . The artist has not signed in the same way Basilius has. The spine of

300-447: A large number of texts copied. References in modern scholarly writings to 'scriptoria' typically refer to the collective written output of a monastery, somewhat like the chancery in the early regal times is taken to refer to a specific fashion of modelling formulars, but especially traditional is the view that scriptoria was a necessary adjunct to a library, as per the entry in du Cange, 1678 'scriptorium'. At this church whose patron

375-550: A manuscript. The illuminators of manuscripts worked in collaboration with scribes in intricate varieties of interaction that preclude any simple understanding of monastic manuscript production. The products of the monasteries provided a valuable medium of exchange. Comparisons of characteristic regional, periodic as well as contextual styles of handwriting do reveal social and cultural connections among them, as new hands developed and were disseminated by travelling individuals, respectively what these individuals represented, and by

450-467: A monastic scriptorium would be the armarius ("provisioner"), who provided the scribes with their materials and supervised the copying process. However, the armarius had other duties as well. At the beginning of Lent, the armarius was responsible for making sure that all of the monks received books to read, but he also had the ability to deny access to a particular book. By the 10th century the armarius had specific liturgical duties as well, including singing

525-416: A more full understanding of the text. He then continues to praise scribes by saying "The dedicated scribe, the object of our treatise, will never fail to praise God, give pleasure to angels, strengthen the just, convert sinners, commend the humble, confirm the good, confound the proud and rebuke the stubborn". Among the reasons he gives for continuing to copy manuscripts by hand, are the historical precedent of

600-741: A sword, and a palm branch (an attribute of her martyrdom). Her bones are beneath the high altar of the church built over her tomb in Rome. Her skull is preserved in the church of Sant'Agnese in Agone , Rome. According to tradition, Agnes was born in 291 into Roman nobility, and raised as a Christian. She suffered martyrdom on 21 January 304, aged 12 or 13, and during the reign of the Roman emperor Diocletian . A beautiful young girl, Agnes had many suitors who were young men of high rank. Slighted by her resolute devotion to religious purity, they submitted her name to

675-531: A view to discovering their future husbands. This superstition has been immortalised in John Keats 's poem The Eve of Saint Agnes . Since the Middle Ages, Saint Agnes has traditionally been depicted as a young girl with her long hair down, with a lamb, the symbol of both her virginal innocence and her name, and a sword (together with the palm branch an attribute of her martyrdom). The lamb, which

750-434: A week all through the period of study. In turn, each Psalm studied separately would have to be read slowly and prayerfully, then gone through with the text in one hand (or preferably committed to memory) and the commentary in the other; the process of study would have to continue until virtually everything in the commentary has been absorbed by the student and mnemonically keyed to the individual verses of scripture, so that when

825-622: Is agnus in the Latin language, is also the linguistic link to the traditional blessing of lambs. Saint Agnes has been depicted with a lamb since the 4th century. On the feast of Saint Agnes, two lambs are traditionally brought from the Trappist abbey of Tre Fontane in Rome to be blessed by the Pope. In summer, the lambs are shorn, and the wool is used to weave the pallia , which the Pope gives on

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900-745: Is remembered in the Anglican Communion with a Lesser Festival on 21 January. St Agnes is venerated as a saint in the Catholic Church , Oriental Orthodox Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church , as well as the Anglican Communion and Lutheran Churches . Because of the legend around her martyrdom, Saint Agnes is patron saint of those seeking chastity and purity. She is also the patron saint of young girls and girl scouts. Folk custom called for them to practise rituals on Saint Agnes' Eve (20–21 January) with

975-531: Is a virgin martyr , venerated as a saint in the Catholic Church , Oriental Orthodox Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church , as well as the Anglican Communion and Lutheran Churches . She is one of several virgin martyrs commemorated by name in the Canon of the Mass , and one of many Christians martyred during the reign of the Roman emperor Diocletian . Agnes was born in 291 into Roman nobility, and raised as

1050-586: Is also evidence of Jewish women working as scribes of Hebrew texts from the 13th to 16th centuries, though these women primarily worked out of their homes rather than religious institutions, as daughters and wives of scribes. Women were not only the producers of these texts, but could also be the consumers or commissioners of them. There were also women who worked as professional, secular scribes, including Clara Hätzlerin in 15th century Augsburg , who has at least nine surviving manuscripts signed by or attributed to her. Much as medieval libraries do not correspond to

1125-474: Is cheating on them, as a reference to Fulk's attempt to win back Melisende's favor with the gift during her affair with Hugh II of Jaffa . It is called 'The Psalter of Cuckoldry', with a description of the detailing of the ivory front and its turquoise beads to define the object as the Melisende Psalter. Scriptorium A scriptorium ( / s k r ɪ p ˈ t ɔːr i ə m / )

1200-401: Is not a monastic rule as such, Cassiodorus did write his Institutes as a teaching guide for the monks at Vivarium, the monastery he founded on his family's land in southern Italy. A classically educated Roman convert, Cassiodorus wrote extensively on scribal practices. He cautions over-zealous scribes to check their copies against ancient, trustworthy exemplars and to take care not to change

1275-515: Is to read a book in its entirety. Thus each monastery was to have its own extensive collection of books, to be housed either in armarium (book chests) or a more traditional library. However, because the only way to obtain a large quantity of books in the Middle Ages was to copy them, in practice this meant that the monastery had to have a way to transcribe texts in other collections. An alternative translation of Benedict's strict guidelines for

1350-609: The Museum of Fine Arts of Lyon . Its next owner was Guglielmo Libri (b. 1802, d. 1869), who is most famous for stealing medieval manuscripts from French public libraries. He sold it to the London bookdealers Payne and Foss, who sold to the British Museum in November 1845. In the historical grand strategy simulation game, Crusader Kings III , the Melisende Psalter is an object the ruler can collect if their spouse or lover

1425-990: The New Testament . New Testament images were commonly found at the beginning of western psalters, unlike in eastern psalters. In this case, the images depict scenes more common in the Eastern Orthodox liturgy . The scenes depicted are the Annunciation , Visitation , the Nativity , the Adoration of the Magi , the Presentation of Jesus at the Temple , the Baptism of Jesus , the Temptation of Christ ,

1500-553: The Rule of Saint Benedict describe the labor of transcription as the common occupation of the community, so it is also possible that Benedict failed to mention the scriptorium by name because of the integral role it played within the monastery. Monastic life in the Middle Ages was strictly centered around prayer and manual labor. In the early Middle Ages, there were many attempts to set out an organization and routine for monastic life. Montalembert cites one such sixth-century document,

1575-1315: The Transfiguration , the Raising of Lazarus , the triumphal entry into Jerusalem (see illustration), the Last Supper , the Washing of the Feet , the Agony in the Garden , the Betrayal of Judas , the Crucifixion of Jesus , the Descent from the Cross , the Lamentation , the Harrowing of Hell , the Three Marys at the Tomb, and the Deesis . These illustrations were made by an illuminator named Basilius, who signed

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1650-553: The medieval period . Archaeologists identified lapis lazuli , a pigment used in the decoration of medieval illuminated manuscripts , embedded in the dental calculus of remains found in a religious women's community in Germany, which dated to the 11th-12th centuries. Chelles Abbey , established in France during the early medieval period, was also well known for its scriptorium, where nuns produced manuscripts and religious texts. There

1725-483: The 14th to the beginning of the 19th centuries) the monastery was an important centre of culture. The scriptorium of each monastery was a bastion of learning where illuminated manuscripts were being produced by monk-scribes, mostly Serbian liturgical books and Old Serbian Vita. hagiographies of kings and archbishops. Numerous scribes of the Serbian Orthodox Church books—at the term of the 16th and

1800-508: The 6th century under the supervision of Cassiodorus at the Vivarium near Squillace in southern Italy contained a scriptorium, for the purpose of collecting, copying, and preserving texts. Cassiodorus' description of his monastery contained a purpose-built scriptorium, with a sundial , a water-clock , and a "perpetual lamp," that is, one that supplied itself with oil from a reservoir. The scriptorium would also have contained desks where

1875-512: The Evangelist , St. Stephen , St. Nicholas , St. Mary Magdalene , and St. Agnes . The prayers are accompanied by paintings of the saints by a fourth illuminator trained in a Romanesque style. His technique also shows an attempt to incorporate a Byzantine style. There are a few blank and undecorated spaces in this section of the psalter, and it may be incomplete. The ivory covers, decorated with some small turquoise beads, show scenes from

1950-495: The Rule of Saint Ferréol , as prescribing that "He who does not turn up the earth with the plough ought to write the parchment with his fingers." As this implies, the labor required of a scribe was comparable to the exertion of agriculture and other outdoor work. Another of Montalembert's examples is of a scribal note along these lines: "He who does not know how to write imagines it to be no labour, but although these fingers only hold

2025-728: The ancient scribes and the supremacy of transcription to all other manual labor. This description of monastic writing is especially important because it was written after the first printing presses came into popular use. Trithemius addresses the competing technology when he writes, "The printed book is made of paper and, like paper, will quickly disappear. But the scribe working with parchment ensures lasting remembrance for himself and for his text". Trithemius also believes that there are works that are not being printed but are worth being copied. In his comparison of modern and medieval scholarship, James J. O'Donnell describes monastic study in this way: " [E]ach Psalm would have to be recited at least once

2100-493: The architect of the order, cautioned, "Let the brethren take care the books they receive from the cupboard do not get soiled with smoke or dirt; books are as it were the everlasting food of our souls; we wish them to be most carefully kept and most zealously made." After the establishment of Manasija Monastery by Stefan Lazarević in the early 15th century, many educated monks have gathered there. They fostered copying and literary work that by its excellence and production changed

2175-458: The authorities as a follower of Christianity. One of them, a man named Procop, brought Agnes to his father, who was the local governor. He urged Agnes to deny God, but she refused. The Prefect Sempronius condemned Agnes to be dragged naked through the streets to a brothel . In one account, as she prayed, her hair grew and covered her body. It was also said that all of the men who attempted to rape her were immediately struck blind. The son of

2250-625: The beginning of the 18th centuries—who worked in the Rača monastery are named in Serbian literature – "The Račans". . Among the monk-scribes the most renown are the illuminator Hieromonk Hristifor Račanin, Kiprijan Račanin , Jerotej Račanin , Teodor Račanin and Gavril Stefanović Venclović . These are well-known Serbian monks and writers that are the link between literary men and women of the late medieval ( Late Middle Ages ) and Baroque periods in art, architecture and literature in particular. Although it

2325-606: The calendar, which is strikingly similar to psalter calendars produced in England in the same period. It appears to be based on a calendar of St. Swithun's church in Winchester . The calendar is filled with English saint days rather than those more popular in Jerusalem. One name, St. Martin of Tours , a saint popular throughout Europe, is written in gold, for unknown reasons. Three crusader-specific dates are mentioned in

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2400-528: The calendar: the capture of Jerusalem on July 15, the death of Baldwin II on August 21, and the death of his wife Morphia on October 1. Each month has a medallion with a sign of the Zodiac , illustrated in a Romanesque style with heavy Islamic influences. Folios 22-196 contain the Latin psalms written in a northern French script. A third illuminator painted the initial letters of each psalm. Some initials take up

2475-436: The commentaries and letters of early Church Fathers for missionary purposes as well as for use within the monastery. In the copying process, there was typically a division of labor among the monks who readied the parchment for copying by smoothing and chalking the surface, those who ruled the parchment and copied the text, and those who illuminated the text. Sometimes a single monk would engage in all of these stages to prepare

2550-441: The context of Cistercian scriptoria, have been studied by Yolanta Załuska, L'enluminure et le scriptorium de Cîteaux au XIIe siècle (Brecht:Cîteaux) 1989. In Byzantium or Eastern Roman Empire learning maintained importance and numerous monastic 'scriptoria' were known for producing Bible/Gospel illuminations, along with workshops that copied numerous classical and Hellenistic works. Records show that one such monastic community

2625-462: The desirability of scriptoria within a wider body of monastic structures at the beginning of the 9th century. There is evidence that in the late 13th century, the Cistercians would allow certain monks to perform their writing in a small cell "which could not... contain more than one person". These cells were called scriptoria because of the copying done there, even though their primary function

2700-469: The eighth responsory , holding the lantern aloft when the abbot read, and approving all material to be read aloud in church, chapter, and refectory . While at Vivarium c. 540–548, Cassiodorus wrote a commentary on the Psalms entitled Expositio Psalmorum as an introduction to the Psalms for individuals seeking to enter the monastic community. The work had a broad appeal outside of Cassiodorus' monastery as

2775-596: The entire side of a leaf, and are drawn with gold lettering on a purple background. They show influence from Italian and Islamic art , possibly suggesting that the artist was trained in Muslim-influenced southern Italy. The scribe who wrote the psalms also wrote a series of prayers on folios 197–211, dedicated to nine saints: the Virgin Mary , St. Michael , St. John the Baptist , St. Peter , St. John

2850-478: The exalted sketches from Umberto Eco 's The Name of the Rose , it seems that ancient written accounts, as well as surviving buildings, and archaeological excavations do not invariably attest to the evidence of scriptoria. Scriptoria, in the physical sense of a room set aside for the purpose, perhaps mostly existed in response to specific scribal projects; for example, when a monastic (and) or regal institution wished

2925-412: The examples of manuscripts that passed from one cloister to another. Recent studies follow the approach, that scriptoria developed in relative isolation, to the extent that paleographers are sometimes able to identify the product of each writing centre and to date it accordingly. By the start of the 13th century, secular workshops developed, where professional scribes stood at writing-desks to work

3000-497: The feast of Saint Peter and Paul to the newly appointed metropolitan archbishops as a sign of his jurisdiction and their union with the pope. This tradition of the blessing of the lambs has been known since the 16th century. The Congregation of Sisters of St. Agnes is a Catholic religious community for women based in Fond du Lac, Wisconsin , US. It was founded in 1858, by Father Caspar Rehrl, an Austrian missionary, who established

3075-699: The history of the South Slavic literature and languages spreading its influence all over the Orthodox Balkans . One of the most famous scholars of the so-called School of Resava was Constantine the Philosopher /Konstantin Filozof/, an influential writer and biographer of the founder of the school (Stefan Lazarević). During the Turkish invasions of the Serbian lands (which lasted from the end of

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3150-535: The inspired words of scripture because of grammatical or stylistic concerns. He declared "every work of the Lord written by the scribe is a wound inflicted on Satan", for "by reading the Divine Scripture he wholesomely instructs his own mind and by copying the precepts of the Lord he spreads them far and wide". It is important to note that Cassiodorus did include the classical texts of ancient Rome and Greece in

3225-569: The last illustration (pictured above) Basilius me fecit (Latin for "Basilius made me"), and is the only named illuminator or scribe of this manuscript. Nothing is known about Basilius. Because of his Greek name it has been suggested that he was a Byzantine artist. It is also possible that he was a western artist who had been trained in a Greek style, maybe in Constantinople . Or, he may have been an Armenian Catholic , familiar with both Catholic and Orthodox traditions. Folios 13-21 contain

3300-421: The legendary features of the tradition, is given by the 4th-century theologian, Ambrose . The broader social circumstances of her martyrdom are believed to be largely authentic, though the legend cannot be proven true, and many details of the 5th-century Acts of Saint Agnes have been challenged. A church was built over her tomb, and her relics venerated. Agnes was venerated as a saint at least as early as

3375-598: The life of King David and from the Psychomachia of Prudentius on the front side, and another king performing the six works of mercy from the Gospel of Matthew on the back side, both showing influence from Byzantine, Islamic, and western art. The geometric designs on the covers are especially influenced by Islamic art. The king on the back side is dressed in Byzantine imperial clothes , but most likely represents

3450-570: The monastery also assisted the clerical scribes. By the later Middle Ages secular manuscript workshops were common, and many monasteries bought in more books than they produced themselves. When monastic institutions arose in the early sixth century (the first European monastic writing dates from 517), they defined European literary culture and selectively preserved the literary history of the West. Monks copied Jerome's Latin Vulgate Bible and

3525-626: The monastery of Montecassino , developed one of the most influential scriptoria, at its acme in the 11th century, which made the abbey "the greatest center of book production in South Italy in the High Middle Ages". Here was developed and perfected the characteristic "Cassinese" Beneventan script under Abbot Desiderius . The Rule of Saint Benedict does explicitly call for monks to have ready access to books during two hours of compulsory daily reading and during Lent , when each monk

3600-402: The monastic library. This was probably because of his upbringing, but was, nonetheless, unusual for a monastery of the time. When his monks copied these texts, Cassiodorus encouraged them to amend texts for both grammar and style. The more famous monastic treatise of the 7th century, Saint Benedict of Nursia 's Rule , fails to mention the labor of transcription by name, though his institution,

3675-501: The monks could sit and copy texts, as well as the necessary ink wells, penknives, and quills. Cassiodorus also established a library where, at the end of the Roman Empire , he attempted to bring Greek learning to Latin readers and to preserve texts both sacred and secular for future generations. As its unofficial librarian, Cassiodorus collected as many manuscripts as he could, he also wrote treatises aimed at instructing his monks in

3750-420: The oratory as a place for silent, reverent prayer actually hints at the existence of a scriptorium. In Chapter 52 of his Rule, Benedict's warns: "Let the oratory be what it is called, and let nothing else be done or stored there". But condatur translates both as stored and to compose or write, thus leaving the question of Benedict's intentions for manuscript production ambiguous. The earliest commentaries on

3825-486: The orders of customers, and during the Late Middle Ages the praxis of writing was becoming not only confined to being generally a monastic or regal activity. However, the practical consequences of private workshops, and as well the invention of the printing press vis-a-vis monastic scriptoria is a complex theme. There is also evidence that women scribes, in religious or secular contexts, produced texts in

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3900-429: The other hand, it could have been written anytime before Melisende's death in 1161. Palaeographical comparisons to other texts produced in Jerusalem suggest it was written in the 1140s or even 50s, but the later texts may have used the Melisende Psalter as a source. The manuscript was perhaps owned by Grande Chartreuse , Grenoble , in the early 19th century. By about 1840 it was owned by Ambroise Comarmond, director of

3975-490: The pen, the whole body grows weary." An undated Cistercian ordinance, ranging in date from 1119–52 (Załuska 1989) prescribed literae unius coloris et non depictae ("letters of one color and not ornamented"), that spread with varying degrees of literalness in parallel with the Cistercian order itself, through the priories of Burgundy and beyond. In 1134, the Cistercian order declared that the monks were to keep silent in

4050-436: The people for killing her foster-sister. Emerentiana was also later canonized . The daughter of Constantine I , Constantina , was said to have been cured of leprosy after praying at Agnes's tomb. She and Emerentiana appear in the scenes from the life of Agnes on the 14th-century Royal Gold Cup in the British Museum in London. An early account of Agnes' death, stressing her young age, steadfastness and virginity, but not

4125-446: The prefect was struck dead but revived after she prayed for him, causing her release. At the start of Agnes's trial, Sempronius recused himself, and another figure presided. After Agnes was sentenced to death, she was led out and bound to a stake to be burned, but the bundle of wood would not burn, or the flames parted away from her. The officer in charge of the troops drew his sword and beheaded her—or, in other texts, stabbed her in

4200-574: The proper uses of texts. In the end, however, the library at the Vivarium was dispersed and lost, though it was still active around 630. The scriptoria of the Cistercian order seem to have been similar to those of the Benedictines. The mother house at Cîteaux , one of the best-documented high-medieval scriptoria, developed a severe "house style" in the first half of the 12th century. The 12th-century scriptorium of Cîteaux and its products, in

4275-472: The protagonist, the beautiful noblewoman Fabiola. The Eve of St. Agnes is a Romantic narrative poem written by John Keats in 1819. The instrumental song "Saint Agnes and the Burning Train" appears on the 1991 album The Soul Cages by Sting . The song "Bear's Vision of St. Agnes" appears on the 2012 album Ten Stories by rock band mewithoutYou . The St. Agnes Library is a branch of

4350-410: The psalter is decorated with Byzantine silk and silver thread, as well as red, blue, and green Greek crosses , which are found in the royal arms of the kingdom. The spine was stitched by an artisan who was perhaps a westerner trained in a Byzantine style, as his stitching is not as smooth as other examples of Byzantine silk spines made by native Greeks. The exact date of the psalter, and for whom it

4425-404: The routines of the community and served as work for hands and minds otherwise idle, but also produced a marketable end-product. Saint Jerome stated that the products of the scriptorium could be a source of revenue for the monastic community, but Benedict cautioned, "If there be skilled workmen in the monastery, let them work at their art in all humility". In the earliest Benedictine monasteries,

4500-427: The scriptorium as they should in the cloister . Manuscript-writing was a laborious process in an ill-lit environment that could damage one's health. One prior complained in the tenth century: " Only try to do it yourself and you will learn how arduous is the writer's task. It dims your eyes, makes your back ache, and knits your chest and belly together. It is a terrible ordeal for the whole body ". The director of

4575-526: The sisterhood of pioneer women under the patronage of Agnes, to whom he had a particular devotion. The city of Santa Ynez, California is named after her. Hrotsvitha , the 10th-century nun and poet, wrote a heroic poem about Agnes. In the historical novel Fabiola or, the Church of the Catacombs , written by Cardinal Nicholas Wiseman in 1854, Agnes is the soft-spoken teenage cousin and confidant of

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4650-437: The stake failed. A few days after her death, her foster-sister Emerentiana was found praying by her tomb, and was stoned to death . An early account of Agnes, stressing her young age, steadfastness and virginity was written by the 4th-century theologian, St Ambrose . Since the Middle Ages , she has traditionally been depicted as a young girl with her long hair with a lamb (the symbol of her virginal innocence and her name),

4725-411: The subject of monastic study and reflection. Abbot Johannes Trithemius of Sponheim wrote a letter, De Laude Scriptorum (In Praise of Scribes), to Gerlach, Abbot of Deutz in 1492 to describe for monks the merits of copying texts. Trithemius contends that the copying of texts is central to the model of monastic education, arguing that transcription enables the monk to more deeply contemplate and come to

4800-468: The throat. It is said that when her blood poured to the stadium floor, other Christians soaked it up with cloths. Agnes was buried beside the Via Nomentana in Rome. A few days after her death, her foster-sister, Emerentiana , was found praying by the tomb. Emerentiana claimed to be the daughter of Agnes's wet nurse . She was stoned to death after refusing to leave the place and reprimanding

4875-514: The time of St Ambrose, based on an existing homily. She is commemorated in the Depositio Martyrum of Filocalus (354) and in the early Roman Sacramentaries. Saint Agnes' bones are conserved beneath the high altar in the church of Sant'Agnese fuori le mura in Rome, built over the catacomb that housed her tomb. Her skull is preserved in a separate chapel in the church of Sant'Agnese in Agone in Rome's Piazza Navona . Agnes

4950-400: The transcription of texts (since the charter house was rarely heated). The Benedictine Plan of St. Gall is a sketch of an idealised monastery dating from 819–826, which shows the scriptorium and library attached to the northeast corner of the main body of the church; this is not reflected by the evidence of surviving monasteries. Although the purpose of the plan is unknown, it clearly shows

5025-429: The verses are recited again the whole phalanx of Cassiodorian erudition springs up in support of the content of the sacred text ". In this way, the monks of the Middle Ages came to intimately know and experience the texts that they copied. The act of transcription became an act of meditation and prayer, not a simple replication of letters. Saint Agnes Agnes of Rome ( c.  291  – c.   304 )

5100-451: The writing room was actually a corridor open to the central quadrangle of the cloister . The space could accommodate about twelve monks, who were protected from the elements only by the wall behind them and the vaulting above. Monasteries built later in the Middle Ages placed the scriptorium inside, near the heat of the kitchen or next to the calefactory . The warmth of the later scriptoria served as an incentive for unwilling monks to work on

5175-411: Was Galla Placidia (died 450), paired rectangular chambers flanking the apse, accessible only from each aisle, have been interpreted as paired (Latin and Greek) libraries and perhaps scriptoria. The well-lit niches half a meter deep, provisions for hypocausts beneath the floors to keep the spaces dry, have prototypes in the architecture of Roman libraries. The monastery built in the second quarter of

5250-510: Was a writing room in medieval European monasteries for the copying and illuminating of manuscripts by scribes . The term has perhaps been over-used—only some monasteries had special rooms set aside for scribes. Often they worked in the monastery library or in their own rooms. Most medieval images of scribing show single figures in well-appointed studies, although these are generally author portraits of well-known authors or translators. Increasingly, lay scribes and illuminators from outside

5325-474: Was an Armenian of the Greek Orthodox faith. If Melisende was the recipient, then the psalter was most likely commissioned by Fulk, probably around 1135. Prior to this, Fulk and Melisende had been fighting for superiority in the kingdom, and Melisende had allied with rebels against Fulk. By 1134 they had reconciled, and the psalter had to have been written after 1131, the date of Baldwin II's death. On

5400-490: Was made, is unknown, although it is obviously made for a noblewoman of the kingdom, based on the use of Byzantine styles, considered to be aristocratic by the crusaders, the depictions of kings, and the use of feminine word endings in the Latin prayers. Through circumstantial evidence, Queen Melisende can probably be identified as the recipient. The English influence in the calendar and elsewhere likely comes from King Fulk , who

5475-494: Was not as a writing room. The Carthusians viewed copying religious texts as their missionary work to the greater Church ; the strict solitude of the Carthusian order necessitated that the manual labor of the monks be practiced within their individual cells, thus many monks engaged in the transcription of texts. In fact, each cell was equipped as a copy room, with parchment, quill, inkwell, and ruler. Guigues du Pin, or Guigo,

5550-460: Was related to the English royal family by marriage. It is also notable that aside from the capture of Jerusalem, the only crusader-specific dates in the calendar are the deaths of Melisende's parents, King Baldwin II and Queen Morphia . The mixture of Catholic and Orthodox elements in the psalter may reflect Melisende's mixed upbringing. Her father, Baldwin, was Catholic and her mother, Morphia,

5625-436: Was that of Mount Athos , which maintained a variety of illuminated manuscripts and ultimately accumulated over 10,000 books. Cassiodorus' contemporary, Benedict of Nursia , allowed his monks to read the great works of the pagans in the monastery he founded at Monte Cassino in 529. The creation of a library here initiated the tradition of Benedictine scriptoria, where the copying of texts not only provided materials needed in

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