Zhou loyalists
64-670: The periodization of the Shang dynasty is the use of periodization to organize the history of the Shang dynasty (ca. 1600-1046 BC) in ancient China. The Shang dynasty was a Chinese royal dynasty that ruled in the Yellow River valley for over 500 years, traditionally succeeding the Xia dynasty and followed by the Zhou dynasty . According to the conventional narrative of later transmitted texts,
128-591: A "rebirth" in the sense of revival, are the American Renaissance of the 1820s–1860s, referring mainly to literature, and the Harlem Renaissance of the 1920s, referring mainly to literature but also to music and the visual arts. The conception of a 'rebirth' of Classical Latin learning is first credited to the Italian poet Petrarch (1304–1374), the father of Renaissance Humanism , but
192-602: A broader geographical coverage and a growing attention to the relationships between Europe and the wider world. The term Middle Ages also derives from Petrarch . He was comparing his own period to the Ancient or Classical world , seeing his time as a time of rebirth after a dark intermediate period, the Middle Ages. The idea that the Middle Ages was a middle phase between two other large scale periodizing concepts, Ancient and Modern, still persists. It can be subdivided into
256-668: A ruling triumvirate with himself as de facto leader. In the East, however, the Duke of Zhou's takeover caused great resentment among the Three Guards, as Guanshu and Caishu suspected their brother of usurpation. Furthermore, Guanshu was older than Dan, and the traditional line of seniority would have favored him as regent. According to Li Feng , communication in the Western Zhou period would also take forty to sixty days to traverse
320-546: A single or two cities were built. The land redistribution, government reform, and colonization program strengthened and stabilized the Zhou government, while the Duke of Zhou expounded the Mandate of Heaven in response to the rebellion. As a propaganda tool, the Mandate was used to legitimize the new dynasty morally and spiritually. Greatly empowered, the Zhou dynasty entered an era of prosperity and expansion that lasted until it
384-585: A style typical of the High Middle Ages have largely lost the negative connotations they initially had, acquiring new meanings over time (see Gothic architecture and Goth subculture ). The Gothic and the Baroque were both named during subsequent stylistic periods when the preceding style was unpopular. The word "Gothic" was applied as a pejorative term to all things Northern European and, hence, barbarian, probably first by Giorgio Vasari . He coined
448-492: A threat to the central kingdom. The fiefs that were given to members of the royal family were generally placed at strategic points all along the two main geographic axes of north China, the Yellow River and the Taihang Mountains . The "Fengjian enfeoffment system would become the foundation of Zhou rule and the dynasty's crowning achievement". The rebel states of Guan , Yan, Pugu, and Cai were dissolved, though
512-531: Is as early as the development of writing, and can be traced to the Sumerian period . The Sumerian King List , dating to the second millennium BC —and for most parts it is not considered historically accurate—is "periodized" into dynastic regnal eras . The classical division into a Golden Age , Silver Age , Bronze Age , Heroic Age , and Iron Age goes back to Hesiod in the 8th – 7th century BC. One Biblical periodization scheme commonly used in
576-713: Is questionable whether it is useful to describe a phase in economic, social and political history. Many professional historians now refer to the historical periods commonly known as the Renaissance and the Reformation as the start of the Early Modern Period , which extends much later. There is a gradual change in the courses taught and books published to correspond to the change in period nomenclature, which in part reflects differences between social history and cultural history . The new nomenclature suggests
640-808: Is represented by the Erligang culture within the modern Chinese city of Zhengzhou and the Late Shang by the Yinxu assemblages. The other more recent convention of periodization in terms of archaeology is to divide the Shang dynasty into three periods known as Early Shang , Middle Shang , and Late Shang . Although no written evidence has been found, the Erligang culture has been identified as Early Shang (ca. 1600–1400 BC), related to Middle Shang (ca. 1400–1250 BC) and Late Shang (ca. 1250–1046 BC) in Anyang, based on
704-437: Is the process or study of categorizing the past into discrete, quantified, and named blocks of time for the purpose of study or analysis. This is usually done to understand current and historical processes, and the causality that might have linked those events. Periodizations can provide a convenient segmentation of time, wherein events within the period might consist of relatively similar characteristics. However, determining
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#1732779762464768-459: Is to divide the Shang dynasty into eras known as Early Shang and Late Shang . The dividing line between the two periods was in the reign of Pan Geng , who is traditionally said to have moved the capital to Anyang around 1298 BC, 14 years after ascending the throne. Early Shang had 17 kings with a total reign of 304 years (ca. 1600-1298 BC), while Late Shang had 13 kings with a total reign of 255 years (ca. 1298-1046 BC). Archaeologically, Early Shang
832-576: The Book of Documents and the Bamboo Annals , a disgruntled Shang prince named Jizi who had refused to cede power to the Zhou, left China with a small army and founded a state known as Gija Joseon in northwest Korea during the Gojoseon period of ancient Korean history. However, scholars debate the historical accuracy of this legend. Periodization In historiography , periodization
896-921: The English Renaissance is often used for a period largely identical to the Elizabethan Period or reign of Elizabeth I , and begins some 200 years later than the Italian Renaissance . However the Carolingian Renaissance is said to have occurred during the reign of the Frankish king Charlemagne , and his immediate successors, and the Macedonian Renaissance occurred in the Roman Empire . Other examples, neither of which constituted
960-649: The Battle of Muye in ca. 1046 BC, which led to the establishment of the Western Zhou dynasty. Scholars divide the Shang dynasty into periods for convenience, usually relating to the location of the dynasty's capital. The Shang state that is supposed to have existed during the Xia dynasty , before its conquest of the Xia in ca. 1600 BC that led to the establishment of the Shang dynasty, is known as "Predynastic Shang" or "Proto-Shang". The Predynastic Shang started from Xie ,
1024-538: The Early , High and Late Middle Ages . The term Dark Ages is no longer in common use among modern scholars because of the difficulty of using it neutrally, though some writers have attempted to retain it and divest it of its negative connotations. The term "Middle Ages" and especially the adjective medieval can also have a negative ring in colloquial use, but does not carry over into academic terminology. However, other terms, such as Gothic architecture , used to refer to
1088-524: The Huai River region and had little connection to either the Zhou or the Shang, joined the rebel forces. Among them was the state of Xu , which would grow into one of the Zhou dynasty's greatest enemies. Some vassal states in the east remained loyal, however, such as Song under Weizi Qi , and Northern Yan under the Marquis Ke, son of the Duke of Shao. Among the eastern loyalists was also
1152-470: The Wei River valley under King Wen. Following his death, his son King Wu of Zhou defeated the Shang dynasty and conquered the latter's capital of Yin in 1046 BC. The Zhou dynasty supplanted the old Shang rule, but uncertainty and unrest remained. Most of the eastern vassal states remained loyal to the fallen Shang dynasty and resented the new "barbarian" rulers. King Wu recognized this, and appointed
1216-481: The Western Zhou government under the Duke of Zhou 's regency in late 11th century BC. After the fall of the Shang dynasty, King Wu of Zhou had appointed his younger brothers Guanshu, Caishu and Huoshu as the "Three Guards" of the East to secure the newly conquered Shang lands. After his death and his young son King Cheng 's coronation, King Wu's brother Dan, the Duke of Zhou , declared himself regent and took over
1280-774: The ' Victorian Era ', and the ' Porfiriato '). Some of these usages will also be geographically specific. This is especially true of periodizing labels derived from individuals or ruling dynasties, such as the Jacksonian Era in America, the Meiji Era in Japan, or the Merovingian Period in France. Cultural terms may also have a limited reach. Thus the concept of the " Romantic period " is largely meaningless outside
1344-609: The 1865 partitioning of the Stone Age into Palaeolithic , Mesolithic and Neolithic periods by John Lubbock . Some events or short periods of change have such a drastic effect on the cultures they affect that they form a natural break in history. These are often marked by the widespread use of both pre- and post- phrases centered on the event, as in pre-Reformation and post-Reformation , or pre-colonial and post-colonial . Both pre-war and post-war are still understood to refer to World War II , though at some future point
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#17327797624641408-483: The Duke of Zhou personally commanding the conquest of Feng and Pugu. Yan was also attacked by loyalist forces, but managed to hold out. In the war's third year, the Zhou royal army led by King Cheng and the Duke of Zhou conducted a punitive expedition against the Huai peoples and thereupon attacked Yan again, finally defeating it. Overall, Dan's forces brought several peoples of the eastern seaboard under Zhou rule, expanding
1472-603: The Earl of Ge, and possibly fought for the restoration of the Shang dynasty. Nevertheless, such uprisings remained local and weak, so that Shang loyalism never again posed a serious threat to the Zhou dynasty. As the Duke of Zhou was later "revered as paragon of wisdom and humility" and respected as "great example" by Confucius , the revolt against his regency was consequently vilified. The Three Guards were considered as "evil men of old", over whom Duke Dan's virtue had triumphed. This interpretation dominated moralistic renditions of
1536-539: The Middle Ages was Saint Paul 's theological division of history into three ages: the first before the age of Moses (under nature); the second under Mosaic law (under law); the third in the age of Christ (under grace). But perhaps the most widely discussed periodization scheme of the Middle Ages was the Six Ages of the World , written by the early 5th century AD, where every age was a thousand years counting from Adam to
1600-502: The Shang clan, led by their great leader Tang , defeated Jie of the Xia dynasty and founded a new dynasty known as Shang. The Shang moved their capital several times during the existence of the dynasty, eventually settling in a place called Yin, later known in the transmitted texts as Yinxu , located on the outskirts of the modern city of Anyang . It was eventually conquered by the Predynastic Zhou led by King Wu following
1664-600: The Shang dynasty's restoration. Despite this and the proclamation of the Mandate of Heaven which delegitimized the Shang rule, militant Shang loyalism and resistance against the Zhou regime persisted well after the Rebellion of the Three Guards. Around 979 BC, sixty years after the rebellion, war broke out between the Zhou kingdom under King Kang , Chang's successor, and the Guifang of Shanxi and northern Shaanxi . The latter were reportedly supported by Shang diehards under
1728-399: The Shang people. In line with the creation of several new states, a program of rapid colonization was initiated by settling Zhou people and building new cities in the East in order to subjugate the hostile Dongyi and Huaiyi. As result, the Rebellion of the Three Guards began the military conflict between the Zhou dynasty and the independent tribes and states of the East, which would last until
1792-642: The Three Guards Three Guards, separatists and Shang loyalists Dongyi and Huaiyi The Rebellion of the Three Guards ( simplified Chinese : 三监之乱 ; traditional Chinese : 三監之亂 ; pinyin : Sān Jiàn zhī Luàn ), or less commonly the Wu Geng Rebellion ( simplified Chinese : 武庚之乱 ; traditional Chinese : 武庚之亂 ), was a civil war , instigated by an alliance of discontent Zhou princes, Shang loyalists, vassal states and other non-Zhou peoples against
1856-745: The Western world of Europe and European-influenced cultures. Likewise, 'the 1960s', though technically applicable to anywhere in the world according to Common Era numbering, has a certain set of specific cultural connotations in certain countries. For this reason, it may be possible to say such things as "The 1960s never occurred in Spain". This would mean that the sexual revolution , counterculture , youth rebellion and so on never developed during that decade in Spain's conservative Roman Catholic culture and under Francisco Franco 's authoritarian regime. The historian Arthur Marwick mentions that "the 1960s' began in
1920-408: The Zhou dynasty, as it had long fought the Shang for independence. After ordering the eastern lands, King Wu returned west to his capital Fenghao , where he appointed his other brothers, Dan, the Duke of Zhou and Shi, the Duke of Shao , royal chancellor and "Grand Protector", respectively. These two quickly became the two most powerful figures at the court. King Wu died around 1043 BC, leaving
1984-641: The aforementioned Dongyi state of Xue, which had no desire for the restoration of the Shang dynasty. The Records of the Grand Historian reported the existence of two more loyalist states in Shandong at the time, Qi and Lu , but this is not supported by other textual or archaeological sources. After being informed of the revolt, King Cheng allegedly performed turtle shell divination in an attempt to determine whether or not to attack his uncles. The oracles regarding such an attack were auspicious, but
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2048-458: The authority of Zhou kingdom into East China , transforming it into an empire using the new Fengjian system. Edward L. Shaughnessy called the rebellion "a succession crisis that has come to be seen as defining moment not only for the Western Zhou dynasty but for the entire history of Chinese statecraft". In 1059 BC, an extremely rare planetary conjunction occurred as Mercury , Venus , Mars , Jupiter , and Saturn were visible in
2112-465: The civil war for centuries. Despite the generally negative view towards the rebels, there have been scholars who attempted a reassessment of the Three Guards. Ji Kang , a famous author of the Three Kingdoms period, wrote an essay about Guanshu and Caishu, in which he argued that the rebellious brothers had "sincere reasons to doubt the wisdom" of Duke Dan's regency. As a Cao loyalist he linked
2176-518: The conception of a rebirth has been in common use since Petrarch's time. The dominant usage of the word Renaissance refers to the cultural changes that occurred in Italy that culminated in the High Renaissance around 1500–1530. This concept applies dominantly to the visual arts, and the work of Michelangelo , Raphael , and Leonardo da Vinci . Secondarily it is applied to other arts, but it
2240-503: The court. This aroused the anger of the Three Guards who suspected Dan of usurpation and believed that they should serve as regents. The Three Guards allied with many separatist eastern nobles, Shang loyalists under Prince Wu Geng , and several Dongyi and Huaiyi ( 淮夷 ) states in rebellion. The Duke of Zhou then launched a second "eastern campaign" to put down the rebellion, and defeated the rebels in three years, killing or disempowering their leaders. In doing so, he also further expanded
2304-418: The difficult mountain roads in western Henan , causing "a problem of miscommunication and therefore mistrust between the Zhou commanders stationed on the eastern plain and the new leadership in the capital." In 1042 BC, the second year of the Duke of Zhou's regency, Guanshu and Caishu finally instigated Wu Geng and his followers to rise in rebellion. The two rebellious brothers quickly convinced Huoshu of
2368-669: The distant prehistoric past is to rely on changes in material culture and technology, such as the Stone Age , Bronze Age and Iron Age and their sub-divisions also based on different styles of material remains. Despite the development over recent decades of the ability through radiocarbon dating and other scientific methods to give actual dates for many sites or artefacts, these long-established schemes seem likely to remain in use. In many cases neighbouring cultures with writing have left some history of cultures without it, which may be used. The system further underwent subdivisions, including
2432-650: The exit of the Ying River valley connecting with the Luoyang plain and right at the entrance to the Nanyang Basin , controlling the road to the middle Yangtze region". Furthermore, the rebels were able to gain several external allies. Led by the states of Pugu and Yan , powerful Shang sympathizers, most of the Dongyi polities of Shandong rallied to the rebel cause. Even some Huaiyi tribes, which controlled
2496-413: The fall of the Western Zhou in 771 BC. The Duke of Zhou also recognized that the kingdom was too large to be ruled from the western court at Fenghao, so that he decided that "the construction of an eastern administrative center seemed inevitable if [the Zhou kings] were to maintain their rule in the east". The second capital (Chengzhou/ Wangcheng ) was located near Luoyang, though it is still unclear if
2560-426: The fighting, as the government needed not only much time to mobilize its forces, but also at least two months to move them out of the Wei River valley and deploy them on the eastern plain. As result, the rebels remained largely unchallenged for almost a year. After the long preparations, however, the dukes of Zhou and Shao finally launched the second "eastern campaign" to put down the rebellion. Bronze inscriptions of
2624-716: The first known Shang ancestor, and lasted until Tang defeated the Xia dynasty in the Battle of Mingtiao . Xie is said to have helped Yu the Great , the founder of the Xia dynasty, to control the Great Flood and for his service to have been granted a place called Shang as a fief. During the period of the 14 predynastic Shang rulers before Tang, the capital had changed eight times. For the Shang dynasty from ca. 1600 BC to 1046 BC, there are commonly two main ways of periodization for its history, including dividing it to 2 phases or 3 phases. A common convention in terms of historiography
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2688-405: The king's advisors all urged him to disregard them in the face of the difficulty of an offensive and the unrest among the people. The king acknowledged this difficulty and disquietude, but refused to go against the apparent will of Heaven . The Duke of Zhou, eager to regain the east, probably supported the king's decision. At first, the remaining loyalist states in the East had to bear the bulk of
2752-440: The kingdom greatly. Following the rebellion, the Duke of Zhou established the new Fengjian system in order to consolidate the Zhou rule and to stabilize the kingdom. The vassal states of the Zhou kingdom were reorganized: Two thirds of the states were bestowed to members of the royal family and families loyal to them, while members of the house of Shang and their allies were transferred to distant fiefs where they could not pose
2816-418: The last Shang king Di Xin 's son Wu Geng as the deputy ruler of the east. He hoped that by doing so, the Zhou could rule the eastern lands through a Shang prince. Still wary of possible revolts against his rule, King Wu left his three brothers Guanshu Xian , Caishu Du , and Huoshu Chu ( 霍叔處 [ zh ] ) as the "Three Overseers" of the newly conquered lands and ordered them to watch over Wu Geng and
2880-537: The last Shang king deputy ruler of the East, in the old Shang capital as a vassal kingdom of the Zhou dynasty. To ensure Wu Geng's loyalty, three of King Wu's brothers (known as the Three Guards) were sent to watch over the Shang prince, and the newly conquered Eastern lands. Nevertheless, Shang royalists under Wu Geng joined the Rebellion of the Three Guards against the Duke of Zhou after King Wu's death, but
2944-519: The late 1950s and ended in the early 1970s". This was because the cultural and economic conditions that define the meaning of the period covers more than the accidental fact of a 10-year block beginning with the number 6. This extended usage is termed the 'long 1960s'. This usage derives from other historians who have adopted labels such as " the long 19th century " (1789–1914) to reconcile arbitrary decimal chronology with meaningful cultural and social phases. Eric Hobsbawm has also argued for what he calls "
3008-434: The latter was later revived. The territories of Yan and Pugu were annexed into the newly founded states of Lu and Qi, respectively. The Shang royal domain at Yin was dismantled and integrated into Wey, which was given to Kangshu Feng, a loyalist uncle of King Cheng. Meanwhile, Weizi Qi, who was Wu Geng's uncle but had remained loyal throughout the revolt, was enfeoffed with the state of Song , an ancient cultural center of
3072-416: The northwestern sky over northern China, grouped closely together. This was taken by the Zhou people as sign of great importance, showcasing that their ruler had been granted the " Mandate of Heaven ". Declaring himself king, Wen of Zhou broke away from his previous overlords, the Shang dynasty, and launched a war for dominance over China. The Zhou consolidated the territories surrounding their homeland in
3136-467: The other eastern nobles. But not only the states of the Central Plain wanted to restore the Shang dynasty. Many Dongyi tribes and states of Shandong were "Shang strongholds" with strong cultural and political ties to the fallen regime, as they had served as the late dynasty's allies and vassals for over two centuries. Among them, only the state of Xue in southern Shandong welcomed the rise of
3200-520: The phrases will need to be altered to make that clear. Several major periods historians may use are: Although post-classical is synonymous with the Middle Ages of Western Europe, the term post-classical is not necessarily a member of the traditional tripartite periodization of Western European history into 'classical', 'middle' and 'modern'. Some popularized periodizations using the terms long or short by historians are: Rebellion of
3264-423: The power should remain with the royal family to prevent usurpation. Possibly as result of this debate, the Duke of Zhou finally retired from court politics in 1036 BC, returning the official power to King Cheng and leaving the Duke of Shao as the most powerful man in the kingdom. At the same time, the failure of Wu Geng's rebellion and the following dismantlement of the Shang state ended any realistic chances for
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#17327797624643328-443: The precise beginning and ending of any 'period' is often arbitrary, since it has changed over time and over the course of history. Systems of periodization are more or less arbitrary, yet it provides a framework to help us understand them. Periodizing labels are continually challenged and redefined, but once established, period "brands" are so convenient that many are hard to change. The practice of dividing history into ages or periods
3392-559: The present, with the present time (in the Middle Ages) being the sixth and final age. Periodizing blocks might overlap, conflict or contradict one another. Some have a cultural usage (the " Gilded Age "), others refer to prominent historical events ('the Interwar period ), while others are defined by decimal numbering systems ('the 1960s', 'the 17th century'). Other periods are named from influential individuals (the ' Napoleonic Era ',
3456-479: The rebellion collapsed after three years, leaving Zhou in control of Shang territory. Members of the Shang clans were transferred to the distant lands to ensure the stability of the Zhou rule. With the support of the Duke of Zhou, King Cheng of Zhou enfeoffed Weizi , a half-brother of the last Shang king, as the Duke of Song , and the dukes of Song would maintain rites honouring the Shang kings until Qi conquered Song in 286 BC. Also, according to chronicles such as
3520-423: The rightfulness of their cause, uniting the Three Guards against the Duke of Zhou. They and the Shang loyalists were soon joined by many independent-minded nobles, especially from the southeast. Large swaths of the Zhou dynasty's eastern realm rose against the official government at Fenghao, including some states that controlled crucial passes and routes. The rebel state of Ying , for example, "was located near
3584-543: The second half of the 13th century BC instead of Pen Geng, spanning the reigns of the last 9 kings of the Shang dynasty. The period from Wu Ding (the earliest figure in Chinese history mentioned in contemporary records) to the end of the dynasty was the earliest known literate civilization in China. With the conquest of the Shang dynasty in ca. 1046 BC, King Wu , the first king of the Zhou dynasty , appointed Wu Geng , son of
3648-568: The short twentieth century ", encompassing the period from the First World War through to the end of the Cold War . Periodizing terms often have negative or positive connotations that may affect their usage. This includes Victorian , which often negatively suggests sexual repression and class conflict. Other labels such as Renaissance have strongly positive characteristics. As a result, these terms sometimes extend in meaning. Thus
3712-443: The similarity of the material remains. These periods are alternatively referred to as the "Erligang period", the " Xiaoshuangqiao - Huanbei period", and the " Anyang period " respectively. According to this convention, Middle Shang was a phase that is called by archaeologists a transition period after the Erligang period, and was the least well-known phase among the three. Also, in this convention Late Shang might begin with Wu Ding in
3776-466: The term "Gothic" in an effort to describe (particularly architecture) what he found objectionable. The word baroque —derived from similar words in Portuguese, Spanish, or French—literally refers to an irregular or misshapen pearl. Its first use outside the field of jewellery manufacture was in the early 18th century, as a criticism of music that was viewed as over-complicated and rough. Later, the term
3840-463: The throne to his eldest son, Song, to be known as King Cheng of Zhou. The Duke of Zhou, however, claimed that King Cheng was too young to rule, which was probably untrue. Either way, he declared himself regent for Cheng and took over the court. Despite some initial criticism, Dan managed to win over the most important court members, and firmly established his position at the capital. Together with his half-brother Duke of Shao and King Cheng, he formed
3904-432: The time suggest that King Cheng himself participated in the counter-insurgency campaign as commander, further disproving the later claim that he was a child at the time. Aided by the military strategists Lü Shang , the loyalists exterminated the Shang loyalists in the second year of the rebellion after hard fighting that saw the complete destruction of Yin and the death of Prince Wu Geng . The Three Guards' main force
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#17327797624643968-438: Was also defeated, and Guanshu Xian and Huoshu Chu were captured, while Caishu Du fled into exile or was banished. Guanshu was executed and Huoshu stripped of his titles and demoted to a commoner. Despite his victory, the Duke of Zhou pressed on and further campaigned against the eastern rebel allies that were located beyond the Zhou kingdom's borders. Shortly after the Three Guards' defeat, the loyalists advanced into Shandong, with
4032-433: Was also used to describe architecture and art. The Baroque period was first designated as such in the 19th century, and is generally considered to have begun around 1600 in all media. Music history places the end of the period in the year 1750 with the death of J. S. Bach , while art historians consider the main period to have ended significantly earlier in most areas. In archeology , the usual method for periodization of
4096-423: Was severely weakened by the war with Chu 961–957 BC. The triumvirate of Duke Dan of Zhou, King Cheng, and Duke Shi of Shao continued to rule the Zhou kingdom for three more years after the civil war. Eventually, however, Dan and his half-brother Shi fell out about the right form of government. Duke Dan, his own position as royal chancellor and regent in mind, opted for a meritocracy , while Duke Shi believed that
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