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156-595: According to the principle, every state, no matter how large or small, has an equal right to sovereignty. Political scientists have traced the concept to the eponymous peace treaties which ended the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) and Eighty Years' War (1568–1648). The principle of non-interference was then further developed in the 18th century. The Westphalian system reached its peak in the 19th and 20th centuries, but it has faced recent challenges from advocates of humanitarian intervention . A series of treaties made up

312-492: A "nation", which leads to different types of nationalism . The two main divergent forms are ethnic nationalism and civic nationalism . Beginning in the late 18th century, particularly with the French Revolution and the spread of the principle of popular sovereignty or self determination , the idea that "the people" should rule is developed by political theorists. Three main theories have been used to explain

468-488: A European conflict. The period from 1618 to 1635 was primarily a civil war within the Holy Roman Empire, with support from external powers. After 1635 , the empire became one theatre in a wider struggle between France , chiefly supported by Sweden, and Emperor Ferdinand III , whose principal ally was Spain. Fighting ended with the 1648 Peace of Westphalia , the terms of which included greater autonomy within

624-698: A betrayal of the Protestant cause. However, Spanish chief minister Olivares correctly interpreted them as an invitation to open negotiations, and in return for an Anglo-Spanish alliance offered to restore Frederick to his Rhineland possessions. Since Frederick's demand for full restitution of his lands and titles was incompatible with the Treaty of Munich, hopes of a negotiated peace quickly evaporated. Despite defeat in Bohemia, Frederick's allies included Georg Friedrich of Baden and Christian of Brunswick , while

780-580: A cause of both World Wars. The terminological use of "nations", "sovereignty" and associated concepts were significantly refined with the writing by Hugo Grotius of De jure belli ac pacis in the early 17th century. Living in the times of the Eighty Years' War between Spain and the Netherlands and the Thirty Years' War between Catholic and Protestant European nations, Grotius was deeply concerned with matters of conflicts between nations in

936-526: A forum for discussion, rather than legislation. Although, in theory, emperors were elected, the position had been held by the House of Habsburg since 1440. The largest single landowner within the Holy Roman Empire, they controlled lands containing over eight million subjects, including Austria , Bohemia and Hungary . The Habsburgs also ruled the Spanish Empire until 1556, when Charles V divided

1092-534: A historical constant. The nationalization process accelerated in the 19th century, in parallel to the origin of Spanish nationalism , the social, political and ideological movement that tried to shape a Spanish national identity based on the Castilian model, in conflict with the other historical nations of the State. Politicians of the time were aware that despite the aggressive policies pursued up to that time,

1248-401: A lack of democracy may foreshadow future humanitarian crises, or that democracy itself constitutes a human right, and therefore states not respecting democratic principles open themselves up to just war by other countries. However, proponents of this theory have been accused of being concerned about democracy, human rights and humanitarian crises only in countries where American global dominance

1404-717: A legally elected ruler, regardless of religion. Although Frederick accepted the crown and entered Prague in October 1619, his support eroded over the next few months. In July 1620, the Protestant Union proclaimed its neutrality, while John George of Saxony backed Ferdinand in return for the cession of Lusatia , and a guarantee of Lutheran rights in Bohemia. Maximilian of Bavaria funded a combined Imperial-Catholic League army led by Count Tilly and Charles of Bucquoy , which pacified Upper and Lower Austria and occupied western Bohemia before marching on Prague. Defeated by Tilly at

1560-470: A major role in stimulating nationalism and the demands for national unity. English historian J. P. T. Bury argues: Between 1830 and 1870 nationalism had thus made great strides. It inspired great literature, quickened scholarship, and nurtured heroes. It had shown its power both to unify and to divide. It had led to great achievements of political construction and consolidation in Germany and Italy; but it

1716-776: A mercenary army under Ernst von Mansfeld was sent to support the Bohemian rebels. Attempts by Maximilian and John George of Saxony to broker a negotiated solution ended when Matthias died in March 1619, since many believed the loss of his authority and influence had fatally damaged the Habsburgs. By mid-June 1619, the Bohemian army under Thurn was outside Vienna and although Mansfeld's defeat by Imperial forces at Sablat forced him to return to Prague, Ferdinand's position continued to worsen. Gabriel Bethlen , Calvinist Prince of Transylvania , invaded Hungary with Ottoman support, although

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1872-491: A new mythology and symbolism, to legitimate and ground human thought and action". He discusses the simultaneous concept of 'historicism' to describe an emerging belief in the birth, growth, and decay of specific peoples and cultures, which became "increasingly attractive as a framework for inquiry into the past and present and [...] an explanatory principle in elucidating the meaning of events, past and present". The Prussian scholar Johann Gottfried Herder (1744–1803) originated

2028-592: A nominally Christian Europe. Nationalism in France gained early expressions in France's revolutionary government. In 1793, that government declared a mass conscription ( levée en masse ) with a call to service: Henceforth, until the enemies have been driven from the territory of the Republic, all the French are in permanent requisition for army service. The young men shall go to battle; the married men shall forge arms in

2184-488: A practical accommodation to reality, not a unique moral insight. It relied on a system of independent states refraining from interference in each other's domestic affairs and checking each other's ambitions through a general equilibrium of power. No single claim to truth or universal rule had prevailed in Europe's contests. Instead, each state was assigned the attribute of sovereign power over its territory. Each would acknowledge

2340-688: A result of Napoleon's resistance failure in Spain. They served to determine new leadership and, in colonies like Caracas, abolished the slave trade as well as the Indian tribute. The division exploded between Spaniards who were born in Spain (called "peninsulares") versus those of Spanish descent born in New Spain (called "criollos" in Spanish or " creoles " in English). The two groups wrestled for power, with

2496-526: A return to the position prevailing pre-1627, while Protestants wanted that of 1618. Made overconfident by success, in March 1629 Ferdinand passed an Edict of Restitution , which required all lands taken from the Catholic church after 1555 to be returned. While technically legal, politically it was extremely unwise, since doing so would alter nearly every single state boundary in North and Central Germany, deny

2652-405: A series of highly successful short wars against Denmark, Austria and France which thrilled the pan-German nationalists in the smaller German states. They fought in his wars and eagerly joined the new German Empire, which Bismarck ran as a force for balance and peace in Europe after 1871. In the 19th century, German nationalism was promoted by Hegelian-oriented academic historians who saw Prussia as

2808-507: A shorthand for the basic legal principles underlying the modern state system. The applicability and relevance of these principles have been questioned since the mid-20th century onward from a variety of viewpoints. Much of the debate has turned on the ideas of internationalism and globalization , which some say conflicts with the Doctrine of the two swords ideal of self-sovereignty. The origins of Westphalian sovereignty have been traced in

2964-463: Is a newer word; in the English language, dating to around 1798. The term gained wider prominence in the 19th century. The term increasingly became negative in its connotations after 1914. Glenda Sluga notes that "The twentieth century, a time of profound disillusionment with nationalism, was also the great age of globalism ." Academics define nationalism as a political principle that holds that

3120-464: Is central to Italian nationalism but it was based in the liberal middle classes and ultimately proved a bit weak. The new government treated the newly annexed South as a kind of underdeveloped province due to its "backward" and poverty-stricken society, its poor grasp of standard Italian (as Italo-Dalmatian dialects of Neapolitan and Sicilian were prevalent in the common use) and its local traditions. The liberals had always been strong opponents of

3276-488: Is challenged, while ignoring the same issues in other countries friendlier to the United States. Further criticism of Westphalian sovereignty arises regarding allegedly failed states , of which Afghanistan (before the 2001 US-led invasion ) has been often considered an example. By this view, it has been argued that no sovereignty exists and that international intervention is justified on humanitarian grounds and by

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3432-537: Is often cited by scholars as a prominent example of ancient Jewish nationalism. Adrian Hastings argued that Jews are the "true proto-nation", that through the model of ancient Israel found in the Hebrew Bible , provided the world with the original concept of nationhood which later influenced Christian nations. Anthony D. Smith wrote that the Jews of the late Second Temple period provide "a closer approximation to

3588-422: Is often motivated by economic or geo-political factors. Extreme revanchist ideologues often represent a hawkish stance, suggesting that their desired objectives can be achieved through the positive outcome of another war. It is linked with irredentism, the conception that a part of the cultural and ethnic nation remains "unredeemed" outside the borders of its appropriate nation state. Revanchist politics often rely on

3744-435: Is seen as positive or negative depending on its ideology and outcomes. Nationalism has been a feature of movements for freedom and justice, has been associated with cultural revivals, and encourages pride in national achievements. It has also been used to legitimize racial, ethnic, and religious divisions, suppress or attack minorities, undermine human rights and democratic traditions, and start wars, being frequently cited as

3900-712: Is substantially a myth... Rather than a strict enshrining of the principle of noninterference, Westphalia legitimized "power sharing and joint sovereignty" by giving the new powers France and Sweden the right to interfere in the affairs of the German Protestant princes (p. 117). Thirty Years%27 War The Thirty Years' War , from 1618 to 1648, was one of the most destructive conflicts in European history . Fought primarily in Central Europe , an estimated 4.5 to 8 million soldiers and civilians died from

4056-603: Is taken as axiomatic . In 1998, at a Symposium on the Continuing Political Relevance of the Peace of Westphalia, NATO Secretary-General Javier Solana said that "humanity and democracy [were] two principles essentially irrelevant to the original Westphalian order" and levelled a criticism that "the Westphalian system had its limits. For one, the principle of sovereignty it relied on also produced

4212-427: Is the only rightful source of political power. It further aims to build and maintain a single national identity , based on a combination of shared social characteristics such as culture , ethnicity , geographic location , language , politics (or the government ), religion , traditions and belief in a shared singular history , and to promote national unity or solidarity . There are various definitions of

4368-410: Is usually inextricably involved in revanchism and irredentism, justifying them in the eyes of their proponents. The Dreyfus Affair in France 1894–1906 made the battle against treason and disloyalty a central theme for conservative Catholic French nationalists. Dreyfus, a Jew, was an outsider, that is in the views of intense nationalists, not a true Frenchman, not one to be trusted, not one to be given

4524-688: The American Declaration of Independence or with the French Revolution , though there is ongoing debate about its existence in varying forms during the Middle Ages and even antiquity. Tom Garvin wrote that "something strangely like modern nationalism is documented for many peoples in medieval times and in classical times as well," citing the ancient Jews , the classical Greeks and the Gaulish and British Celts as examples. The Great Jewish Revolt against Roman rule (66–73 CE)

4680-632: The Battle of White Mountain in November 1620, the Bohemian army disintegrated, and Frederick was forced to flee the country. By abandoning Frederick, the German princes hoped to restrict the dispute to Bohemia, but Maximilian's dynastic ambitions made this impossible. In the October 1619 Treaty of Munich , Ferdinand transferred the Palatinate's electoral vote to Bavaria, and allowed Maximilian to annex

4836-590: The Bohemian Revolt in May 1618. Ferdinand once claimed he would rather see his lands destroyed than tolerate heresy within them. Less than 18 months after taking control of Styria in 1595, he had eliminated Protestantism in what had been a stronghold of the Reformation . Absorbed by their war in the Netherlands, his Spanish relatives preferred to avoid antagonising Protestants elsewhere. They recognised

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4992-506: The Catholic Church since Passau. These agreements were undermined by the post-1555 expansion of Protestantism into areas previously designated as Catholic. Another factor was the growth of Protestant faiths not recognised by Augsburg, especially Calvinism , which was viewed with hostility by both Lutherans and Catholics. The Peace of Augsburg also gave individual rulers within the empire greater political autonomy and control over

5148-637: The Count-Duke of Olivares and the absolutism of Philip V , the assimilation of the Crown of Aragon by the Castilian Crown through the Decrees of Nova planta was the first step in the creation of the Spanish nation-state. As in other contemporary European states, political union was the first step in the creation of the Spanish nation-state, in this case not on a uniform ethnic basis, but through

5304-572: The Elbe and Weser rivers. Ferdinand had paid Albrecht von Wallenstein for his support against Frederick with estates confiscated from the Bohemian rebels, and now contracted with him to conquer the north on a similar basis. In May 1625, the Lower Saxony kreis elected Christian their military commander, although not without resistance; Saxony and Brandenburg viewed Denmark and Sweden as competitors, and wanted to avoid either becoming involved in

5460-423: The French Revolution (1789) is seen as an important starting point, not only for its impact on French nationalism but even more for its impact on Germans and Italians and on European intellectuals. The template of nationalism, as a method for mobilizing public opinion around a new state based on popular sovereignty, went back further than 1789: philosophers such as Rousseau and Voltaire , whose ideas influenced

5616-836: The Heilbronn League in April 1633. In July, their combined forces defeated an Imperial army under Bronckhorst-Gronsfeld at Oldendorf . Critics claimed this defeat was caused by Wallenstein's failure to support the Bavarians, while rumours spread that he was preparing to switch sides. As a result, Emperor Ferdinand ordered his arrest in February 1634, and on 25th, he was assassinated by his own officers in Cheb. The loss of Wallenstein and his organisation left Emperor Ferdinand reliant on Spain for military support. Since their main concern

5772-558: The Holy Roman Empire . The 1555 Peace of Augsburg attempted to resolve this by dividing the Empire into Catholic and Lutheran states, but over the next 50 years the expansion of Protestantism beyond these boundaries destabilised the settlement. However, while differences over religion and Imperial authority were important factors in causing the war, some contemporary commentators suggest its scope and extent were driven by

5928-481: The Holy Roman Empire . The 1555 Peace of Augsburg tried to prevent their recurrence by fixing boundaries between the two faiths, using the principle of cuius regio, eius religio . This designated individual states as either Lutheran , then the most usual form of Protestantism, or Catholic, based on the religion of their ruler. Other provisions protected substantial religious minorities in cities like Donauwörth , and confirmed Lutheran ownership of property taken from

6084-558: The Holy Roman Empire . The then-emerging Reformation had undermined this as Protestant-controlled states were less willing to respect the "supra authority" of both the Catholic Church and the Catholic Habsburg -led Emperor. Recent scholarship has argued that the titular Westphalian treaties in 1648 actually had little to do with the principles with which they are often associated: sovereignty, non-intervention, and

6240-594: The Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 ) were seen by some as examples of humanitarian intervention, although their basis in international law is debatable. Other more recent interventions, and their attendant infringements of state sovereignty, also have prompted debates about their legality and motivations. A new notion of contingent sovereignty seems to be emerging, but it has not yet reached the point of international legitimacy. Neoconservatism in particular has developed this line of thinking further, asserting that

6396-682: The Low Countries , Northern Italy , and present-day France. These ranged in size and importance from the seven prince-electors who voted for the Holy Roman Emperor , down to prince-bishoprics and Imperial cities like Hamburg . Each also belonged to a regional grouping or " Imperial circle ", which primarily focused on defence and operated as autonomous bodies. Above all of these was the Imperial Diet , which only assembled on an irregular basis, and then largely served as

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6552-523: The North , South , and along the Pyrenees . Since many foreign rulers were also Imperial princes, divisions within the empire drew in external powers like Christian IV of Denmark , who joined the war in 1625 as Duke of Holstein-Gottorp . Disputes occasionally resulted in full-scale conflict like the 1583 to 1588 Cologne War , caused when its ruler converted to Calvinism. More common were events such as

6708-559: The Peace of Westphalia , which has been considered by political scientists to be the beginning of the modern international system, in which external powers should avoid interfering in another country's domestic affairs. The backdrop of this was the previously held idea that Europe was supposed to be under the umbrella of a single Christian protectorate or empire; governed spiritually by the Pope, and temporally by one rightful emperor, such as that of

6864-711: The Philippines , and much of the Americas . In contrast, Austria was a land-based power, focused on ensuring their pre-eminence within Germany and securing their eastern border against the Ottoman Empire . Before Augsburg, unity of religion compensated for lack of strong central authority; once removed, it presented opportunities for those who sought to further weaken it. These included ambitious Imperial states like Lutheran Saxony and Catholic Bavaria , as well as France, confronted by Habsburg lands on its borders to

7020-654: The Roman Catholic Diocese of Halberstadt in early 1625. As Duke of Holstein, Christian IV was also a member of the Lower Saxon circle, while the Danish economy relied on the Baltic trade and tolls from traffic through the Øresund . In 1621, Hamburg accepted Danish "supervision", while his son Frederick became joint-administrator of Lübeck , Bremen , and Verden ; possession ensured Danish control of

7176-882: The Sack of Magdeburg in May 1631 provided a powerful warning of the consequences of Imperial victory. Once again, Richelieu used French financial power to bridge differences between the Swedes and the German princes; the 1631 Treaty of Bärwalde provided funds for the Swedes and their Protestant allies, including Saxony and Brandenburg. These amounted to 400,000 Reichstaler per year, or one million livres , plus an additional 120,000 for 1630. While less than 2% of total French income, these payments boosted that of Sweden by more than 25%, and allowed Gustavus to maintain 36,000 troops. Gustavus used this army to win victories at Breitenfeld in September 1631, then Rain in April 1632, where Tilly

7332-480: The Upper Palatinate . Many Protestant rulers had supported Ferdinand against Frederick because they objected to deposing the legally elected king of Bohemia. On the same grounds, they viewed Frederick's removal as an infringement of "German liberties", while for Catholics, it presented an opportunity to regain lands and properties lost since 1555. The combination destabilised large parts of the Empire. At

7488-621: The Upper Saxon Circle and Brandenburg the Lower , both kreise had remained neutral during the campaigns in Bohemia and the Palatinate. However, Frederick's deposition in 1623 meant John George of Saxony and the Calvinist George William, Elector of Brandenburg became concerned Ferdinand intended to reclaim formerly Catholic bishoprics currently held by Protestants. These fears seemed confirmed when Tilly restored

7644-862: The Valtellina , cutting the link between Spanish controlled Milan and the Empire. In May, their main army of 35,000 invaded the Spanish Netherlands, but withdrew in July after suffering 17,000 casualties. In March 1636 , France joined the Thirty Years War as an ally of Sweden, whose loss of most of the territories gained by Gustavus and their taxes made it increasingly reliant on French financing. The Spanish then invaded Northern France, causing panic in Paris before lack of supplies forced them to retreat. A Swedish army under Johan Banér defeated

7800-546: The contest for European dominance between Habsburg -ruled Spain and Austria , and the French House of Bourbon . Its outbreak is generally traced to 1618 , when Emperor Ferdinand II was deposed as king of Bohemia and replaced by the Protestant Frederick V of the Palatinate . Although Imperial forces quickly suppressed the Bohemian Revolt , Frederick's participation expanded the fighting into

7956-477: The dictatorship of Primo de Rivera and the dictatorship of Franco ), a new brand of Spanish nationalism with a marked military flavour and an authoritarian stance (as well as promoting policies favouring the Spanish language against the other languages in the country) as a means of modernizing the country was developed by Spanish conservatives, fusing regenerationist principles with traditional Spanish nationalism. The authoritarian national ideal resumed during

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8112-549: The pope and the very well organized Catholic Church . The liberal government under the Sicilian Francesco Crispi sought to enlarge his political base by emulating Otto von Bismarck and firing up Italian nationalism with an aggressive foreign policy. It partially crashed and his cause was set back. Of his nationalistic foreign policy, historian R. J. B. Bosworth says: [Crispi] pursued policies whose openly aggressive character would not be equaled until

8268-538: The 13th century. The Westphalian system reached its peak in the late 19th century. Although practical considerations still led powerful states to seek to influence the affairs of others, forcible intervention by one country in the domestic affairs of another was less frequent between 1850 and 1900 than in most previous and subsequent periods (i.e. Napoleonic , the Great War , the Second World War ). After

8424-759: The 1606 "Battle of the Flags" in Donauwörth, when riots broke out after the Lutheran majority blocked a Catholic religious procession. Emperor Rudolf approved intervention by the Catholic Maximilian of Bavaria . In return, he was allowed to annex the town, and as agreed at Augsburg, the official religion changed from Lutheran to Catholic. When the Imperial Diet opened in February 1608, both Lutherans and Calvinists sought formal re-confirmation of

8580-444: The 1648 treaties, in fact, limited the sovereignty of numerous states within the Holy Roman Empire and that the Westphalian treaties did not present a coherent new state-system, although they were part of an ongoing change. Yet others, often post-colonialist scholars, point out the limited relevance of the 1648 system to the histories and state systems in the non-Western world. Nonetheless, "Westphalian sovereignty" continues to be used as

8736-411: The 1830s. Writing shortly after World War I , the popular British author H. G. Wells traced the origin of European nationalism to the aftermath of the Reformation , when it filled the moral void left by the decline of Christian faith: [A]s the idea of Christianity as a world brotherhood of men sank into discredit because of its fatal entanglement with priestcraft and the Papacy on the one hand and with

8892-401: The 19th-century European Nationalism. Some scholars argue that variants of nationalism emerged prior to the 18th century. American philosopher and historian Hans Kohn wrote in 1944 that nationalism emerged in the 17th century. In Britons, Forging the Nation 1707–1837 , Linda Colley explores how the role of nationalism emerged in about 1700 and developed in Britain reaching full form in

9048-503: The Augsburg settlement. In return, the Habsburg heir Archduke Ferdinand required the immediate restoration of all property taken from the Catholic Church since 1555, rather than the previous practice whereby the court ruled case by case. This demand threatened all Protestants, paralysed the diet, and removed the perception of Imperial neutrality. Loss of faith in central authority meant towns and rulers began strengthening their fortifications and armies; outside travellers often commented on

9204-428: The Baltic. He was supported by Spain, for whom it provided an opportunity to open another front against the Dutch. On 13 May 1628, his deputy von Arnim besieged Stralsund , the only port with facilities large enough to build this fleet. However, this threat led Gustavus Adolphus to send several thousand Scots and Swedish troops to Stralsund, commanded by Alexander Leslie who was also appointed governor. Von Arnim

9360-532: The Bohemian Crown. Most of Frederick's advisors urged him to reject it, as did the Duke of Savoy, and his father-in-law James I. The exceptions included Christian of Anhalt and Maurice of Orange , for whom conflict in Germany was a means to divert Spanish resources from the Netherlands. The Dutch offered subsidies to Frederick and the Protestant Union, helped raise loans for Bohemia, and provided weapons and munitions. However, wider European support failed to materialise, largely due to lack of enthusiasm for removing

9516-474: The Catholic Church. In May 1618, Protestant nobles led by Count Thurn met in Prague Castle with Ferdinand's two Catholic representatives, Vilem Slavata and Jaroslav Borzita . In what became known as the Third Defenestration of Prague , both men were thrown out of the castle windows along with their secretary Filip Fabricius , although all three survived. Thurn established a Protestant-dominated government in Bohemia, while unrest expanded into Silesia and

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9672-565: The Catholic League, despite strong opposition from Protestant members, as well as the Spanish. The Palatinate was clearly lost; in March, James instructed Vere to surrender Frankenthal, while Tilly's victory over Christian of Brunswick at Stadtlohn in August completed military operations. However, Spanish and Dutch involvement in the campaign was a significant step in internationalising the war, while Frederick's removal meant other Protestant princes began discussing armed resistance to preserve their own rights and territories. With Saxony dominating

9828-439: The Dutch provided him with military support after the Eighty Years' War restarted in April 1621 and his father-in-law James funded an army of mercenaries under Mansfeld. However, their failure to co-ordinate effectively led to a series of defeats by Spanish and Catholic League forces, including Wimpfen in May 1622 and Höchst in June. By November 1622, the Imperials controlled most of the Palatinate, apart from Frankenthal , which

9984-450: The Dutch. Doing so required his election as emperor, which was not guaranteed; Maximilian of Bavaria, who opposed the increase of Spanish influence in an area he considered his own, tried to create a coalition with Saxony and the Palatinate to support his candidacy. Another option was Frederick V, Elector Palatine , a Calvinist who succeeded his father in 1610, and in 1613 married Elizabeth Stuart , daughter of James I of England . Four of

10140-408: The Emperor, Gustavus became an obvious ally for Richelieu. In September 1629, the latter helped negotiate the Truce of Altmark between Sweden and Poland, freeing Gustavus to enter the war. Partly a genuine desire to support his Protestant co-religionists, like Christian he also wanted to maximise his share of the Baltic trade that provided much of Sweden's income. Following failed negotiations with

10296-508: The Emperor, Gustavus landed in Pomerania in June 1630 with nearly 18,000 Swedish troops. Using Stralsund as a bridgehead, he marched south along the Oder towards Stettin and coerced Bogislaw XIV, Duke of Pomerania , into agreeing an alliance which secured his interests in Pomerania against his rival Sigismund. As a result, the Poles turned their attention to Russia, initiating the 1632 to 1634 Smolensk War . However, Swedish expectations of widespread German support proved unrealistic. By

10452-500: The Empire. Hoping to create a wider coalition against Ferdinand, the Dutch invited France, Sweden, Savoy, and the Republic of Venice to join, but it was overtaken by events. In early 1626, Cardinal Richelieu , main architect of the alliance, faced a new Huguenot rebellion at home and in the March Treaty of Monzón , France withdrew from Northern Italy, re-opening the Spanish Road. Dutch and English subsidies enabled Christian to devise an ambitious three part campaign plan; while he led

10608-461: The Francoist dictatorship, in the form of National-Catholicism , which was in turn complemented by the myth of Hispanidad . A distinct manifestation of Spanish nationalism in modern Spanish politics is the interchange of attacks with competing regional nationalisms. Initially present after the end of Francoism in a rather diffuse and reactive form, the Spanish nationalist discourse has been often self-branded as " constitutional patriotism " since

10764-438: The French Revolution, had themselves been influenced or encouraged by the example of earlier constitutionalist liberation movements, notably the Corsican Republic (1755–1768) and American Revolution (1775–1783). Due to the Industrial Revolution , there was an emergence of an integrated, nation-encompassing economy and a national public sphere , where British people began to mobilize on a state-wide scale, rather than just in

10920-409: The German nationalist historians, was Treitschke who had an enormous influence on elite students at Heidelberg and Berlin universities. Treitschke vehemently attacked parliamentarianism, socialism, pacifism, the English, the French, the Jews, and the internationalists. The core of his message was the need for a strong, unified state—a unified Germany under Prussian supervision. "It is the highest duty of

11076-421: The German states and Ferdinand agreed to the Peace of Prague ; in return for withdrawing the Edict of Restitution, the Heilbronn and Catholic Leagues were dissolved and replaced by a single Imperial army, although Saxony and Bavaria retained control of their own forces. This is generally seen as the point when the war ceased to be a primarily inter-German religious conflict. In March 1635, French soldiers entered

11232-593: The Habsburg heartlands of Lower and Upper Austria , where much of the nobility was also Protestant. Losing control of these threatened the entire Habsburg state, while Bohemia was one of the most prosperous areas of the Empire and its electoral vote crucial to ensuring Ferdinand succeeded Matthias as Emperor. The combination meant their recapture was vital for the Austrian Habsburgs but chronic financial weakness left them dependent on Maximilian and Spain for

11388-542: The Habsburgs persuaded them to avoid direct involvement; this was helped when the Ottomans became involved in the 1620 Polish war , followed by the 1623 to 1639 conflict with Persia . On 19 August, the Bohemian Estates rescinded Ferdinand's 1617 election as king; on the 26th, they formally offered the crown to Frederick. Two days later, Ferdinand was elected emperor, making war inevitable if Frederick accepted

11544-526: The Hohenzollern kings of Prussia. His large-scale History of Prussian Politics (14 vol 1855–1886) was foundational for nationalistic students and scholars. Von Sybel founded and edited the leading academic history journal, Historische Zeitschrift and as the director of the Prussian state archives published massive compilations that were devoured by scholars of nationalism. The most influential of

11700-767: The Imperials at Wittstock on 4 October, and re-established their predominance in North-East Germany, despite the defection of most of their German allies. Ferdinand II died in February 1637, and was succeeded by his son Ferdinand III , who faced a deteriorating military position. Although Matthias Gallas and the main Imperial army had forced Banér back to the Baltic, in March 1638, Bernard destroyed an Imperial army at Rheinfelden . His capture of Breisach in December secured French control of Alsace and severed

11856-648: The June 1629 Treaty of Lübeck . Christian retained his German possessions of Schleswig and Holstein, in return for relinquishing Bremen and Verden, and abandoning support for the German Protestants. While Denmark kept Schleswig and Holstein until 1864, this effectively ended its reign as the predominant Nordic state. Once again, the methods used to obtain victory explain why the war failed to end. Ferdinand paid Wallenstein by letting him confiscate estates, extort ransoms from towns, and allowing his men to plunder

12012-635: The Netherlands, while the loss of 's-Hertogenbosch to the Dutch Army under Frederick Henry in 1629 caused dismay in Madrid. From 1626 to 1629, Gustavus was engaged in a war with Poland–Lithuania , ruled by his Catholic cousin Sigismund , who also claimed the Swedish throne and had Imperial support. Once this conflict ended, and with only a few minor states like Hesse-Kassel still openly opposing

12168-588: The North. In the 21st century, the Communists have become marginal but political tensions remained high as shown by Umberto Bossi 's Padanism in the 1980s (whose party Lega Nord has come to partially embrace a moderate version of Italian nationalism over the years) and other separatist movements spread across the country. After the War of the Spanish Succession , rooted in the political position of

12324-575: The Palatinate , whose strategic importance drew in the Dutch Republic and Spain, then engaged in the Eighty Years' War. In addition, the acquisition of territories within the empire by rulers like Christian IV of Denmark and Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden gave them and other foreign powers an ongoing motive to intervene. Combined with fears the Protestant religion in general was threatened, what started as an internal dynastic dispute became

12480-962: The Spanish Netherlands, needed to secure the Spanish Road , an overland route connecting Habsburg possessions in Italy to Flanders . This allowed him to move troops and supplies by road, rather than sea where the Dutch navy was dominant; by 1618, the only part not controlled by Spain ran through the Electoral Palatinate . Since Emperor Matthias had no surviving children, in July 1617 Philip III of Spain agreed to support Ferdinand's election as king of Bohemia and Hungary. In return, Ferdinand made concessions to Spain in Northern Italy and Alsace, and agreed to support their offensive against

12636-625: The Spanish Road, forcing Madrid to resupply their armies in Flanders by sea. However, their attempts to re-assert maritime control ended when the Dutch fleet under Maarten Tromp won a significant victory at the Downs in October 1639. Nationalism Nationalism is an idea or movement that holds that the nation should be congruent with the state . As a movement, it presupposes

12792-598: The Spanish Road, forcing Gallas to divert resources there. Although von Hatzfeldt defeated a combined Swedish-German force at Vlotho in October, lack of supplies forced Gallas to withdraw from the Baltic. In April 1639, Banér defeated the Saxons at Chemnitz , then entered Bohemia in May. To retrieve the situation, Ferdinand diverted Piccolomini 's army from Thionville , ending direct military cooperation between Austria and Spain. Pressure grew on Olivares to make peace, especially after French and Swedish gains in Germany cut

12948-482: The State to increase its power," he stated. Although he was a descendant of a Czech family, he considered himself not Slavic but German: "I am 1000 times more the patriot than a professor." German nationalism, expressed through the ideology of Nazism , may also be understood as trans-national in nature. This aspect was primarily advocated by Adolf Hitler , who later became the leader of the Nazi Party . This party

13104-532: The Swedes and Imperials met at Lützen , where both sides suffered heavy casualties; Gustavus himself was killed, while some Swedish units incurred losses of over 60%. Fighting continued until dusk when Wallenstein retreated, abandoning his artillery and wounded. Despite their losses, this allowed the Swedes to claim victory, although the result continues to be disputed. After his death, Gustavus' policies were continued by his Chancellor Axel Oxenstierna , and with French backing, Sweden and their German allies formed

13260-521: The armies of Ethiopian Emperor Menelik routed Italian forces at Adowa [...] in what has been defined as an unparalleled disaster for a modern army. Crispi, whose private life and personal finances [...] were objects of perennial scandal, went into dishonorable retirement. Italy joined the Allies in the First World War after getting promises of territory, but its war effort was not honored after

13416-428: The authority of princes on the other, and the age of faith passed into our present age of doubt and disbelief, men shifted the reference of their lives from the kingdom of God and the brotherhood of mankind to these apparently more living realities, France and England, Holy Russia, Spain, Prussia.... **** In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries the general population of Europe was religious and only vaguely patriotic; by

13572-458: The basis for rivalry, not community of states; exclusion, not integration." In 1999, British Prime Minister Tony Blair gave a speech in Chicago where he "set out a new, post-Westphalian, 'doctrine of the international community. ' " Blair argued that globalization had made the Westphalian approach anachronistic. Blair was later referred to by The Daily Telegraph as "the man who ushered in

13728-435: The benefit of the doubt. True loyalty to the nation, from the conservative viewpoint, was threatened by liberal and republican principles of liberty and equality that were leading the country to disaster. Before 1815, the sense of Russian nationalism was weak—what sense there was focused on loyalty and obedience to the tsar . The Russian motto " Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality " was coined by Count Sergey Uvarov and it

13884-571: The borders of Germany as a nation. Italian nationalism emerged in the 19th century and was the driving force for Italian unification or the Risorgimento (meaning the "Resurgence" or "Revival"). It was the political and intellectual movement that consolidated the different states of the Italian peninsula into the single state of the Kingdom of Italy in 1861. The memory of the Risorgimento

14040-451: The concepts, myths, symbols and ideology of nationalism is apparent. This applies to the first appearance of the core doctrine and to the antecedent concepts of national character, genius of the nation and national will. Smith posits the challenges posed to traditional religion and society in the Age of Revolution propelled many intellectuals to "discover alternative principles and concepts, and

14196-405: The context of oppositions stemming from religious differences. The word nation was also applied before 1800 in Europe in reference to the inhabitants of a country as well as to collective identities that could include shared history, law, language, political rights, religion and traditions, in a sense more akin to the modern conception. Nationalism as derived from the noun designating 'nations'

14352-479: The criollos leading the call for independence. Spain tried to use its armies to fight back but had no help from European powers. Indeed, Britain and the United States worked against Spain, enforcing the Monroe Doctrine . Spain lost all of its American colonies, except Cuba and Puerto Rico, in a complex series of revolts from 1808 to 1826. In the German states west of Prussia, Napoleon abolished many of

14508-476: The dangers associated with Ferdinand's fervent Catholicism, but supported his claim due to the lack of alternatives. On being elected king of Bohemia in May 1617, Ferdinand reconfirmed Protestant religious freedoms , but his record in Styria led to the suspicion he was only awaiting a chance to overturn them. These concerns were heightened after a series of legal disputes over property were all decided in favour of

14664-534: The days of the Fascist regime. Crispi increased military expenditure, talked cheerfully of a European conflagration, and alarmed his German or British friends with these suggestions of preventative attacks on his enemies. His policies were ruinous, both for Italy's trade with France, and, more humiliatingly, for colonial ambitions in East Africa. Crispi's lust for territory there was thwarted when on 1 March 1896,

14820-562: The defection of their German allies, who now sought to make peace with the Emperor. Swedish defeat at Nördlingen triggered direct French intervention and thus expanded the conflict rather than ending it. Richelieu provided the Swedes with new subsidies , hired mercenaries led by Bernard of Saxe-Weimar for an offensive in the Rhineland, and in May 1635 declared war on Spain, starting the 1635 to 1659 Franco-Spanish War . A few days later,

14976-512: The domestic structures and religious vocations of its fellow states and refrain from challenging their existence. The principle of non-interference in other countries' domestic affairs was laid out in the mid-18th century by Swiss jurist Emer de Vattel . States became the primary institutional agents in an interstate system of relations. The Peace of Westphalia is said to have ended attempts to impose supranational authority on European states. The "Westphalian" doctrine of states as independent agents

15132-781: The effects of battle, famine, or disease, while parts of Germany reported population declines of over 50%. Related conflicts include the Eighty Years' War , the War of the Mantuan Succession , the Franco-Spanish War , the Torstenson War , the Dutch-Portuguese War , and the Portuguese Restoration War . The war can be seen as a continuation of the religious conflict initiated by the 16th-century Reformation within

15288-439: The electors were Catholic, and three were Protestant; if this balance changed, it would potentially result in the election of a Protestant emperor. When Ferdinand became king of Bohemia in 1617, he also gained control of its electoral vote; however, his conservative Catholicism made him unpopular with the predominantly Protestant nobility, who were also concerned about the erosion of their rights. These factors combined to bring about

15444-438: The emergence of nationalism: The moral value of nationalism, the relationship between nationalism and patriotism , and the compatibility of nationalism and cosmopolitanism are all subjects of philosophical debate. Nationalism can be combined with diverse political goals and ideologies such as conservatism ( national conservatism and right-wing populism ) or socialism ( left-wing nationalism ). In practice, nationalism

15600-468: The empire for states like Bavaria and Saxony , as well as acceptance of Dutch independence by Spain. The conflict shifted the balance of power in favour of France, and set the stage for the expansionist wars of Louis XIV which dominated Europe for the next sixty years. The 1552 Peace of Passau ended the Schmalkaldic War , a religious conflict between Protestants and Catholics within

15756-429: The empire. Attempts to negotiate a peaceful solution failed as the conflict in Germany became part of the wider struggle between France and their Habsburg rivals in Spain and Austria. In the June 1624 Treaty of Compiègne , France had agreed to subsidise the Dutch war against Spain for a minimum of three years, while in the December 1625 Treaty of The Hague , the Dutch and English agreed to finance Danish intervention in

15912-614: The end of 1630, their only new ally was the Administrator of Magdeburg, Christian William whose capital was under siege by Tilly. Despite the devastation inflicted by Imperial soldiers, Saxony and Brandenburg had their own ambitions in Pomerania, which clashed with those of Gustavus; previous experience also showed inviting external powers into the Empire was easier than getting them to leave. Gustavus put pressure on Brandenburg by sacking Küstrin and Frankfurt an der Oder , while

16068-706: The end of the Cold War , the United States and Western Europe began talking of a post-Westphalian order in which countries could intervene against other countries under the context of human rights abuses. Critics of the post-Westphalian policy have argued that such intervention would be and has been used to continue processes similar to standard Euro-American colonialism, and that the colonial powers always used ideas similar to "humanitarian intervention" to justify colonialism, slavery, and similar practices. China and Russia have used their United Nations Security Council veto power to block what they see as American attempts to violate

16224-539: The eradication of human beings that they deemed inferior. But their goals were trans-national and intended to spread across as much of the world as they could achieve. Although Nazism glorified German history, it also embraced the supposed virtues and achievements of the Aryan race in other countries, including India. The Nazis' Aryanism longed for now-extinct species of superior bulls once used as livestock by Aryans and other features of Aryan history that never resided within

16380-404: The existence and tends to promote the interests of a particular nation, especially with the aim of gaining and maintaining its sovereignty ( self-governance ) over its perceived homeland to create a nation-state . It holds that each nation should govern itself, free from outside interference ( self-determination ), that a nation is a natural and ideal basis for a polity , and that the nation

16536-408: The existence of Calvinism and restore Catholicism in areas where it had not been a significant presence for nearly a century. Well aware none of the princes involved would agree, Ferdinand used the device of an Imperial edict , once again asserting his right to alter laws without consultation. This new assault on "German liberties" ensured continuing opposition and undermined his previous success. At

16692-414: The first philosopher to explicitly suggest "that identities based on language should be regarded as the primary source of legitimate political authority or locus of political resistance". Herder also encouraged the creation of a common cultural and language policy amongst the separate German states . Scholars frequently place the beginning of nationalism in the late 18th century or early 19th century with

16848-511: The former two Sicilies remained poor and partially underdeveloped (by industrial country standards). In the 1950s and early 1960s, Italy had an economic boom that pushed its economy to the fifth place in the world. The working class in those decades voted mostly for the Communist Party , and it looked to Moscow rather than Rome for inspiration and was kept out of the national government even as it controlled some industrial cities across

17004-621: The growing militarisation of Germany in this period. In 1608, Frederick IV, Elector Palatine formed the Protestant Union , and Maximilian responded by setting up the Catholic League in July 1609. Both were created to support the dynastic ambitions of their leaders, but combined with the 1609 to 1614 War of the Jülich Succession , the result was to increase tensions throughout the empire. Some historians who see

17160-458: The hegemonic ambitions of individual states that had emerged following the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, a rejection which took the form of closer meshing of vital interests and the transfer of nation-state sovereign rights to supranational European institutions." The European Union 's concept of shared sovereignty is also somewhat contrary to historical views of Westphalian sovereignty, as it provides for external agents to influence and interfere in

17316-479: The hospitals; the children shall turn old linen to lint; the old men shall repair to the public places, to stimulate the courage of the warriors and preach the unity of the Republic and the hatred of kings. This nationalism gained pace after the French Revolution came to a close. Defeat in war, with a loss in territory, was a powerful force in nationalism. In France, revenge and return of Alsace-Lorraine

17472-404: The ideal type of the nation [...] than perhaps anywhere else in the ancient world", adding that this observation "must make us wary of pronouncing too readily against the possibility of the nation, and even a form of religious nationalism , before the onset of modernity". The consensus is that nationalism as a concept was firmly established by the 19th century. In histories of nationalism,

17628-423: The identification of a nation with a nation state, often mobilizing deep-rooted sentiments of ethnic nationalism, claiming territories outside the state where members of the ethnic group live, while using heavy-handed nationalism to mobilize support for these aims. Revanchist justifications are often presented as based on ancient or even autochthonous occupation of a territory since "time immemorial", an assertion that

17784-593: The imposition of the political and cultural characteristics of the dominant ethnic group, in this case the Castilians, over those of other ethnic groups, who became national minorities to be assimilated. In fact, since the political unification of 1714, Spanish assimilation policies towards Catalan-speaking territories ( Catalonia , Valencia , the Balearic Islands , part of Aragon ) and other national minorities, as Basques and Galicians , have been

17940-673: The internal affairs of its member countries. In a 2008 article, Phil Williams links the rise of terrorism and violent non-state actors ( VNSAs ), which pose a threat to the Westphalian sovereignty of the state , to globalization . Interventions such as in Cambodia by Vietnam (the Cambodian–Vietnamese War ) or in Bangladesh (then a part of Pakistan ) by India (the Bangladesh Liberation War and

18096-479: The lands they passed through, regardless of whether they belonged to allies or opponents. In early 1628, Ferdinand deposed the hereditary Duke of Mecklenburg , and appointed Wallenstein in his place, an act which united all German princes in opposition, regardless of religion. This unity was undermined by Maximilian of Bavaria's desire to retain the Palatinate; as a result, the Catholic League argued only for

18252-472: The legal equality of states. For example, Andreas Osiander writes that "the treaties confirm neither [France's or Sweden's] 'sovereignty' nor anybody else's; least of all do they contain anything about sovereignty as a principle." Political scientists like Hall Gardner have challenged the titular applicability of these historical treaties towards the political principle on such grounds as well. Others, such as Christoph Kampann and Johannes Paulmann , argue that

18408-814: The main force down the Weser, Mansfeld would attack Wallenstein in Magdeburg , supported by forces led by Christian of Brunswick and Maurice of Hesse-Kassel . The advance quickly fell apart; Mansfeld was defeated at Dessau Bridge in April, and when Maurice refused to support him, Christian of Brunswick fell back on Wolfenbüttel , where he died of disease shortly after. The Danes were comprehensively beaten at Lutter in August, and Mansfeld's army dissolved following his death in November. Many of Christian's German allies, such as Hesse-Kassel and Saxony, had little interest in replacing Imperial domination with Danish, while few of

18564-705: The mouth of the fascist José Pemartín , who admired the German and Italian modeling policies: "There is an intimate and decisive dualism, both in Italian fascism and in German National Socialism. On the one hand, the Hegelian doctrine of the absolutism of the state is felt. The State originates in the Nation, educates and shapes the mentality of the individual; is, in Mussolini's words, the soul of

18720-616: The movement. An upsurge in nationalism in Latin America in the 1810s and 1820s sparked revolutions that cost Spain nearly all of its colonies which were located there. Spain was at war with Britain from 1798 to 1808, and the British Royal Navy cut off its contacts with its colonies, so nationalism flourished and trade with Spain was suspended. The colonies set up temporary governments or juntas which were effectively independent from Spain. These juntas were established as

18876-407: The nation and state should be congruent. According to Lisa Weeden, nationalist ideology presumes that "the people" and the state are congruent. Anthony D. Smith describes how intellectuals played a primary role in generating cultural perceptions of nationalism and providing the ideology of political nationalism: Wherever one turns in Europe, their seminal position in generating and analysing

19032-645: The national one. Thomas Arne composed the patriotic song " Rule, Britannia! " in 1740, and the cartoonist John Arbuthnot invented the character of John Bull as the personification of the English national spirit in 1712. The political convulsions of the late 18th century associated with the American and French revolutions massively augmented the widespread appeal of patriotic nationalism. Napoleon Bonaparte's rise to power further established nationalism when he invaded much of Europe. Napoleon used this opportunity to spread revolutionary ideas, resulting in much of

19188-442: The nineteenth it had become wholly patriotic. The political development of nationalism and the push for popular sovereignty culminated with the ethnic/national revolutions of Europe. During the 19th century nationalism became one of the most significant political and social forces in history; it is typically listed among the top causes of World War I . Napoleon's conquests of the German and Italian states around 1800–1806 played

19344-551: The old or medieval relics, such as dissolving the Holy Roman Empire in 1806. He imposed rational legal systems and demonstrated how dramatic changes were possible. His organization of the Confederation of the Rhine in 1806 promoted a feeling of nationalism. Nationalists sought to encompass masculinity in their quest for strength and unity. It was Prussian chancellor Otto von Bismarck who achieved German unification through

19500-468: The political community of Spaniards as common destiny over other communities has been argued to trace back to the Cortes of Cádiz . From 1812 on, revisiting the previous history of Spain, Spanish liberalism tended to take for granted the national conscience and the Spanish nation. A by-product of 19th-century Spanish nationalist thinking is the concept of Reconquista , which holds the power of propelling

19656-493: The post-Westphalian era". Others have also asserted that globalization has superseded the Westphalian system. In 2000, Germany's Foreign Minister Joschka Fischer referred to the Peace of Westphalia in his Humboldt Speech, which argued that the system of European politics set up by Westphalia was obsolete: "The core of the concept of Europe after 1945 was and still is a rejection of the European balance-of-power principle and

19812-511: The religion practised in their domains, while weakening central authority. Conflict over economic and political objectives frequently superseded religion, with Lutheran Saxony , Denmark–Norway and Sweden competing with each other and Calvinist Brandenburg over the Baltic trade . Managing these issues was hampered by the fragmented nature of the empire. Its representative institutions included 300 Imperial Estates distributed across Germany,

19968-498: The resources needed to achieve this. Spanish involvement inevitably drew in the Dutch, and potentially France , although the strongly Catholic Louis XIII of France faced his own Protestant rebels at home and refused to support them elsewhere. The revolt also provided opportunities for external opponents of the Habsburgs, including the Ottoman Empire and Savoy . Funded by Frederick and Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy ,

20124-637: The same time, his Spanish allies were reluctant to antagonise German Protestants as their war in the Spanish Netherlands had now shifted in favour of the Dutch Republic. The financial predicament of the Spanish Crown steadily deteriorated in the 1620s, particularly after the Dutch West India Company captured their treasure fleet at Matanzas in 1628. The War of the Mantuan Succession further diverted Spanish resources from

20280-785: The same time, the strategic importance of the Spanish Road to their war in the Netherlands, and its proximity to the Palatinate, drew in the Spanish. When an army led by Córdoba occupied the Lower Palatinate in October 1619, James I responded to this attack on his son-in-law. English naval forces were sent to threaten Spanish possessions in the Americas and the Mediterranean , while James announced he would declare war if Spanish troops were not withdrawn by spring 1621. These actions were primarily designed to placate his opponents in Parliament , who considered his pro-Spanish policy

20436-594: The scholarly literature to the eponymous Peace of Westphalia (1648). The peace treaties put an end to the Thirty Years' War , a war of religion that devastated Germany and killed 30% of its population. Since neither the Catholics nor the Protestants had won a clear victory, the peace settlement established a status quo order in which states would refrain from interfering in each other's religious practices. Henry Kissinger wrote: The Westphalian peace reflected

20592-466: The smaller units of their province, town or family. The early emergence of a popular patriotic nationalism took place in the mid-18th century and was actively promoted by the British government and by the writers and intellectuals of the time. National symbols , anthems, myths , flags and narratives were assiduously constructed by nationalists and widely adopted. The Union Jack was adopted in 1801 as

20748-412: The soul." And will be found again two hundred years later, from the socialist Josep Borrell : "The modern history of Spain is an unfortunate history that meant that we did not consolidate a modern State. Independentists think that the nation makes the State. I think the opposite. The State makes the nation. A strong State, which imposes its language, culture, education." The creation of the tradition of

20904-403: The sovereignty of other nations, perceiving it as imperialistic expansion under the guise of humanitarian intervention. The end of the Cold War saw increased international integration and, arguably, the erosion of Westphalian sovereignty. Much of the literature was primarily concerned with criticizing realist models of international politics in which the notion of the state as a unitary agent

21060-428: The subsidies agreed to by the Treaty of The Hague were ever paid. Charles I of England allowed Christian to recruit up to 9,000 Scottish mercenaries, but they took time to arrive, and while able to slow Wallenstein's advance were insufficient to stop him. By the end of 1627, Wallenstein occupied Mecklenburg , Pomerania , and Jutland , and began making plans to construct a fleet capable of challenging Danish control of

21216-467: The term in 1772 in his "Treatise on the Origin of Language" stressing the role of a common language. He attached exceptional importance to the concepts of nationality and of patriotism  – "he that has lost his patriotic spirit has lost himself and the whole world about himself", whilst teaching that "in a certain sense every human perfection is national". Erica Benner identifies Herder as

21372-685: The threats posed by failed states to neighboring countries and the world as a whole. Although the Westphalian system developed in early modern Europe , its staunchest defenders can now be found in the non-Western world. The presidents of China and Russia issued a joint statement in 2001 vowing to "counter attempts to undermine the fundamental norms of the international law with the help of concepts such as 'humanitarian intervention' and 'limited sovereignty ' ". China and Russia have used their United Nations Security Council veto power to block what they see as American violations of state sovereignty in Syria. Russia

21528-463: The true carrier of the German spirit, and the power of the state as the ultimate goal of nationalism. The three main historians were Johann Gustav Droysen (1808–1884), Heinrich von Sybel (1817–1895) and Heinrich von Treitschke (1834–1896). Droysen moved from liberalism to an intense nationalism that celebrated Prussian Protestantism, efficiency, progress, and reform, in striking contrast to Austrian Catholicism, impotency and backwardness. He idealized

21684-551: The two empires between different branches of the family. This bond was reinforced by frequent inter-marriage, while Spain retained Imperial territories such as the Spanish Netherlands , Milan and Franche-Comté . Although these links meant the Austrian and Spanish Habsburgs often worked together, their objectives did not always align. Spain was a global maritime superpower, whose possessions stretched from Europe to

21840-560: The uniform and monocultural "Spanish nation" did not exist, as indicated in 1835 by Antonio Alcalà Galiano , when in the Cortes del Estatuto Real he defended the effort: "To make the Spanish nation a nation that neither is nor has been until now." Building the nation (as in France , it was the state that created the nation, and not the opposite process) is an ideal that the Spanish elites constantly reiterated, and, one hundred years later than Alcalá Galiano, for example, we can also find it in

21996-586: The war and this fact discredited liberalism paving the way for Benito Mussolini and a political doctrine of his own creation, Fascism . Mussolini's 20-year dictatorship involved a highly aggressive nationalism that led to a series of wars with the creation of the Italian Empire , an alliance with Hitler's Germany, and humiliation and hardship in the Second World War. After 1945, the Catholics returned to government and tensions eased somewhat, but

22152-455: The war as primarily a European conflict argue Jülich marks its beginning, with Spain and Austria backing the Catholic candidate, France and the Dutch Republic the Protestant. External powers became involved in what was an internal German dispute due to the imminent expiry of the 1609 Twelve Years' Truce , which suspended the Eighty Years' War between Spain and the Dutch Republic. Before restarting hostilities, Ambrosio Spinola , commander in

22308-403: The weaponized notion of Spain being a nation shaped against Islam . The strong interface of nationalism with colonialism is another feature of 19th-century nation building in Spain, with the defence of slavery and colonialism in Cuba being often able to reconcile tensions between mainland elites of Catalonia and Madrid throughout the period. During the first half of 20th century (notably during

22464-436: Was a powerful motivating force for a quarter century after their defeat by Germany in 1871. After 1895, French nationalists focused on Dreyfus and internal subversion, and the Alsace issue petered out. The French reaction was a famous case of Revanchism ("revenge") which demands the return of lost territory that "belongs" to the national homeland. Revanchism draws its strength from patriotic and retributionist thought and it

22620-414: Was a vast undertaking to transplant Aryans throughout Poland , much of Eastern Europe and the Baltic nations , and all of Western Russia and Ukraine . Lebensraum was thus a vast project for advancing the Aryan race far outside of any particular nation or national borders. The Nazi's goals were racist focused on advancing the Aryan race as they perceived it, eugenics modification of the human race, and

22776-521: Was adopted by Emperor Nicholas I as the official ideology of the Russian Empire . Three components of Uvarov's triad were: By the 1860s, as a result of educational indoctrination, and due to conservative resistance to ideas and ideologies which were transmitted from Western Europe , a pan-Slavic movement had emerged and it produced both a sense of Russian nationalism and a nationalistic mission to support and protect pan-Slavism. This Slavophile movement became popular in 19th-century Russia. Pan-Slavism

22932-429: Was bolstered by the rise in 19th-century thoughts of 'classical' nationalism , under which legitimate states were assumed to correspond to nations , defined as groups of people united by language and culture. In the Westphalian system, cities are subsumed within states. Before the Westphalian system, cities were not necessarily seen as internal to states. Before the Westphalian system, the closest geopolitical system

23088-418: Was devoted to what they identified as an Aryan race , residing in various European countries, but sometime mixed with alien elements such as Jews. Meanwhile, the Nazis rejected many of the well-established citizens within those same countries, such as the Romani (Gypsies) and of course Jews, whom they did not identify as Aryan. A key Nazi doctrine was "Living Space" (for Aryans only) or " Lebensraum ," which

23244-439: Was forced to lift the siege on 4 August, but three weeks later, Christian suffered another defeat at Wolgast . He began negotiations with Wallenstein, who despite his recent victories was concerned by the prospect of Swedish intervention, and thus anxious to make peace. With Austrian resources stretched by the outbreak of the War of the Mantuan Succession , Wallenstein persuaded Ferdinand to agree with relatively lenient terms in

23400-524: Was fueled by, and it was also the fuel for Russia's numerous wars against the Ottoman Empire which were waged in order to achieve the alleged goal of liberating Orthodox nationalities, such as Bulgarians , Romanians , Serbs and Greeks , from Ottoman rule . Slavophiles opposed the Western European influences which had been transmitted to Russia and they were also determined to protect Russian culture and traditions. Aleksey Khomyakov , Ivan Kireyevsky , and Konstantin Aksakov are credited with co-founding

23556-415: Was held by a small English garrison under Sir Horace Vere . The remnants of Mansfeld's army took refuge in the Dutch Republic, as did Frederick, who spent most of his time in The Hague until his death in November 1632. At a meeting of the Imperial Diet in February 1623, Ferdinand forced through provisions transferring Frederick's titles, lands, and electoral vote to Maximilian. He did so with support from

23712-449: Was killed. Ferdinand turned once again to Wallenstein, who realised Gustavus was overextended and established himself at Fürth , from where he could threaten his supply lines. This led to the Battle of the Alte Veste in late August, one of the largest battles of the war. An assault on the Imperial camp outside the town was bloodily repulsed, arguably the greatest blunder committed by Gustavus during his German campaign. Two months later,

23868-482: Was left out of the original Westphalian system in 1648, but post-Soviet Russia has seen Westphalian sovereignty as a means to balance American power by encouraging a multipolar world order . Some in the West also speak favourably of Westphalian sovereignty. American political scientist Stephen Walt urged U.S. President Donald Trump to return to Westphalian principles, calling it a "sensible course" for American foreign policy. Westphalian sovereignty, Gardner argues,

24024-462: Was more clear than ever a threat to the Ottoman and Habsburg empires, which were essentially multi-national. European culture had been enriched by the new vernacular contributions of little-known or forgotten peoples, but at the same time such unity as it had was imperiled by fragmentation. Moreover, the antagonisms fostered by nationalism had made not only for wars, insurrections, and local hatreds—they had accentuated or created new spiritual divisions in

24180-400: Was the "Chanyuan system" established in East Asia in 1005 through the Treaty of Chanyuan , which, like the Westphalian peace treaties, designated national borders between the states of the Song and Liao dynasties in 11th century China. This system was thereafter copied and further developed in East Asia in the following centuries until the establishment of the pan-Eurasian Mongol Empire in

24336-467: Was to re-open the Spanish Road for their campaign against the Dutch, the focus of the war now shifted from the north to the Rhineland and Bavaria. Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand of Austria , new Governor of the Spanish Netherlands, raised an army of 18,000 in Italy, which met up with an Imperial force of 15,000 at Donauwörth on 2 September 1634. Four days later, they won a decisive victory at Nördlingen which destroyed Swedish power in Southern Germany and led to

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