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105-486: The United States, France and the United Kingdom are nuclear-weapon states , while Germany and Italy are part of the nuclear weapons sharing program . The idea of a trilateral axis on foreign policy issues was proposed by French President Charles de Gaulle to his British and American counterparts (see Fouchet Plan ). However, that plan was never implemented. Meetings with that goal took place around 1980 between

210-604: A great power . It tested its first hydrogen bomb in 1957 ( Operation Grapple ), making it the third country to do so after the United States and Soviet Union. The British Armed Forces maintained a fleet of V bomber strategic bombers and ballistic missile submarines (SSBNs) equipped with nuclear weapons during the Cold War. The Royal Navy currently maintains a fleet of four Vanguard -class ballistic missile submarines equipped with Trident II missiles . In 2016,

315-422: A decision. Some countries are known to have delegated launch authority to military personnel in the event that the usual launch authority is incapacitated; whether or not the 'pre-delegated' authority exists at any particular time is kept secret. In the United States, some military commanders have been delegated authority to launch nuclear weapons "when the urgency of time and circumstances clearly does not permit

420-466: A different meaning with the development of the principle of self-determination and the prohibition against the threat or use of force as jus cogens norms of modern international law . The United Nations Charter , the Draft Declaration on Rights and Duties of States , and the charters of regional international organizations express the view that all states are juridically equal and enjoy

525-616: A full-scale invasion , with limited responses by the other signatories. Up until the 1990s the US had stationed nuclear weapons outside of its territories and sharing countries. During the Cold War , specifically during the presidency of Ferdinand Marcos from 1965 to 1986, American nuclear warheads were secretly stockpiled in the Philippines . Taiwan was developing capacities to construct nuclear weapons up until 1988. Before 1974,

630-508: A legal basis in domestic law for the purposes of the Convention". On 9 October 2014, the US's Federal Court stated that "the TRNC purportedly operates as a democratic republic with a president, prime minister, legislature and judiciary". On 2 September 2015, ECtHR decided that "...the court system set up in the "TRNC" was to be considered to have been "established by law" with reference to

735-537: A low-powered thermonuclear detonation; NORSAR estimates the yield at 250 kilotons of TNT. In 2018, North Korea announced a halt in nuclear weapons tests and made a conditional commitment to denuclearisation of the Korean Peninsula ; however, in December 2019, it indicated it no longer considered itself bound by the moratorium. Kim Jong Un officially declared North Korea a nuclear weapons state during

840-491: A more powerful neighbour; Belarus, in its relationship with Russia, has been proposed as a contemporary example of a semi-sovereign state. In a somewhat different sense, the term semi-sovereign was famously applied to West Germany by political scientist Peter Katzenstein in his 1987 book Policy and Politics in West Germany: The Growth of a Semi-sovereign State, due to having a political system in which

945-410: A new entity, but other states do not. Hersch Lauterpacht, one of the theory's main proponents, suggested that a state must grant recognition as a possible solution. However, a state may use any criteria when judging if they should give recognition and they have no obligation to use such criteria. Many states may only recognise another state if it is to their advantage. In 1912, L. F. L. Oppenheim said

1050-686: A nuclear explosive before 1 January 1967 and are thus nuclear weapons states under the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons . They also happen to be the UN Security Council 's (UNSC) permanent members with veto power on UNSC resolutions. The United States developed the first nuclear weapons during World War II in cooperation with the United Kingdom and Canada as part of the Manhattan Project , out of

1155-515: A nuclear explosive device. The US had further said it is not its intention to assist India in the design, construction or operation of sensitive nuclear technologies through the transfer of dual-use items. In establishing an exemption for India, the Nuclear Suppliers Group reserved the right to consult on any future issues which might trouble it. As of June 2024, India was estimated to have a stockpile of 172 warheads. Pakistan

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1260-671: A nuclear weapon. It tested its first megaton-range hydrogen bomb (" RDS-37 ") in 1955. The Soviet Union also tested the most powerful explosive ever detonated by humans, (" Tsar Bomba "), with a theoretical yield of 100 megatons, reduced to 50 when detonated. After its dissolution in 1991, the Soviet weapons entered officially into the possession of its successor state , the Russian Federation. The Soviet nuclear arsenal contained some 45,000 warheads at its peak (in 1986), more than any other nation had possessed at any point in history;

1365-527: A nuclear weapons program or arsenal. This policy of "nuclear opacity" has been interpreted as an attempt to get the benefits of deterrence with a minimal political cost. Due to a US ban on funding countries that have weapons of mass destruction , Israel would lose around $ 2 billion a year in military and other aid from the US if it admitted to possessing nuclear weapons. According to the Natural Resources Defense Council and

1470-785: A series of steps that included India's announced plan to separate its civil and military nuclear programs in March 2006, the passage of the India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement by the US Congress in December 2006, the conclusion of a US–India nuclear cooperation agreement in July 2007, approval by the IAEA of an India-specific safeguards agreement, agreement by the Nuclear Suppliers Group to

1575-544: A single year. Israel is generally understood to have been the sixth country to develop nuclear weapons, but does not acknowledge it. It had "rudimentary, but deliverable," nuclear weapons available as early as 1966. Israel is not a party to the NPT. Israel engages in strategic ambiguity , saying it would not be the first country to "introduce" nuclear weapons to the Middle East without confirming or denying that it has

1680-538: A specific decision by the President." Russia has a semi automated Dead Hand system which may allow military commanders to act based on certain pre-defined criteria. British nuclear-armed submarine commanders are issued with " letters of last resort " written by the Prime Minister containing secret instructions which may or may not give them delegated launch authority. Under NATO nuclear weapons sharing ,

1785-532: A speech on 9 September 2022, the country's foundation day . According to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) , North Korea's military nuclear programme remains central to its national security strategy and it may have assembled up to 30 nuclear weapons and could produce more. North Korea conducted more than 90 ballistic missile tests during 2022, the highest number it has ever undertaken in

1890-416: A state to recognise other states. Recognition is often withheld when a new state is seen as illegitimate or has come about in breach of international law. Almost universal non-recognition by the international community of Rhodesia and Northern Cyprus are good examples of this, the former only having been recognized by South Africa, and the latter only recognized by Turkey. In the case of Rhodesia, recognition

1995-443: A state was defined by having a territory, a population, government, and capacity to enter into relations with other states. The Montevideo Convention criteria do not automatically create a state because additional requirements must be met. While they play an important role, they do not determine the status of a country in all cases, such as Kosovo , Rhodesia , and Somaliland . In practice international relations take into account

2100-409: A third test with still-higher yield on 12 February 2013 (see 2013 North Korean nuclear test ). North Korea claimed to have conducted its first hydrogen-bomb test on 5 January 2016, though measurements of seismic disturbances indicate that the detonation was not consistent with a hydrogen bomb. On 3 September 2017, North Korea detonated a device , which caused a magnitude 6.1 tremor, consistent with

2205-577: A waiver of export restrictions for India, approval by the US Congress and culminating in the signature of US–India agreement for civil nuclear cooperation in October 2008. The US State Department said it made it "very clear that we will not recognize India as a nuclear-weapon state". The United States is bound by the Hyde Act with India and may cease all cooperation with India if India detonates

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2310-415: A withdrawal on 10 January 2003, after the United States accused it of having a secret uranium enrichment program and cut off energy assistance under the 1994 Agreed Framework . In February 2005, North Korea claimed to possess functional nuclear weapons, though their lack of a test at the time led many experts to doubt the claim. In October 2006, North Korea stated that, in response to growing intimidation by

2415-574: Is deterrence with minimum political friction. States that formerly possessed nuclear weapons are South Africa (developed nuclear weapons but then disassembled its arsenal before joining the NPT) and the former Soviet republics of Belarus , Kazakhstan , and Ukraine , whose weapons were transferred to Russia. According to the Federation of American Scientists there are approximately 3,880 active nuclear warheads and 12,119 total nuclear warheads in

2520-558: Is a list of states that have acknowledged the possession of nuclear weapons or are presumed to possess them, the approximate number of warheads under their control, and the year they tested their first weapon and their force configuration. This list is informally known in global politics as the "Nuclear Club". With the exception of Russia and the United States (which have subjected their nuclear forces to independent verification under various treaties) these figures are estimates, in some cases quite unreliable estimates. In particular, under

2625-655: Is also not a party to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. Pakistan covertly developed nuclear weapons over decades, beginning in the late 1970s. Pakistan first delved into nuclear power after the establishment of its first nuclear power plant near Karachi with equipment and materials supplied mainly by western nations in the early 1970s. Pakistani Prime Minister Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto promised in 1971 that if India could build nuclear weapons then Pakistan would too, according to him: "We will develop Nuclear stockpiles, even if we have to eat grass." It

2730-665: Is always restricted to a single person or small group of people. The United States and France require their respective presidents to approve the use of nuclear weapons. In the US, the Presidential Emergency Satchel is always handled by a nearby aide unless the President is near a command center. The decision rests with the Prime Minister in the United Kingdom . Information from China

2835-529: Is believed that Pakistan has possessed nuclear weapons since the mid-1980s. The United States continued to certify that Pakistan did not possess such weapons until 1990, when sanctions were imposed under the Pressler Amendment , requiring a cutoff of US economic and military assistance to Pakistan. In 1998, Pakistan conducted its first six nuclear tests at the Ras Koh Hills in response to

2940-471: Is binding on all the members of the community of nations on the criteria for statehood. Some argue that the criteria are mainly political, not legal. L.C. Green cited the recognition of the unborn Polish and Czechoslovak states in World War I and explained that "since recognition of statehood is a matter of discretion, it is open to any existing State to accept as a state any entity it wishes, regardless of

3045-458: Is commonly considered to be such a state. Outlining the concept of a de facto state for EurasiaNet in early 2024, Laurence Broers wrote: De facto states can be understood as a product of the very system that excludes the possibility of their existence: the post-Second World War and post-colonial system of sovereign and equal states covering every centimeter of the globe. The hegemony of this system, at least until recent years,

3150-475: Is contested or where it is not exercised over their whole area. Currently, the international community includes more than 200 sovereign states, most of which are represented in the United Nations . These states exist in a system of international relations, where each state takes into account the policies of other states by making its own calculations. From this point of view, States are integrated into

3255-506: Is more controversial than that of sovereignty. It is an indisputable fact that this conception, from the moment when it was introduced into political science until the present day, has never had a meaning, which was universally agreed upon." In the opinion of H. V. Evatt of the High Court of Australia , "sovereignty is neither a question of fact, nor a question of law, but a question that does not arise at all". Sovereignty has taken on

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3360-470: Is most commonly conceptualised as something categorical, which is either present or absent, and the coherence of any intermediate position in that binary has been questioned, especially in the context of international law. In spite of this, some authors admit the concept of a semi-sovereign state , a state which is officially acknowledged as sovereign but whose theoretical sovereignty is significantly impaired in practice, such as by being de facto subjected to

3465-433: Is recognised as sovereign by at least one other state. This theory of recognition was developed in the 19th century. Under it, a state was sovereign if another sovereign state recognised it as such. Because of this, new states could not immediately become part of the international community or be bound by international law, and recognised nations did not have to respect international law in their dealings with them. In 1815, at

3570-467: Is the concept of nation-state sovereignty based on territoriality and the absence of a role for external agents in domestic structures. It is an international system of states, multinational corporations , and organizations that began with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. Sovereignty is a term that is frequently misused. Up until the 19th century, the radicalised concept of a "standard of civilization"

3675-867: Is unclear, but "the launch of nuclear weapons is commonly believed to rest with the Central Military Commission of the Chinese Communist Party ." Russia grants such power to the President but may also require approval from the Minister of Defence and the Chief of the General Staff . The Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces has authority in North Korea . India, Pakistan and Israel have committees for such

3780-414: Is usually required to have a permanent population, defined territory, a government not under another, and the capacity to interact with other sovereign states . In actual practice, recognition or non-recognition by other states plays an important role in determining the status of a country. Unrecognized states often have difficulty engaging in diplomatic relations with other sovereign states. Since

3885-607: Is what created the possibility of a de facto state as an anomaly existing outside of it - or in Alexander Iskandaryan 's memorable phrase, as "temporary technical errors within the system of international law." The Soviet and Yugoslav collapses resulted in the emergence of numerous such entities, several of which, including Abkhazia, Transdniester, South Ossetia and the NKR , survived in the margins of international relations for decades despite non-recognition. Sovereignty

3990-568: The Congress of Vienna , the Final Act recognised only 39 sovereign states in the European diplomatic system, and as a result, it was firmly established that in the future new states would have to be recognised by other states, and that meant in practice recognition by one or more of the great powers . One of the major criticisms of this law is the confusion caused when some states recognise

4095-670: The Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO), the Organization of Turkic States (OTS), the Parliamentary Assembly of Turkic States (TURKPA) , etc.). Most sovereign states are both de jure and de facto (i.e., they exist both according to law and in practice). However, states which are only de jure are sometimes recognised as being the legitimate government of a territory over which they have no actual control. For example, during

4200-533: The Federation of American Scientists , Israel likely possesses around 80–400 nuclear weapons. The Stockholm International Peace Research Institute estimates that Israel has approximately 80 intact nuclear weapons, of which 50 are for delivery by Jericho II medium-range ballistic missiles and 30 are gravity bombs for delivery by aircraft. SIPRI also reports that there was renewed speculation in 2012 that Israel may also have developed nuclear-capable submarine-launched cruise missiles . On 7 November 2023, during

4305-531: The Israel–Hamas war , Heritage Minister Amihai Eliyahu said during a radio interview that a nuclear strike would be "one way" to deal with Gaza , which commentators and diplomats interpreted as a tacit admission that Israel possesses such a capability. His remarks were criticized by the United States and Russia, and Eliyahu was subsequently suspended from the Israeli cabinet. The decision to use nuclear weapons

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4410-643: The Lop Nur test site. The weapon was developed as a deterrent against both the United States and the Soviet Union. Two years later, China had a fission bomb capable of being put onto a nuclear missile . It tested its first hydrogen bomb (" Test No. 6 ") in 1967, 32 months after testing its first nuclear weapon (the shortest fission-to-fusion development known in history). China is the only NPT nuclear-weapon state to give an unqualified negative security assurance with its " no first use " policy. China acceded to

4515-567: The Non-Aligned Movement have called on all countries to "refrain from nuclear sharing for military purposes under any kind of security arrangements." The Institute of Strategic Studies Islamabad (ISSI) has criticized the arrangement for allegedly violating Articles I and II of the NPT, arguing that "these Articles do not permit the NWS to delegate the control of their nuclear weapons directly or indirectly to others." NATO has argued that

4620-629: The Second World War , governments-in-exile of several states continued to enjoy diplomatic relations with the Allies , notwithstanding that their countries were under occupation by Axis powers . Other entities may have de facto control over a territory but lack international recognition; these may be considered by the international community to be only de facto states. They are considered de jure states only according to their own law and by states that recognise them. For example, Somaliland

4725-500: The Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty thousands of Russian and US nuclear warheads are inactive in stockpiles awaiting processing. The fissile material contained in the warheads can then be recycled for use in nuclear reactors . From a high of 70,300 active weapons in 1986, as of 2024 there are approximately 3,880 active nuclear warheads and 12,119 total nuclear warheads in the world. Many of

4830-456: The Syrian case, they have joint statements and meetings as in the case of Lebanon . This article about foreign relations is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Nuclear-weapon states Eight sovereign states have publicly announced successful detonation of nuclear weapons . Five are considered to be nuclear-weapon states ( NWS ) under the terms of

4935-559: The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT). In order of acquisition of nuclear weapons, these are the United States , Russia (the successor of the former Soviet Union ), the United Kingdom , France , and China . Of these, the three NATO members, the United Kingdom, the United States, and France, are sometimes termed the P3. Other states that possess nuclear weapons are India , Pakistan , and North Korea . Since

5040-654: The UK House of Commons voted to renew the British nuclear weapons system with the Dreadnought -class submarine , without setting a date for the commencement of service of a replacement to the current system. France tested its first nuclear weapon in 1960 (" Gerboise Bleue "), based mostly on its own research. It was motivated by the Suez Crisis diplomatic tension in relation to both the Soviet Union and its allies,

5145-441: The declarative theory of statehood defines a state as a person in international law if it meets the following criteria: 1) a defined territory; 2) a permanent population; 3) a government and 4) a capacity to enter into relations with other states. According to declarative theory, an entity's statehood is independent of its recognition by other states, as long as the sovereignty was not gained by military force. The declarative model

5250-517: The "constitutional and legal basis" on which it operated, and it has not accepted the allegation that the "TRNC" courts as a whole lacked independence and/or impartiality". On 3 February 2017, The United Kingdom's High Court stated "There was no duty in the United Kingdom law upon the Government to refrain from recognizing Northern Cyprus. The United Nations itself works with Northern Cyprus law enforcement agencies and facilitates co-operation between

5355-669: The "double flash" incident. South Africa acceded to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in 1991. In connection with their accession to the NPT, all three countries received assurances that their sovereignty, independence, and territorial integrity would be respected, as stated in the Budapest Memorandum on Security Assurances . These assurances have been flouted by Russia since the Russo-Ukrainian War began in 2014, during which Russia claimed to annex Crimea , occupied Eastern Ukraine , and in 2022, launched

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5460-542: The 1980s, but dismantled them in the early 1990s. In 1979, there was a detection of a putative covert nuclear test in the Indian Ocean , called the Vela incident . It has long been speculated that it was a test by Israel, in collaboration with and with the support of South Africa, though this has never been confirmed. South Africa could not have constructed such a nuclear bomb by itself until November 1979, two months after

5565-800: The Chinese had more than 500 operational nuclear warheads as of May 2023, and it was on track to posess 1,000 nuclear weapons by the year 2030. India is not a party to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty . Indian officials rejected the NPT in the 1960s on the grounds that it created a world of nuclear "haves" and "have-nots", arguing that it unnecessarily restricted "peaceful activity" (including "peaceful nuclear explosives"), and that India would not accede to international control of their nuclear facilities unless all other countries engaged in unilateral disarmament of their own nuclear weapons. The Indian position has also asserted that

5670-420: The Cold War, the United States built more nuclear weapons than all other nations at approximately 70,000 warheads. The Soviet Union tested its first nuclear weapon (" RDS-1 ") in 1949. This crash project was developed partially with information obtained via the atomic spies at the United States' Manhattan Project during and after World War II. The Soviet Union was the second nation to have developed and tested

5775-514: The NPT entered into force in 1970, these three states were not parties to the Treaty and have conducted overt nuclear tests . North Korea had been a party to the NPT but withdrew in 2003. Israel is also generally understood to have nuclear weapons , but does not acknowledge it, maintaining a policy of deliberate ambiguity . Israel is estimated to possess somewhere between 75 and 400 nuclear warheads. One possible motivation for nuclear ambiguity

5880-672: The NPT is in many ways a neo-colonial regime designed to deny security to post-colonial powers. The country tested what is called a " peaceful nuclear explosive " in 1974 (which became known as " Smiling Buddha "). The test was the first test developed after the creation of the NPT, and created new questions about how civilian nuclear technology could be diverted secretly to weapons purposes ( dual-use technology ). India's secret development caused great concern and anger particularly from nations that had supplied its nuclear reactors for peaceful and power generating needs, such as Canada. After its 1974 test, India maintained that its nuclear capability

5985-428: The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in 1992. As of 2016, China fielded SLBMs onboard its JL-2 submarines. As of February 2024, China had an estimated total inventory of approximately 500 warheads. According to Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) , China is in the middle of a significant modernization and expansion of its nuclear arsenal. Its nuclear stockpile is expected to continue growing over

6090-678: The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in 1992. In January 2006, President Jacques Chirac stated a terrorist act or the use of weapons of mass destruction against France would result in a nuclear counterattack. In February 2015, President François Hollande stressed the need for a nuclear deterrent in "a dangerous world". He also detailed the French deterrent as "fewer than 300" nuclear warheads, three sets of 16 submarine-launched ballistic missiles and 54 medium-range air-to-surface missiles and urged other states to show similar transparency. China tested its first nuclear weapon device (" 596 ") in 1964 at

6195-620: The Soviet Union left several former Soviet republics in physical possession of nuclear weapons, although not operational control which was dependent on Russian-controlled electronic Permissive Action Links and the Russian command and control system. Of these, Kazakhstan and Ukraine continue to have neither their own nuclear weapons nor another state's nuclear weapons stationed in their territory whereas Belarus does again claim to have Russian-owned nuclear weapons stationed on its territory since 2023. South Africa produced six nuclear weapons in

6300-456: The Soviet Union built about 55,000 nuclear warheads since 1949. The United Kingdom tested its first nuclear weapon (" Hurricane ") in 1952. The UK had provided considerable impetus and initial research for the early conception of the atomic bomb, aided by Austrian, German and Polish physicists working at British universities who had either fled or decided not to return to Nazi Germany or Nazi-controlled territories. The UK collaborated closely with

6405-572: The US GDP in 1945 and equivalent to about $ 32.5   billion today. The United States was the first nation to develop the hydrogen bomb , testing an experimental prototype in 1952 (" Ivy Mike ") and a deployable weapon in 1954 (" Castle Bravo "). Throughout the Cold War it continued to modernize and enlarge its nuclear arsenal, but from 1992 on has been involved primarily in a program of stockpile stewardship . The US nuclear arsenal contained 31,175 warheads at its Cold War height (in 1966). During

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6510-494: The United States and Canada during the Manhattan Project, but had to develop its own method for manufacturing and detonating a bomb as US secrecy grew after 1945. The United Kingdom was the third country in the world, after the United States and the Soviet Union, to develop and test a nuclear weapon. Its programme was motivated to have an independent deterrent against the Soviet Union, while also maintaining its status as

6615-744: The United States and United Kingdom. It was also relevant to retain great power status, alongside the United Kingdom, during the post-colonial Cold War (see: Force de frappe ). France tested its first hydrogen bomb in 1968 (" Opération Canopus "). After the Cold War, France has disarmed 175 warheads with the reduction and modernization of its arsenal that has now evolved to a dual system based on submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs) and medium-range air-to-surface missiles ( Rafale fighter-bombers). However, new nuclear weapons are in development and reformed nuclear squadrons were trained during Enduring Freedom operations in Afghanistan . France acceded to

6720-491: The United States has provided nuclear weapons for Belgium, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, and Turkey to deploy and store. This involves pilots and other staff of the "non-nuclear" NATO states practicing, handling, and delivering the US nuclear bombs, and adapting non-US warplanes to deliver US nuclear bombs. However, since all US nuclear weapons are protected with Permissive Action Links , the host states cannot easily arm

6825-459: The United States maintained around 100 nuclear weapons in Europe, as reflected in the accompanying table. Since June 2023 , the leaders of Russia and Belarus have claimed that a "number of" nuclear weapons are located on Belarusian territory while remaining in Russian possession. Sources hostile to these countries have confirmed that nuclear warheads have been delivered to Belarus, but claim that

6930-474: The United States stationed some of its arsenal in Taiwan. Sovereign state A sovereign state is a state that has the supreme sovereignty or ultimate authority over a territory . It is commonly understood that a sovereign state is independent . When referring to a specific polity , the term " country " may also refer to a constituent country, or a dependent territory . A sovereign state

7035-428: The United States, it would conduct a nuclear test to confirm its nuclear status. North Korea reported a successful nuclear test on 9 October 2006 (see 2006 North Korean nuclear test ). Most US intelligence officials believed that the test was probably only partially successful with a yield of less than a kiloton. North Korea conducted a second, higher-yield test on 25 May 2009 (see 2009 North Korean nuclear test ) and

7140-497: The apprehension that Nazi Germany would develop them first. It tested the first nuclear weapon on 16 July 1945 (" Trinity ") at 5:30 am, and remains the only country to have used nuclear weapons in war, having bombed the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in the closing stages of World War II. The project expenditure through 1 October 1945 was reportedly $ 1.845–$ 2   billion, in nominal terms, roughly 0.8 percent of

7245-517: The attribute of every nation". Absolute sovereign immunity is no longer as widely accepted as it has been in the past, and some countries, including the United States, Canada, Singapore, Australia, Pakistan and South Africa, have introduced restrictive immunity by statute, which explicitly limits jurisdictional immunity to public acts, but not private or commercial ones, though there is no precise definition by which public acts can easily be distinguished from private ones. State recognition signifies

7350-635: The bombs without authorization codes from the US Department of Defense . Former Italian President Francesco Cossiga acknowledged the presence of US nuclear weapons in Italy. US nuclear weapons were also deployed in Canada as well as Greece from 1963. However, the United States withdrew three of the four nuclear-capable weapons systems from Canada by 1972, the fourth by 1984, and all nuclear-capable weapons systems from Greece by 2001. As of April 2019 ,

7455-487: The coming decade and some projections suggest that it will deploy at least as many intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) as either Russia or the US in that period. However, China's overall nuclear warhead stockpile is still expected to remain smaller than that of either of those states. The Yearbook published by SIPRI in 2023 revealed that China's nuclear warheads stockpile increased by 17% in 2022, reaching 410 warheads. US Department of Defense officials estimate that

7560-551: The community that has the intention to inhabit the territory permanently and is capable to support the superstructure of the State, though there is no requirement of a minimum population. The government must be capable of exercising effective control over a territory and population (the requirement known in legal theory as "effective control test") and guarantee the protection of basic human rights by legal methods and policies. The "capacity to enter into relations with other states" reflects

7665-476: The concept of " government-in-exile " is predicated upon that distinction. States are non-physical juridical entities, not organisations of any kind. However, ordinarily, only the government of a state can obligate or bind the state, for example by treaty. Generally speaking, states are durable entities, though they can become extinguished, either through voluntary means or outside forces, such as military conquest. Violent state abolition has virtually ceased since

7770-453: The decision of a sovereign state to treat another entity as also being a sovereign state. Recognition can be either expressed or implied and is usually retroactive in its effects. It does not necessarily signify a desire to establish or maintain diplomatic relations. There are debates over whether states can exist as a fact independent of recognition or whether recognition is one of the facts necessary to bring states into being. No definition

7875-498: The decommissioned weapons were simply stored or partially dismantled, not destroyed. Additionally, since the dawn of the Atomic Age , the delivery methods of most states with nuclear weapons have evolved—with four acquiring a nuclear triad , while others have consolidated away from land and air deterrents to submarine-based forces. Percentage of global nuclear warheads by country These five states are known to have detonated

7980-404: The effect of recognition and non-recognition. It is the act of recognition that affirms whether a country meets the requirements for statehood and is now subject to international law in the same way that other sovereign states are. State practice relating to the recognition of states typically falls somewhere between the declaratory and constitutive approaches. International law does not require

8085-553: The end of World War II. Because states are non-physical juridical entities, it has been argued that their extinction cannot be due to physical force alone. Instead, the physical actions of the military must be associated with the correct social or judiciary actions for a state to be abolished. The ontological status of the state has been a subject of debate, especially, whether or not the state, being an object that no one can see, taste, touch, or otherwise detect, actually exists. It has been argued that one potential reason as to why

8190-654: The end of the 19th century, almost the entire globe has been divided into sections (countries) with more or less defined borders assigned to different states. Previously, quite large plots of land were either unclaimed or deserted, or inhabited by nomadic peoples that were not organized into states. However, even in modern states, there are large remote areas, such as the Amazon's tropical forests , that are either uninhabited or inhabited exclusively or mainly by indigenous people (and some of them are still not in constant contact). Additionally, there are states where de facto control

8295-665: The entity's degree of independence. Article 3 of the Montevideo Convention declares that political statehood is independent of recognition by other states, and the state is not prohibited from defending itself. A similar opinion about "the conditions on which an entity constitutes a state" is expressed by the European Economic Community Opinions of the Badinter Arbitration Committee , which found that

8400-447: The existence of states has been controversial is because states do not have a place in the traditional Platonist duality of the concrete and the abstract. Characteristically, concrete objects are those that have a position in time and space, which states do not have (though their territories have a spatial position, states are distinct from their territories), and abstract objects have a position in neither time nor space, which does not fit

8505-438: The existence of territory or of an established government." International lawyer Hersch Lauterpacht states that recognition is not merely a formality but an active interpretation in support of any facts. Once made however it cannot be arbitrarily revoked on account of another state's own discretion or internal politics. The constitutive theory of statehood defines a state as a person of international law if, and only if, it

8610-551: The first transfers were instead made in August 2023. Russia's stated intention is to provide Belarus with two delivery systems: dual-capable Iskander-M missile systems and necessary training and modifications for Belarusian Su-25 aircraft to carry nuclear weapons. The deployment of Russian weapons to Belarus was framed by Russian President Vladimir Putin as being equivalent to the deployments of American nuclear weapons to NATO Allies in Europe under international law. Members of

8715-619: The five tests conducted by India a few weeks before. In 2004, the Pakistani metallurgist Abdul Qadeer Khan , a key figure in Pakistan's nuclear weapons program, confessed to heading an international black market ring involved in selling nuclear weapons technology. In particular, Khan had been selling gas centrifuge technology to North Korea, Iran, and Libya. Khan denied complicity by the Pakistani government or Army, but this has been called into question by journalists and IAEA officials, and

8820-464: The following, regarding constitutive theory: International Law does not say that a State is not in existence as long as it is not recognised, but it takes no notice of it before its recognition. Through recognition only and exclusively a State becomes an International Person and a subject of International Law. Recognition or non-recognition by other states can override declarative theory criteria in cases such as Kosovo and Somaliland . By contrast,

8925-769: The foreign ministers of these three countries and West Germany, although they were largely symbolic and led to no real decision. The Quint in its current form seems to have begun as the Contact Group excluding Russia. Nowadays, Quint leaders discuss all major international topics participating in video conferences or meeting one another in various forums such as NATO, the OSCE , the G20 and the UN . The Quint meets also at ministerial and experts' level. Quint countries along with Russia and China participate together in global discussions as in

9030-506: The frames of a certain territory, that is its supremacy in the domestic policy and independence in the foreign one. Named after the 1648 Treaty of Westphalia, the Westphalian System of state sovereignty, according to Bryan Turner, "made a more or less clear separation between religion and state, and recognized the right of princes "to confessionalize" the state, that is, to determine the religious affiliation of their kingdoms on

9135-487: The international system has surged. Some research suggests that the existence of international and regional organisations, the greater availability of economic aid, and greater acceptance of the norm of self-determination have increased the desire of political units to secede and can be credited for the increase in the number of states in the international system. Harvard economist Alberto Alesina and Tufts economist Enrico Spolaore argue in their book, Size of Nations, that

9240-478: The international system of special internal and external security and legitimization of the dilemma. Recently, the concept of the international community has been formed to refer to a group of States that have established rules, procedures and institutions for the implementation of relations. Thus, the foundation for international law , diplomacy between officially recognized sovereign states, their organizations and formal regimes has been laid. Westphalian sovereignty

9345-566: The jurisprudence has developed along the lines of affording immunity from prosecution to foreign states in domestic courts. In The Schooner Exchange v. M'Faddon , Chief Justice John Marshall of the United States Supreme Court wrote that the "perfect equality and absolute independence of sovereigns" has created a class of cases where "every sovereign is understood to waive the exercise of a part of that complete exclusive territorial jurisdiction, which has been stated to be

9450-421: The ontological state of the state is. Realists believe that the world is one of only states and interstate relations and the identity of the state is defined before any international relations with other states. On the other hand, pluralists believe that the state is not the only actor in international relations and interactions between states and the state is competing against many other actors. Another theory of

9555-464: The ontology of the state is that the state is a spiritual, or "mystical entity" with its own being, distinct from the members of the state. The German Idealist philosopher Georg Hegel (1770–1831) was perhaps the greatest proponent of this theory. The Hegelian definition of the state is "the Divine Idea as it exists on Earth". Since the end of World War II, the number of sovereign states in

9660-469: The pragmatic principle of cuius regio eius religio [ whose realm, his religion ]." Before 1900, sovereign states enjoyed absolute immunity from the judicial process, derived from the concepts of sovereignty and the Westphalian equality of states . First articulated by Jean Bodin , the powers of the state are considered to be suprema potestas within territorial boundaries. Based on this,

9765-489: The recognition of a country is a political issue. On 2 July 2013, The European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) decided that "notwithstanding the lack of international recognition of the regime in the northern area, a de facto recognition of its acts may be rendered necessary for practical purposes. Thus the adoption by the authorities of the "TRNC" of civil, administrative or criminal law measures, and their application or enforcement within that territory, may be regarded as having

9870-402: The role of documents in understanding all of social reality. Quasi-abstract objects, such as states, can be brought into being through document acts, and can also be used to manipulate them, such as by binding them by treaty or surrendering them as the result of a war. Scholars in international relations can be broken up into two different practices, realists and pluralists, of what they believe

9975-430: The same rights and duties based upon the mere fact of their existence as persons under international law. The right of nations to determine their own political status and exercise permanent sovereignty within the limits of their territorial jurisdictions is widely recognized. In political science, sovereignty is usually defined as the most essential attribute of the state in the form of its complete self-sufficiency in

10080-514: The sovereignty of the state was subject to limitations both internal (West Germany's federal system and the role of civil society) and external (membership in the European Community and reliance on its alliance with the United States and NATO for its national security). Although the terms "state" and "government" are often used interchangeably, international law distinguishes between a non-physical state and its government; and in fact,

10185-407: The supposed characteristics of states either, since states do have a temporal position (they can be created at certain times and then become extinct at a future time). Therefore, it has been argued that states belong to a third category, the quasi-abstract, that has recently begun to garner philosophical attention, especially in the area of Documentality , an ontological theory that seeks to understand

10290-710: The two parts of the island". and revealed that the co-operation between the United Kingdom police and law agencies in Northern Cyprus is legal. Turkish Cypriots gained "observer status" in the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (PACE) , and their representatives are elected in the Assembly of Northern Cyprus. As a country, Northern Cyprus became an observer member in various international organizations (the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC),

10395-424: The weapons' sharing is compliant with the NPT because "the US nuclear weapons based in Europe are in the sole possession and under constant and complete custody and control of the United States." Nuclear weapons have been present in many nations, often as staging grounds under control of other powers. However, in only one instance has a nation given up nuclear weapons after being in full control of them. The fall of

10500-424: The world as of 2024. The Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) estimated in 2023 that the total number of nuclear warheads acquired by nuclear states reached 12,512. Approximately 9,576 are kept with military stockpiles. About 3,844 warheads are deployed with missiles. 2,000 warheads, which are primarily from Russia and the United States, are maintained for high operational alerts. The following

10605-441: Was expressed in the 1933 Montevideo Convention . A "territory" in the international law context consists of land territory, internal waters, territorial sea, and air space above the territory. There is no requirement on strictly delimited borders or minimum size of the land, but artificial installations and uninhabitable territories cannot be considered as territories sufficient for statehood. The term "permanent population" defines

10710-484: Was later contradicted by statements from Khan himself. As of early 2013, Pakistan was estimated to have had a stockpile of around 140 warheads, and in November 2014 it was projected that by 2020 Pakistan would have enough fissile material for 200 warheads. As of 2024, SIPRI estimated that Pakistan had a stockpile of around 170 warheads. North Korea was a party to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, but announced

10815-537: Was primarily "peaceful", but between 1988 and 1990 it apparently weaponized two dozen nuclear weapons for delivery by air. In 1998 India tested weaponized nuclear warheads (" Operation Shakti "), including a thermonuclear device . India adopted a " no first use " policy in 1998. In July 2005, US President George W. Bush and Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh announced a civil nuclear cooperation initiative that included plans to conclude an Indo-US civilian nuclear agreement . This initiative came to fruition through

10920-403: Was routinely deployed to determine that certain people in the world were "uncivilized", and lacking organised societies. That position was reflected and constituted in the notion that their "sovereignty" was either completely lacking or at least of an inferior character when compared to that of the "civilized" people". Lassa Oppenheim said, "There exists perhaps no conception the meaning of which

11025-517: Was widely withheld when the white minority seized power and attempted to form a state along the lines of Apartheid South Africa , a move that the United Nations Security Council described as the creation of an "illegal racist minority régime". In the case of Northern Cyprus, recognition was withheld from a state created in Northern Cyprus. International law contains no prohibition on declarations of independence, and

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