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167-472: Georg Philipp Friedrich Freiherr von Hardenberg (2 May 1772 – 25 March 1801), pen name Novalis ( / n oʊ ˈ v ɑː l ɪ s / ; German: [noˈvaːlɪs] ), was a German aristocrat and polymath , who was a poet, novelist, philosopher and mystic . He is regarded as an influential figure of Jena Romanticism . Novalis was born into a minor aristocratic family in Electoral Saxony . He
334-479: A mystic poet in the style of Dante . The author and theologian George MacDonald , who translated Novalis's Hymns to the Night in 1897 into English, also understood him as a mystic poet. In the twentieth century, Novalis's writings were more thoroughly and systematically collected than previously. The availability of these works provide further evidence that his interests went beyond poetry and novels and has led to
501-469: A "scientific mystic" and comparing him to the physicist and philosopher Blaise Pascal . More recently, Novalis's religious outlook has been analysed from the point of view of his philosophical and aesthetic commitments. In this view, Novalis's religious thought was based on his attempts to reconcile Fichte's idealism, in which the sense of self arises in the distinction of subject and object, with Baruch Spinoza 's naturalistic philosophy , in which all being
668-576: A General Encyclopedia) , Novalis began integrating his knowledge of natural science into his literary work. This integration can be seen in an unfinished novel he composed during this time, Die Lehrlinge zu Sais ( The Novices at Sais ), which incorporated natural history from his studies as well as ideas from his Fichte studies into a meditation on poetry and love as keys to understanding nature. More specifically, he began thinking about how to incorporate his recently acquired knowledge of mining to his philosophical and poetic worldview. In this respect, he shared
835-681: A Lutheran denomination with a largely Pietistic following with some Presbyterian and Pentecostal influence and primarily based in Ethiopia and among the Ethiopian diaspora , is the largest individual member Lutheran denomination within the Lutheran World Federation . Whereas Pietistic Lutherans stayed within the Lutheran tradition, adherents of a related movement known as Radical Pietism believed in separating from
1002-405: A Neoplatonic object of intellectual intuition and rational perception, the logos that structures the universe. In Novalis's view, this vision of the logos is not merely intellectual, but moral too, as Novalis states "god is virtue itself". This vision includes Novalis's idea of love, in which self and nature united in a mutually supportive existence. This understanding of Novalis's religious project
1169-758: A Reform of the True Evangelical Church , the title giving rise to the term "Pietists". This was originally a pejorative term given to the adherents of the movement by its enemies as a form of ridicule, like that of "Methodists" somewhat later in England. In Pia desideria , Spener made six proposals as the best means of restoring the life of the church: This work produced a great impression throughout Germany. While large numbers of orthodox Lutheran theologians and pastors were deeply offended by Spener's book, many other pastors immediately adopted Spener's proposals. In 1686 Spener accepted an appointment to
1336-411: A Romantic Encyclopaedia , he worked out connections between the different fields he studied as he sought to integrate them into a unified worldview. Novalis's philosophical writings are often grounded in nature. His works explore how personal freedom and creativity emerge in the affective understanding of the world and others. He suggests that this can only be accomplished if people are not estranged from
1503-441: A call to return Europe to a cultural and social unity whose interpretation continues to be a source of controversy. During this time, he also wrote his poems known as Geistliche Lieder ( Spiritual Songs ) and began his novel Heinrich von Ofterdingen . From August 1800, Novalis began to cough up blood. At the time, he was diagnosed with tuberculosis. However, recent research suggests that he may have suffered from cystic fibrosis ,
1670-480: A commonality with other German authors of the Romantic age by connecting his studies in the mining industry, which was undergoing then the first steps to industrialization, with his literary work. This connection between his scientific interest in mining, philosophy and literature came to fruition later when he began composing his second unfinished novel, Heinrich von Ofterdingen . Novalis also began to be noticed as
1837-536: A contemporary magistrate . While on a trip to Jena in the summer of 1799, Novalis met Ludwig Tieck , who became one of his closest friends and greatest intellectual influences in the last two years of his life. They became part of an informal social circle that formed around the Schlegel brothers, which has been come to be known as the Jena Romantics or Frühromantiker ("early romantics"). The interests of
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#17327878373032004-515: A crisis and ultimately a decision to start a new, Christ-centered life." Pietistic Lutherans emphasize following "biblical divine commands of believers to live a holy life and to strive for holy living, or sanctification ". Pietism did not die out in the 18th century, but was alive and active in the American Deutscher Evangelischer Kirchenverein des Westens (German Evangelical Church Society of
2171-577: A distinct group within the broader community of Christians , with a renewed focus on the Lutheran Confessions as a key source of Lutheran doctrine. Associated with these changes was a renewed focus on traditional doctrine and liturgy, which paralleled the growth of Anglo-Catholicism in England. In Denmark , Pietistic Lutheranism became popular in 1703. There, the faithful were organized into conventicles that "met for prayer and Bible reading". Pietistic Lutheranism entered Sweden in
2338-551: A district administrator, Cölestin August Just, who became both his friend and biographer. While working for Just in 1795, Novalis met the 12-year-old Sophie von Kühn , who at that time was considered old enough to receive suitors. He became infatuated with her on their first meeting, and the effect of this infatuation appeared to transform his personality. In 1795, two days before Sophie turned thirteen they got secretly engaged. Later that year Sophie's parents gave their consent for
2505-512: A family is about to die out or when a daughter inherits the family estate and marries a commoner, the Adelsrechtsausschuss can grant a dispensation from Salic law, allowing for a one-time transfer of a noble surname contrary to nobiliary law, to a person considered non-noble. The following criteria are most important in such cases: The Adelsrechtsausschuss does not recognize ennoblements made by heads of formerly ruling houses, but
2672-502: A family or any heirs. Today, German nobility is no longer conferred by the Federal Republic of Germany (1949–present), and constitutionally the descendants of German noble families do not enjoy legal privileges. Hereditary titles are permitted as part of the surname (e.g., the aristocratic particles von and zu ), and these surnames can then be inherited by a person's children. Later developments distinguished
2839-621: A genetic disorder that may have been responsible for the early death of many of his siblings, including his brother Erasmus. After a severe hemorrhage in November, he was temporarily moved to Dresden for medical reasons. In January, he requested to be with his parents in Weissenfels. He died there on 25 March 1801 at the age of twenty-eight. He was buried in Weissenfels's Alter Friedhof ( Old Cemetery ). When he died, Novalis had only published Pollen , Faith and Love , Blumen , and Hymns to
3006-485: A holy Christian life. Although the movement is aligned with Lutheranism, it has had a tremendous impact on Protestantism worldwide, particularly in North America and Europe. Pietism originated in modern Germany in the late 17th century with the work of Philipp Spener , a Lutheran theologian whose emphasis on personal transformation through spiritual rebirth and renewal, individual devotion, and piety laid
3173-453: A major dowry. Most, but not all, surnames of the German nobility were preceded by or contained the preposition von (meaning "of") or zu (meaning "at") as a nobiliary particle . The two were occasionally combined into von und zu (meaning "of and at"). In general, the von form indicates the family's place of origin, while the zu form indicates the family's continued possession of
3340-541: A major role in forming the new Centre Party in resistance to Bismarck's anti-Catholic Kulturkampf , while Protestant nobles were similarly active in the Conservative Party . In August 1919, at the beginning of the Weimar Republic (1918–1933), Germany's new constitution officially abolished royalty and nobility, and the respective legal privileges and immunities appertaining to an individual,
3507-403: A man after an Adelsverlust were commoners and did not inherit the father's former nobility. Various organisations perpetuate the historical legacy of the former nobility, documenting genealogy, chronicling the history of noble families and sometimes declining to acknowledge persons who acquired noble surnames in ways impossible before 1919. Many German states, however, required a marriage to
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#17327878373033674-559: A mythical Medieval golden age when Europe was unified under the Catholic Church. One view of Novalis's work is that it maintains a traditional Christian outlook. Novalis's brother Karl writes that during his final illness, Novalis would read the works of the theologians Nicolaus Zinzendorf and Johann Kaspar Lavater , as well as the Bible . On the other hand, during the decades following Novalis's death, German intellectuals, such as
3841-555: A new form of justification by works. Its ecclesiolae in ecclesia also weakened the power and meaning of church organization. These Pietistic attitudes caused a counter-movement at the beginning of the 18th century; one leader was Valentin Ernst Löscher , superintendent at Dresden. Authorities within state-endorsed Churches were suspicious of pietist doctrine which they often viewed as a social danger, as it "seemed either to generate an excess of evangelical fervor and so disturb
4008-400: A new upper class of wealthy common people had emerged following industrialization, marriages with commoners were becoming more widespread. However, with few exceptions, this did not apply to higher nobility, who largely continued to marry among themselves. Upwardly mobile German families typically followed marriage strategies involving men of lower rank marrying women of higher status who brought
4175-428: A noble father, and these persons are not allowed to join a nobility association. Persons who bear a noble or noble-sounding surname without belonging to the historical nobility according to Salic law are classified as Nichtadelige Namensträger , 'non-noble name-carriers'. The inflation of fake nobility is one of the major concerns of the Adelsrechtsausschuss, and it is up to the commission to determine whether
4342-502: A nobleman. Nobility was inherited equally by all legitimate descendants in the male line . German titles of nobility were usually inherited by all male-line descendants, although some descended by male primogeniture , especially in 19th and 20th century Prussia (e.g., Otto von Bismarck , born a baronial Junker (not a title), was granted the title of count ( Graf ) extending to all his male-line descendants, and later that of prince ( Fürst ) in primogeniture). Upon promulgation of
4509-682: A permanent mark on the region's dominant Lutheranism, with figures like Hans Nielsen Hauge in Norway , Peter Spaak and Carl Olof Rosenius in Sweden , Katarina Asplund in Finland , and Barbara von Krüdener in the Baltics, and to the rest of Europe. It was further taken to North America, primarily by German and Scandinavian immigrants. There, it influenced Protestants of other ethnic and other (non-Lutheran) denominational backgrounds, contributing to
4676-540: A person should be considered noble or non-noble. For instance, the German-American businessman Frédéric Prinz von Anhalt was born as Hans Robert Lichtenberg in Germany. He was married with Zsa Zsa Gabor and was adopted by Princess Marie-Auguste of Anhalt in 1980, allegedly arranged by the title dealer Hans Hermann Weyer , hence he is one of the 'non-noble name-carriers'. In special cases, for example when
4843-550: A poet who dreamt of a spiritual world beyond this one. Novalis's diagnosis of tuberculosis, which was known as the white plague , contributed to his romantic reputation. Because Sophie von Kühn was also thought to have died from tuberculosis, Novalis became the poet of the blue flower who was reunited with his beloved through the death of the white plague. The image of Novalis as romantic poet became enormously popular. When Novalis's biography by his long-time friend August Cölestin Just
5010-675: A poet, the notebooks and fragments have subsequently established his intellectual role in the formation of Early German Romanticism. Novalis, baptized Georg Philipp Friedrich, was the Freiherr (Baron) von Hardenberg , born in 1772 at his family estate in the Electorate of Saxony , the Schloss Oberwiederstedt, in the village of Wiederstedt , which is now located in the present-day town of Arnstein . Hardenberg descended from ancient, Lower Saxon nobility. Novalis's father
5177-733: A profound opinion that the Christian life within Evangelical Lutheranism was being sacrificed to zeal for rigid Lutheran orthodoxy . Pietism, as a distinct movement in the German Church, began with religious meetings at Spener's house ( collegia pietatis ) where he repeated his sermons, expounded passages of the New Testament , and induced those present to join in conversation on religious questions. In 1675, Spener published his Pia desideria or Earnest Desire for
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5344-505: A published author at this time. In 1798, Novalis's fragments appeared in the Schlegel brother's magazine, Athenaeum . These works included Blüthenstaub ( Pollen ), Glauben und Liebe oder der König und die Königin ( Faith and Love or the King and the Queen ), and Blumen ( Flowers ). The publication of Pollen saw the first appearance of his pen name , "Novalis". His choice of pen name
5511-483: A reactionary manifesto or a theocratic dream. Another view of Novalis's work is that it reflects a Christian mysticism. After Novalis died, the Jena Romantics wrote of him as a seer who would bring forth a new gospel: one who lived his life as one aiming toward the spiritual while looking at death as a means of overcoming human limitation in a revolutionary movement toward God. In this more romantic view, Novalis
5678-469: A reassessment of Novalis's literary and intellectual goals. He was deeply read in science, law, philosophy, politics and political economy and left an abundance of notes on these topics. His early work displays his ease and familiarity with these diverse fields. His later works also include topics from his professional duties. In his notebooks, Novalis also reflected on the scientific, aesthetic, and philosophical significance of his interests. In his Notes for
5845-608: A result, Laestadian Lutherans have remained a part of the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland , the national Church in that country, with some Laestadian Lutherans being consecrated as bishops . In the United States, Laestadian Lutheran Churches were formed for Laestadian Pietists. Laestadian Lutherans observe the Lutheran sacraments , holding classical Lutheran theology on infant baptism and
6012-588: A sentence, and then they are usually skipped, unless this creates confusion. In this, the German language practice differs from Dutch in the Netherlands, where the particle van is usually capitalised when mentioned without preceding given names or initials, or from Dutch in Belgium, where the name particle Van is always capitalised. Although nobility as a class is no longer recognised in Germany and enjoys no legal privileges, institutions exist that carry on
6179-426: A specific title as heir to one of Germany's former thrones (e.g., Erbprinz ("hereditary prince"))—along with any heir to a title of nobility inherited via primogeniture, and their wives—were permitted to incorporate those titles into elements of the personal surname. However, these titles became extinct upon their deaths, not being heritable. With the demise of all persons styled "crown prince" before 1918,
6346-405: A subject of debate. Novalis's early rearing in a Pietist household affected him through this life. The impact of his religious background on his writings are particularly clear in his two major poetic works. Hymns to the Night contains many Christian symbols and themes. And, Novalis's Spiritual Songs , which were posthumously published in 1802 were incorporated into Lutheran hymnals; Novalis called
6513-478: A time for summer revival services in which many young adults find their future spouses. R. J. Hollingdale , who translated Friedrich Nietzsche 's Thus Spake Zarathustra into English, argued that a number of the themes of the work (especially amor fati ) originated in the Lutheran Pietism of Nietzsche's childhood – Nietzsche's father, Carl Ludwig Nietzsche , was a Lutheran pastor who supported
6680-545: A type of literary prophet, the magischer Idealist ( magical idealist ). In this worldview, philosophy and poetry are united. Magical idealism is Novalis's synthesis of the German idealism of Fichte and Schelling with the creative imagination. The goal of the creative imagination is to break down the barriers between language and world, as well as the subject and object. The magic is the enlivening of nature as it responds to our will. Another element of Novalis's magical idealism
6847-595: A universal "progressive universal poesy", that fused "poetry and prose into an art that expressed the totality of both art and nature". This genre particularly suited Novalis as it allowed him to express himself in a way that kept both philosophy and poetry in a continuous relationship. His first major use of the fragment as a literary form, Pollen , was published in the Athenaeum in 1798. English translations include: Defunct Defunct During his lifetime, Novalis wrote two works on political themes, Faith and Love or
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7014-439: A universal world harmony with the help of poetry. The Novices at Sais contains the fairy tale "Hyacinth and Rose Petal". Heinrich von Ofterdingen is the work in which Novalis introduced the image of the blue flower . Heinrich von Ofterdingen was conceived as a response to Goethe's Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship , a work that Novalis had read with enthusiasm but judged as being highly unpoetical. He disliked Goethe making
7181-678: A wide number of disciplines including electricity, medicine, chemistry, physics, mathematics, mineralogy and natural philosophy . He conversed with many of the formative figures of the Early Germanic Romantic period, including Goethe , Friedrich Schelling , Jean Paul and August Schlegel . After finishing his studies, Novalis served as a director of salt mines in Saxony and later in Thuringia . During this time, Novalis wrote major poetic and literary works, including Hymns to
7348-561: A woman of elevated social status in order for a nobleman to pass on his titles and privileges to his children. In this respect, the General State Laws for the Prussian States of 1794 spoke of marriage (and children) "to the right hand". This excluded marriages with women of the lower social classes, but did not mean a woman had to come from nobility herself. Especially towards the end of the 19th century and beyond, when
7515-576: A year in Geneva , and was powerfully influenced by the strict moral life and rigid ecclesiastical discipline prevalent there, and also by the preaching and the piety of the Waldensian professor Antoine Leger and the converted Jesuit preacher Jean de Labadie . During a stay in Tübingen , Spener read Grossgebauer's Alarm Cry , and in 1666 he entered upon his first pastoral charge at Frankfurt with
7682-432: Is a performative act that enacts a key aspect of his philosophical and literary goals. These words are meant to startle readers into attentiveness, making them aware of his use of the arts, particularly poetry with its metaphor and symbolism, to explore and unify various understandings of nature in his all-embracing investigations. Magical idealism also addresses the idea of health. Novalis derived his theory of health from
7849-689: Is a quintessentially North American phenomenon, deriving as it did from the confluence of Pietism, Presbyterianism , and the vestiges of Puritanism . Evangelicalism picked up the peculiar characteristics from each strain – warmhearted spirituality from the Pietists (for instance), doctrinal precisionism from the Presbyterians, and individualistic introspection from the Puritans – even as the North American context itself has profoundly shaped
8016-446: Is best known as a German Romantic poet. His two sets of poems, Hymns to the Night and Spiritual Songs , are considered his major lyrical achievements. Hymns to the Night were begun in 1797 after the death of Sophie von Kühn. About eight months after they were completed, a revised edition of the poems was published in the Athenaeum . The Spiritual Songs , which were written in 1799, were posthumously published in 1802. Novalis called
8183-531: Is edited by Richard Samuel, Hans-Joachim Mähl & Gerhard Schulz. It is published by Kohlhammer Verlag , Stuttgart, 1960–2006. Novalis's Correspondence was edited by J. M. Raich in 1880. See R. Haym Die romantische Schule (Berlin, 1870); A. Schubart, Novalis' Leben, Dichten und Denken (1887); C. Busse, Novalis' Lyrik (1898); J. Bing, Friedrich von Hardenberg (Hamburg, 1899), E. Heilborn, Friedrich von Hardenberg (Berlin, 1901). The political philosopher Karl Marx 's metaphorical argument that religion
8350-440: Is his concept of love . In Novalis's view, love is a sense of relationship and sympathy between all beings in the world, which is considered both the basis of magic and its goal. From one perspective, Novalis's emphasis on the term magic represents a challenge to what he perceived as the disenchantment that came with modern rationalistic thinking.From another perspective, however, Novalis's use of magic and love in his writing
8517-499: Is illustrated by a quote from one of his notes in his Fichte-Studien ( Fichte Studies ): "Spinoza ascended as far as nature- Fichte to the 'I', or the person, I ascend to the thesis of God". According to this Neoplatonic reading of Novalis, his religious language can be understood using the "magic wand of analogy", a phrase Novalis used in Europe and Christianity to clarify how he meant to use history in that essay. This use of analogy
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#17327878373038684-473: Is maintained when we use our bodies as means to sensitively perceive the world rather than to control the world: the ideal is where the individual and the world interplay harmoniously. It has been argued that there is an anxiety in Novalis's sense of magical idealism that denies actual touch, which leads inevitably to death, and replaces it with an idea of "distant touch". Novalis's religious perspective remains
8851-534: Is no monarch who can ennoble anymore. However, dispensations are granted only in the most exceptional cases, as they infringe on the rights of a theoretical future monarch. When a person is granted a dispensation by the Adelsrechtsausschuss, he becomes the progenitor of a new noble family, which consists of all of his legitimate male-line descendants in accordance with nobiliary law. They are considered equal to nobles in all regards, and allowed to join nobility associations. A family whose nobility dates back to at least
9018-459: Is not the separation of subject and object, but a dynamic process of equal partners in mutual communication. Novalis's viewpoint is summarized in his aphorism "Statt Nicht-Ich -- Du!" ("Instead of 'not-I', you"). In the final months of 1795, Sophie began to suffer declining health due to a liver tumor that was thought to be caused by tuberculosis. As a result, she underwent liver surgery in Jena, which
9185-615: Is one substance. Novalis sought a single principle through which the division between ego and nature becomes mere appearance. As Novalis's philosophical thinking on religion developed, it became influenced by the Platonism of Hemsterhuis, as well as the Neoplatonism of Plotinus . Accordingly, Novalis aimed to synthesize naturalism and theism into a "religion of the visible cosmos". Novalis believed that individuals could obtain mystic insight, but religion can remain rational: God could be
9352-470: Is still alive in groups inside the Evangelical Church in Germany . These groups are called Landeskirchliche Gemeinschaften and emerged in the second half of the 19th century in the so-called Gemeinschaftsbewegung . The 19th century saw a revival of confessional Lutheran doctrine, known as the neo-Lutheran movement . This movement focused on a reassertion of the identity of Lutherans as
9519-666: Is to throw off apathy, to become revived") in his conclusion to Studies in the History of the Renaissance . The esotericist and philosopher Rudolf Steiner spoke in various lectures (now published) about Novalis and his influence on anthroposophy . German nobility Defunct The German nobility ( deutscher Adel ) and royalty were status groups of the medieval society in Central Europe , which enjoyed certain privileges relative to other people under
9686-856: The Austrian nobility , which came to be associated with the Austrian Empire and Austria-Hungary . The nobility system of the German Empire was similar to nobility in the Austrian Empire ; both developed during the Holy Roman Empire and both ended in 1919 when they were abolished, and legal status and privileges were revoked. In April 1919, Austrian nobility was abolished under the First Austrian Republic (1919–1934) and, contrary to Germany,
9853-598: The Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland and the Church of Sweden . After encountering a Sami woman who experienced a conversion, Laestadius had a similar experience that "transformed his life and defined his calling". As such, Laestadius "spend the rest of his life advancing his idea of Lutheran pietism, focusing his energies on marginalized groups in the northernmost regions of the Nordic countries". Laestadius called on his followers to embrace their Lutheran identity and as
10020-640: The Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland . The Eielsen Synod and Association of Free Lutheran Congregations are Pietist Lutheran bodies that emerged in the Pietist Lutheran movement in Norway , which was spearheaded by Hans Nielsen Hauge . In 1900, the Church of the Lutheran Brethren was founded and it adheres to Pietist Lutheran theology, emphasizing a personal conversion experience . The Ethiopian Evangelical Church Mekane Yesus ,
10187-679: The Evangelical Synod of North America , which is now a part of the United Church of Christ .) In the middle of the 19th century, Lars Levi Laestadius spearheaded a Pietist revival in Scandinavia that upheld what came to be known as Laestadian Lutheran theology , which is heralded today by the Laestadian Lutheran Church as well as by several congregations within mainstream Lutheran Churches, such as
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#173278783730310354-525: The Hochadel , the heads of their families being entitled to be addressed as Erlaucht ("Illustrious Highness"), rather than simply as Hochgeboren ("High-born"). There were also some German noble families, especially in Austria, Prussia and Bavaria, whose heads bore the titles of Fürst (prince) or Herzog (duke); however, never having exercised a degree of sovereignty, they were accounted members of
10521-489: The Hochadel, were considered part of the lower nobility or Niederer Adel . Most were untitled, only making use of the particle von in their surnames. Higher-ranking noble families of the Niederer Adel bore such hereditary titles as Edler (lord), Ritter (knight), Freiherr (or baron) and Graf . Although most German counts belonged officially to the lower nobility, those who were mediatised belonged to
10688-941: The Old Order River Brethren and the United Zion Church ), as well as the Schwarzenau Brethren (that include Old Order groups such as the Old Brethren German Baptist , Conservative groups such as the Dunkard Brethren Church , and mainline groups such as the Church of the Brethren ). As with Moravianism , Pietism was a major influence on John Wesley and others who began the Methodist movement in 18th-century Great Britain . John Wesley
10855-422: The Pietist Lutheran movement in Norway , which was spearheaded by Hans Nielsen Hauge . In 1900, the Church of the Lutheran Brethren was founded and it adheres to Pietist Lutheran theology, emphasizing a personal conversion experience . Radical Pietism are those Christian Churches who decided to break with denominational Lutheranism in order to emphasize certain teachings regarding holy living. Churches in
11022-866: The School of Salamanca Lutheran scholasticism during Lutheran orthodoxy Ramism among the Reformed orthodoxy Metaphysical poets in the Church of England The Jesuits against Jansenism Labadists against the Jesuits Pietism against orthodox Lutherans Nadere Reformatie within Dutch Calvinism Richard Hooker against the Ramists Neologists against Lutherans Spinozists against Dutch Calvinists Deists against Anglicanism John Locke against Bishop Stillingfleet The subject
11189-411: The Spiritual Songs written in the last years of his life. Novalis and Julie remained engaged until Novalis's death in 1801, and she tended him during his final illness. In Freiberg, he remained active with his literary work. It was at this time that he began a collection of notes for a project to unite the separate sciences into a universal whole. In this collection, Das allgemeine Brouillon (Notes for
11356-454: The Teutonic Order , who lived at his rural estate in Lucklum . Novalis's uncle introduced him to the late Rococo world, where Novalis was exposed to enlightenment ideas as well as the contemporary literature of his time, including the works of the French Encyclopedists , Goethe , Lessing and Shakespeare . At seventeen, Novalis attended the Martin Luther Gymnasium in Eisleben , near Weissenfels where his family had moved in 1785. At
11523-407: The Weimar Constitution on 11 August 1919, all Germans were declared equal before the law. an exceptional practice regarding surnames borne by former members of the nobility: whereas the gender differentiation in German surnames , widespread until the 18th century and colloquially retained in some dialects, was abolished in Germany with the introduction of officially registered invariable surnames by
11690-453: The capitalist economy , Merton argued for a similar positive correlation between the rise of Protestant Pietism and early experimental science. The Merton Thesis has resulted in continuous debates. In the United States, Richard L. McCormick says, "In the nineteenth century voters whose religious heritage was pietistic or evangelical were prone to support the Whigs and, later, the Republicans." Paul Kleppner generalizes, "the more pietistic
11857-448: The font , the pulpit , the confessional , and the altar as "the four dumb idols of the Lutheran Church"; the theologian Johann Valentin Andrea , court chaplain of the Landgrave of Hesse; Schuppius, who sought to restore the Bible to its place in the pulpit; and Theophilus Grossgebauer (d. 1661) of Rostock , who from his pulpit and by his writings raised what he called "the alarm cry of a watchman in Sion ". The direct originator of
12024-475: The real presence of Christ in the Eucharist , and also heavily emphasize Confession . Uniquely, Laestadian Lutherans "discourage watching television, attending movies, dancing, playing card games or games of chance, and drinking alcoholic beverages", as well as avoiding birth control – Laestadian Lutheran families usually have four to ten children. Laestadian Lutherans gather in a central location for weeks at
12191-452: The 14th century may be called Uradel , or Alter Adel ("ancient nobility", or "old nobility"). This contrasts with Briefadel ("patent nobility"): nobility granted by letters patent . The first known such document is from September 30, 1360, for Wyker Frosch in Mainz. The term Uradel was not without controversy, and the concept was seen by some as an arbitrary distinction invented by
12358-470: The 1600s after the writings of Johann Arndt, Philipp Jakob Spener, and August Hermann Francke became popular. Pietistic Lutheranism gained patronage under Archbishop Erik Benzelius , who encouraged the Pietistic Lutheran practices. Laestadian Lutheranism , a form of Pietistic Lutheranism, continues to flourish in Scandinavia, where Church of Sweden priest Lars Levi Laestadius spearheaded
12525-616: The 18th-century foundation of evangelicalism , an interdenominational movement within Protestantism that today has some 300 million followers. In the middle of the 19th century, Lars Levi Laestadius spearheaded a Pietist revival in Scandinavia that upheld what came to be known as Laestadian Lutheran theology , which is adhered to today by the Laestadian Lutheran Churches as well as by several congregations within other mainstream Lutheran Churches, such as
12692-581: The Empire's formerly quasi-sovereign families whose domains had been mediatised within the German Confederation by 1815, yet preserved the legal right to continue royal intermarriage with still-reigning dynasties ( Ebenbürtigkeit ). These quasi-sovereign families comprised mostly princely and comital families, but included a few dukes also of Belgian and Dutch origin ( Arenberg , Croÿ , Looz-Corswarem). Information on these families constituted
12859-592: The German Empire. In addition, the ruling families of Hohenzollern-Hechingen and Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen were accorded the dynastic rights of a cadet branch of the Royal House of Prussia after yielding sovereignty to their royal kinsmen. The exiled heirs to Hanover and Nassau eventually regained sovereignty by being allowed to inherit, respectively, the crowns of Brunswick (1914) and Luxembourg (1890). Nobility that held legal privileges until 1918 greater than those enjoyed by commoners, but less than those enjoyed by
13026-478: The German nobility, however, inherited no titles, and were usually distinguishable only by the nobiliary particle von in their surnames. Pietism Bible Translators Theologians Pietism ( / ˈ p aɪ . ɪ t ɪ z əm / ), also known as Pietistic Lutheranism , is a movement within Lutheranism that combines its emphasis on biblical doctrine with an emphasis on individual piety and living
13193-628: The Jena Romantics extended to philosophy as well as literature and aesthetics, and has been considered as a philosophical movement in its own right. Under the influence of Tieck, Novalis studied the works of the seventeenth-century mystic, Jakob Böhme , with whom he felt a strong affinity. He also became deeply engaged with the Platonic aesthetics of Hemsterhuis, as well as the writings of the theologian and philosopher Friedrich Schleiermacher . Schleiermacher's work inspired Novalis to write his essay, Christenheit oder Europa ( Christianity or Europe ),
13360-555: The King and the Queen and his speech Europa , which was posthumously named Christianity or Europe . In addition to their political focus, both works share a common theme of poetically arguing for the importance of "faith and love" to achieve human and communal unification. Because these works poetically address political concerns, their meaning continues to be the subject of disagreement. Their interpretations have ranged from being seen as reactionary manifestos celebrating hierarchies to utopian dreams of human solidarity. Faith and Love or
13527-546: The King and the Queen was published in Yearbooks of the Prussian Monarchy in 1798 just after King Wilhelm Frederick III and his popular wife Queen Louise ascended to the throne of Prussia. In this work, Novalis addresses the king and queen, emphasizing their importance as role models for creating an enduring state of interconnectedness both on the individual and collective level. Though a substantial portion of
13694-1126: The Kingdom of Prussia. Hochadel ("upper nobility", or "high nobility") were those noble houses which ruled sovereign states within the Holy Roman Empire and, later, in the German Confederation and the German Empire . They were royalty ; the heads of these families were entitled to be addressed by some form of "Majesty" or "Highness". These were the families of kings (Bavaria, Hanover, Prussia, Saxony, and Württemberg ), grand dukes (Baden, Hesse and by Rhine, Luxembourg, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Oldenburg and Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach), reigning dukes (Anhalt, Brunswick, Schleswig-Holstein, Nassau, Saxe-Altenburg, Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, Saxe-Meiningen), and reigning princes (Hohenzollern-Hechingen, Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, Liechtenstein, Lippe, Reuss, Schaumburg-Lippe, Schwarzburg, and Waldeck-Pyrmont). The Hochadel also included
13861-518: The Lutheran and Reformed churches in Prussia to unite; they took the name "Evangelical" as a name both groups had previously identified with. This union movement spread through many German lands in the 1800s. Pietism, with its looser attitude toward confessional theology, had opened the churches to the possibility of uniting. The unification of the two branches of German Protestantism sparked the Schism of
14028-426: The Night . In 1800, he began showing signs of illness, which is thought to have been either tuberculosis or cystic fibrosis , and died on 25 March 1801 at the age of 28. Novalis's early reputation as a romantic poet was primarily based on his literary works, which were published by his friends Friedrich Schlegel and Ludwig Tieck shortly after his death, in 1802. These works include the collection of poems, Hymns to
14195-413: The Night and Spiritual Hymns , and his unfinished novels, Heinrich von Ofterdingen and The Novices at Sais . Schlegel and Tieck published only a small sample of his philosophical and scientific writings. The depth of Novalis's knowledge in fields like philosophy and natural science came to be more broadly appreciated with the more extensive publication of his notebooks in the twentieth century. Novalis
14362-500: The Night ). At the end of 1797, Novalis entered the Mining Academy of Freiberg in Saxony to become qualified as a member of the staff for the salt works at Weissenfels. His principle mentor at the academy was the geologist, Abraham Werner . While at the academy, Novalis immersed himself in a wide range of studies, including electricity, galvanism, alchemy, medicine, chemistry, physics, mathematics, and natural philosophy. He
14529-447: The Night - are not only mystical utterances, they also express philosophical arguments. Read in this perspective, a work like Novalis's Christianity or Europe is not a call to return to a lost golden age. Rather, it is an argument in poetic language, phrased in the mode of a myth, for a cosmopolitan vision of a unity that brings together past and future, ideal and real, to engage the listener in an unfinished historical process. Novalis
14696-457: The Night . Most of Novalis's writings, including his novels and philosophical works, were neither completed nor published in his lifetime. This problem continues to obscure a full appreciation of his work. His unfinished novels Heinrich von Ofterdingen and The Novices at Sais and numerous other poems and fragments were published posthumously by Ludwig Tieck and Friedrich Schlegel. However, their publication of Novalis's more philosophical fragments
14863-519: The Novel quotes Novalis at the top of the essay, "Philosophy is really homesickness—the desire to be everywhere at home." The essay unfolds closely related to this notion of Novalis—that modern philosophy "mourns the absence of a pre-subjective, pre-reflexive anchoring of reason" and is searching to be grounded but cannot achieve this aim due to philosophy's modern discursive nature. Later, however, Lukács repudiated Romanticism, writing that Novalis's "cult of
15030-549: The Old Lutherans . Many Lutherans, called Old Lutherans formed free churches or emigrated to the United States and Australia , where they formed bodies that would later become the Lutheran Church – Missouri Synod and the Lutheran Church of Australia , respectively. (Many immigrants to America, who agreed with the union movement, formed German Evangelical Lutheran and Reformed congregations, later combined into
15197-458: The Pietist movement. In 1900, the Church of the Lutheran Brethren was founded and it adheres to Pietist Lutheran theology, emphasizing a personal conversion experience . Pietistic Lutheranism influenced existing Lutheran denominations such as the Church of Norway and many Pietistic Lutherans have remained in them, though other Pietistic Lutherans have established their own Synods too. In
15364-1185: The Radical Pietist movement include the Mennonite Brethren Church , Community of True Inspiration (Inspirationalists), the Baptist General Conference , members of the International Federation of Free Evangelical Churches (such as the Evangelical Covenant Church and the Evangelical Free Church ), the Templers , the River Brethren (inclusive of the Brethren in Christ Church , the Calvary Holiness Church ,
15531-488: The Scottish physician John Brown 's system of medicine , which sees illness as a mismatch between sensory stimulation and internal state. Novalis extends this idea by suggesting that illness arises from a disharmony between the self and the world of nature. This understanding of health is immanent: the "magic" is not otherworldly, it is based on the body and mind's relationship to the environment. According to Novalis, health
15698-558: The Scriptures of a practical and devotional character, and in the German language , which were zealously frequented by both students and townsmen. The lectures aroused the ill-will of the other theologians and pastors of Leipzig, and Francke and his friends left the city, and with the aid of Christian Thomasius and Spener founded the new University of Halle . The theological chairs in the new university were filled in complete conformity with Spener's proposals. The main difference between
15865-633: The West, based in Gravois, Missouri , later German Evangelical Synod of North America and still later the Evangelical and Reformed Church , a precursor of the United Church of Christ .) The church president from 1901 to 1914 was a pietist named Jakob Pister. Some vestiges of Pietism were still present in 1957 at the time of the formation of the United Church of Christ. In the 21st century Pietism
16032-580: The age of 22. He then worked as a legal assistant in Tennstedt immediately after graduating. There, he met Sophie von Kühn . The following year Novalis and Sophie became secretly engaged. Sophie became severely ill soon after the engagement and died just after her 15th birthday. Sophie's early death had a life-long impact on Novalis and his writing. Novalis enrolled at the Freiberg University of Mining and Technology in 1797, where he studied
16199-404: The associations of the formerly ruling and mediatized houses of Germany send representatives to the commission. This so-called (Nichtbeanstandung) , 'Non-Objection' results in the factual ennoblement of the recipient (even though the term is not applied), making Germany one of the few republics where it is still possible for non-nobles to join the ranks of the nobility even though there
16366-443: The author Karl Hillebrand and the literary critic Hermann Theodor Hettner thought that Novalis was essentially a Catholic in his thinking. In the twentieth century, this view of Novalis has sometimes led to negative assessments of his work. Hymns to the Night has been described as an attempt by Novalis to use religion to avoid the challenges of modernity, and Christianity or Europe has been described variously as desperate prayer,
16533-468: The chair of mining studies at the University of Leipzig. Unlike his relationship with Sophie, Novalis's affection for Julie developed more gradually. He initially saw his affection for Julie as a more "earthly" passion compared to his "heavenly" passion for Sophie, though he gradually softened this distinction with time. Eventually his feelings for Julie became the subject of some of his poetry, including
16700-487: The court-chaplaincy at Dresden , which opened to him a wider though more difficult sphere of labor. In Leipzig , a society of young theologians was formed under his influence for the learned study and devout application of the Bible. Three magistrates belonging to that society, one of whom was August Hermann Francke , subsequently the founder of the famous orphanage at Halle (1695), commenced courses of expository lectures on
16867-601: The dramatic industrialization and urbanization of Germany after 1850. Landowners modernized their estates, and oriented their business to an international market. Many younger sons were positioned in the rapidly growing national and regional civil service bureaucracies, as well as in the officer corps of the military. They acquired not only the technical skills but the necessary education in high prestige German universities that facilitated their success. Many became political leaders of new reform organizations such as agrarian leagues, and pressure groups. The Roman Catholic nobility played
17034-483: The dynasty's origin might have been called of A-Town [{and at} A-Town] furthermore, while a new, junior branch could then have adopted the style of, say, of A-town [and] at B-ville , sometimes even dropping [and] at , simply hyphenating the names of the two places. Other forms also exist as combinations with the definite article: e.g. " von der " or von dem → " vom " ("of the"), zu der → " zur " or zu dem → " zum " ("of the", "in the", "at the"). Particularly between
17201-467: The earth. In Pollen , Novalis writes "We are on a mission: Our calling is the cultivation of the earth", arguing that human beings come to know themselves through experiencing and enlivening nature. Novalis's personal commitment to understanding one's self and the world through nature can be seen in Novalis's unfinished novel, Heinrich von Ofterdingen , in which he uses his knowledge of natural science derived from his work overseeing salt mining to understand
17368-425: The economical victorious over the poetic in the narrative, so Novalis focused on making Heinrich von Ofterdingen triumphantly poetic. Both of Novalis's novels also reflect human experience through metaphors related to his studies in natural history from Freiburg. Translations of Novels into English include: Together with Friedrich Schlegel, Novalis developed the fragment as a literary artform in German. For Schlegel,
17535-447: The essay was published, Frederick Wilhelm III censored the publication of additional installments as he felt it held the monarchy to impossibly high standards. The work is also notable in that Novalis extensively used the literary fragment to make his points. Europa was written and originally delivered to a private group of friends in 1799. It was intended for the Athenaeum ; after it was presented, Schlegel decided not to publish it. It
17702-973: The established Lutheran Churches. Some of the theological tenets of Pietism also influenced other traditions of Protestantism , inspiring the Anglican priest John Wesley to begin the Methodist movement and Alexander Mack to begin the Anabaptist Schwarzenau Brethren movement. The word pietism (in lower case spelling) is also used to refer to an "emphasis on devotional experience and practices", or an "affectation of devotion", "pious sentiment, especially of an exaggerated or affected nature", not necessarily connected with Lutheranism or even Christianity. Pietistic Lutherans meet together in conventicles , "apart from Divine Service in order to mutually encourage piety". They believe "that any true Christian could point back in his or her life to an inner struggle with sin that culminated in
17869-402: The estate from which the surname is drawn. Therefore, von und zu indicates a family which is both named for and continues to own their original feudal holding or residence. However, the zu particle can also hint to the split of a dynasty, as providing information on the adopted new home of one split-off branch: For instance, a senior branch owning and maybe even still residing at the place of
18036-435: The first Pietist missionary to India. Spener stressed the necessity of a new birth and separation of Christians from the world (see Asceticism ). Many Pietists maintained that the new birth always had to be preceded by agonies of repentance, and that only a regenerated theologian could teach theology. The whole school shunned all common worldly amusements, such as dancing, the theatre, and public games. Some believe this led to
18203-560: The following year, Novalis's younger brother, Erasmus enrolled at the University of Leipzig , and Novalis went with him to continue his legal studies. In 1792, he met the literary critic Friedrich Schlegel , the younger brother of August. Friedrich became one of Novalis's closest lifetime friends. A year later, Novalis matriculated to the University of Wittenberg where he completed his law degree. After graduating from Wittenberg , Novalis moved to Tennstedt to work as an actuary for
18370-536: The former royal families of Prussia and Bavaria were allowed use of Prinz/Prinzessin ; or Herzog/Herzogin. In the cases of the former kings/queens of Saxony and Württemberg, the ducal title borne by non-ruling cadets of their dynasties before 1919, or Herzog/Herzogin for the six deposed grand dukes (i.e., the former rulers of Baden , Hesse , Mecklenburg-Schwerin , Mecklenburg-Strelitz , Oldenburg , and Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach ) and their consorts were retained. Any dynasty who did not reign prior to 1918 but had held
18537-478: The foundation for his later philosophical and literary works: Novalis focused on Fichte's argument that the concept of identity assumes a tension between self (i.e., "I") and object (i.e., "not-I"). Novalis's critique of Fichte arose from Novalis's literary commitments: Novalis suggests that the tension between self and object that Fichte asserts is actually a tension between language and imagination. Later, Novalis would take his critique further, suggesting that identity
18704-405: The foundations for the movement. Although Spener did not directly advocate the quietistic , legalistic, and semi-separatist practices of Pietism, they were more or less involved in the positions he assumed or the practices which he encouraged. Pietism spread from Germany to Switzerland, the rest of German-speaking Europe, and to Scandinavia and the Baltics, where it was heavily influential, leaving
18871-408: The fragment served as a literary vehicle that mediated apparent oppositions. Its model was the fragment from classical sculpture, whose part evoked the whole, or whose finitude evoked infinite possibility, via the imagination. The use of the fragment allowed Novalis to easily express himself on any issue of intellectual life he wanted to address, and it served as a means of expressing Schlegel's ideal of
19038-617: The group's outlook the more intensely Republican its partisan affiliation." McCormick notes that the key link between religious values and politics resulted from the "urge of evangelicals and Pietists to 'reach out and purge the world of sin'". Pietism became influential among Scandinavian Lutherans; additionally it affected other denominations in the United States, such as the Northern Methodists , Northern Baptists , Congregationalists , Presbyterians , Disciples of Christ , and some smaller groups. The great majority were based in
19205-483: The gymnasium, he learned rhetoric and ancient literature. Between 1790 and 1794, Novalis went to university to study law. He first attended the University of Jena . While there, he studied Immanuel Kant 's philosophy under Karl Reinhold , and it was there that he first became acquainted with Fichte's philosophy. He also developed a close relationship with playwright and philosopher Schiller . Novalis attended Schiller's lectures on history and tended to Schiller when he
19372-401: The human condition. Novalis's commitment to cultivating nature has even been considered as a potential source of insight for a deeper understanding of the environmental crisis. Novalis's personal worldview—informed by his education, philosophy, professional knowledge, and pietistic background—has become known as magical idealism , a name derived from Novalis's reference in his 1798 notebooks to
19539-528: The immediate and the unconscious necessarily leads to a cult of night and death, of sickness and decay." The musical composer Richard Wagner 's libretto for the opera Tristan und Isolde contains strong allusions to Novalis's symbolic language, especially the dichotomy between the Night and the Day that animates his Hymns to the Night. The literary critic Walter Pater includes Novalis's quote, "Philosophiren ist dephlegmatisiren, vivificiren" ("to philosophize
19706-560: The last attempt to save Christianity as a religion: Given that for him religion was a negative term, more or less an opposite to revelation , this constitutes a rather scathing judgment. Bonhoeffer denounced the basic aim of Pietism, to produce a "desired piety" in a person, as unbiblical. Pietism is considered the major influence that led to the creation of the " Evangelical Church of the Union " in Prussia in 1817. The King of Prussia ordered
19873-635: The late 18th and early 20th century when an increasing number of unlanded commoners were ennobled, the " von " was typically simply put in front of a person's surname. When a person by the common occupational surname of " Meyer " received nobility, they would thus simply become " von Meyer ". When sorting noble—as well as non-noble—names in alphabetic sequence, any prepositions or (former) title are ignored. Name elements which have developed from honorary functions, such as Schenk (short for Mundschenk , i.e., " cup-bearer "), are also overlooked. Nobiliary particles are not capitalised unless they begin
20040-399: The late 19th century, former noble titles transformed into parts of the surname in 1919 continue to appear in female and male forms. Altogether abolished were titles of sovereigns, such as emperor/empress, king/queen, grand duke/grand duchess, etc. However, former titles shared and inherited by all members of the family were retained but incorporated into the surname. For instance, members of
20207-566: The laws and customs in the German-speaking area , until the beginning of the 20th century. Historically, German entities that recognized or conferred nobility included the Holy Roman Empire (962–1806), the German Confederation (1814–1866), and the German Empire (1871–1918). Chancellor Otto von Bismarck in the German Empire had a policy of expanding his political base by ennobling nouveau riche industrialists and businessmen who had no noble ancestors. The nobility flourished during
20374-420: The laws. Whereas the title previously prefixed the given and surname (e.g., Graf Kasimir von der Recke ), the legal usage moves the former title to the surname (i.e., Kasimir Graf von der Recke ). However, the pre-1919 style sometimes continues in colloquial usage. In Austria, by contrast, not only were the privileges of the nobility abolished, but their titles and nobiliary particles as well. German nobility
20541-793: The legal tradition of pre-1919 nobiliary law, which in Germany today is subsumed under Sonderprivatrecht , 'special private law'. The Deutscher Adelsrechtsausschuss , 'German Commission on Nobiliary Law' can decide matters such as lineage, legitimacy, and a person's right to bear a name of nobility, in accordance with codified nobiliary law as it existed prior to 1919. The Commission's rulings are generally non-binding for individuals and establish no rights or privileges that German authorities or courts would have to consider or observe. However, they are binding for all German nobility associations recognized by CILANE ( Commission d'information et de liaison des associations nobles d'Europe ). In 1919, nobiliary particles and titles became part of
20708-527: The legitimate, male-line descendants of the ennobled person. Families that had been considered noble as early as pre-1400s Germany (i.e., the Uradel or "ancient nobility") were usually eventually recognised by a sovereign, confirming their entitlement to whatever legal privileges nobles enjoyed in that sovereign's realm. Noble rank was usually granted to men by letters patent (see Briefadel ), whereas women were members of nobility by descent or by marriage to
20875-472: The lower nobility (e.g., Bismarck , Blücher , Putbus , Hanau , Henckel von Donnersmarck , Pless , Wrede ). The titles of elector , grand duke , archduke , duke , landgrave , margrave , count palatine , prince and Reichsgraf were borne by rulers who belonged to Germany's Hochadel . Other counts, as well as barons ( Freiherren/Barons ) , lords ( Herren ), Landed knights ( Ritter ) were borne by noble, non-reigning families. The vast majority of
21042-480: The middle of the 19th century, Lars Levi Laestadius spearheaded a Pietist revival in Scandinavia that upheld what came to be known as Laestadian Lutheran theology , which is adhered to today by the Laestadian Lutheran Churches as well as by several congregations within other mainstream Lutheran Churches, such as the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland . The Eielsen Synod and Association of Free Lutheran Congregations are Pietist Lutheran bodies that emerged in
21209-678: The movement was Philipp Spener . Born at Rappoltsweiler in Alsace, now in France, on 13 January 1635, trained by a devout godmother who used books of devotion like Arndt's True Christianity , Spener was convinced of the necessity of a moral and religious reformation within German Lutheranism. He studied theology at Strasbourg , where the professors at the time (and especially Sebastian Schmidt) were more inclined to "practical" Christianity than to theological disputation. He afterwards spent
21376-434: The new Pietistic Lutheran school and the orthodox Lutherans arose from the Pietists' conception of Christianity as chiefly consisting in a change of heart and consequent holiness of life. Orthodox Lutherans rejected this viewpoint as a gross simplification, stressing the need for the church and for sound theological underpinnings. Spener died in 1705, but the movement, guided by Francke and fertilized from Halle, spread through
21543-831: The northern states; some of these groups in the South would rather support the Democrats. In England in the late 19th and early 20th century, the Nonconformist Protestant denominations, such as the Methodists, Baptists and Congregationalists, formed the base of the Liberal Party . David Hempton states, "The Liberal Party was the main beneficiary of Methodist political loyalties." Protestant Reformation Counter-Reformation Aristotelianism Scholasticism Patristics Second scholasticism of
21710-411: The orthodoxy via new media and formats: Periodical journals gained importance versus the former pasquills and single thesis, traditional disputation was replaced by competitive debating, which tried to gain new knowledge instead of defending orthodox scholarship. As a distinct movement, Pietism had its greatest strength by the middle of the 18th century; its very individualism in fact helped to prepare
21877-565: The poems Christian Songs , and they were intended to be entitled Specimens From a New Devotional Hymn Book . After his death many of the poems were incorporated into Lutheran hymn-books. Novalis also wrote a number of other occasional poems, which can be found in his collected works. Translations of poems into English include: Novalis wrote two unfinished novel fragments, Heinrich von Ofterdingen and Die Lehrlinge zu Sais ( The Novices at Sais ), both of which were published posthumously by Tieck and Schlegel in 1802. The novels both aim to describe
22044-517: The poems "Christian Songs", and they were intended to be published in the Athenaeum under the title Specimens From a New Devotional Hymn Book . One of his final works, which was posthumously named Die Christenheit oder Europa ( Christianity or Europe ) when it was first published in full in 1826, has generated a great deal of controversy regarding Novalis's religious views. This essay, which Novalis himself had simply entitled Europa , called for European unity in Novalis's time by poetically referencing
22211-436: The principle of 'guidance by inner light' was often a signal to follow the most intense of her inner sentiments… the supremacy of feeling over reason". Religious authorities could bring pressure on pietists, such as when they brought some of Magny's followers before the local consistory to answer questions about their unorthodox views or when they banished Magny from Vevey for heterodoxy in 1713. Likewise, pietism challenged
22378-409: The public tranquility or to promote a mysticism so nebulous as to obscure the imperatives of morality. A movement which cultivated religious feeling almost as an end itself". While some pietists (such as Francis Magny) held that "mysticism and the moral law went together", for others (like his pupil Françoise-Louise de la Tour) "pietist mysticism did less to reinforce the moral law than to take its place…
22545-465: The revival in the 19th century. As the forerunners of the Pietists in the strict sense, certain voices had been heard bewailing the shortcomings of the church and advocating a revival of practical and devout Christianity. Amongst them were the Christian mystic Jakob Böhme (Behmen); Johann Arndt , whose work, True Christianity , became widely known and appreciated; Heinrich Müller , who described
22712-487: The second section of Justus Perthes ’ entries on reigning, princely, and ducal families in the Almanach de Gotha . During the unification of Germany, mainly from 1866 to 1871, the states of Hanover, Hesse-Kassel, Hohenzollern-Hechingen, Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (in 1850), Schleswig-Holstein and Nassau were absorbed into Prussia. The former ruling houses of these states were still considered Hochadel under laws adopted by
22879-406: The soil is poor, we must scatter seed abundantly for even a moderate harvest". In early 1799, Novalis had completed his studies at Leipzig and returned to the management of salt mines in Weissenfels. By December, he became an assessor of the salt mines and a director, and at the end of 1800, the 28-year-old Novalis was appointed an Amtmann for the district of Thuringia , a position comparable to
23046-495: The status of nobility"). Until the late 19th century, for example, it was usually forbidden for nobles, theoretically on pain of Adelsverlust , to marry persons "of low birth". Moreover, nobles employed in menial labour and lowly trades or wage labour could lose their nobility, as could nobles convicted of capital crimes . Adelsverlust only concerned the individual who had violated nobility codes of conduct. Their kin, spouse, and living children were not affected, but children born to
23213-594: The subsequent use and legal recognition of hereditary titles and aristocratic particles and use as part of surnames was banned. Today, Austrian nobility is no longer conferred by the Republic of Austria (1945–present), and the public or official use of noble titles as title or part of the surname, is a minor offence under Austrian law for Austrian citizens. In Germany, nobility and titles pertaining to it were recognised or bestowed upon individuals by emperors, kings and lesser ruling royalty, and were then inherited by
23380-505: The surname. Therefore, they can be transmitted according to civil law, for example from wife to husband, to illegitimate children and by way of adoption. The only difference to normal surnames is that noble surnames are deflected according to gender. Some impoverished nobles offered adoptions for money in the 20th century, and the adoptees adopts extensively themselves, creating a "flood" of fake nobility. A noble or noble-sounding surname does not convey nobility to those not born legitimately of
23547-422: The term Kronprinz no longer exists as a legal surname element. Traditional titles exclusively used for unmarried noblewomen, such as Baronesse , Freiin and Freifräulein , were also transformed into parts of the legal surname, subject to change at marriage or upon request. All other former titles and nobiliary particles are now inherited as part of the surname, and remain protected as private names under
23714-542: The title Fichte Studies , that primarily address Fichte's work but cover a range of philosophical topics. Novalis continued his philosophical studies in 1797, writing notebooks responding to the works of Kant, Frans Hemsterhuis , and Adolph Eschenmayer . Novalis's ongoing reflections upon Fichte's ideas, particularly those in the Wissenschaftslehre ( Foundations of the Science of Knowledge ) formed part of
23881-477: The two to become engaged: Novalis's brother Erasmus supported the couple, but the rest of Novalis's family resisted agreeing to the engagement due to Sophie's unclear aristocratic pedigree. Novalis remained intellectually active during his employment at Tennstedt. It is possible that Novalis met Fichte, as well as the poet Friedrich Hölderlin , in person while visiting Jena in 1795. Between 1795 and 1796, he created six sets of manuscripts, posthumously collected under
24048-417: The various manifestations of evangelicalism: fundamentalism, neo-evangelicalism, the holiness movement, Pentecostalism, the charismatic movement , and various forms of African-American and Hispanic evangelicalism. The Merton Thesis is an argument about the nature of early experimental science proposed by Robert K. Merton . Similar to Max Weber 's famous claim on the link between Protestant ethic and
24215-468: The way for the Enlightenment ( Aufklärung ), which took the church in an altogether different direction. Yet some claim that Pietism contributed largely to the revival of Biblical studies in Germany and to making religion once more an affair of the heart and of life and not merely of the intellect. It likewise gave a new emphasis to the role of the laity in the church. Rudolf Sohm claimed that "It
24382-573: The whole of Middle and North Germany. Among its greatest achievements, apart from the philanthropic institutions founded at Halle, were the revival of the Moravian Church in 1727 by Count von Zinzendorf , formerly a pupil in Francke's School for Young Noblemen in Halle, and the establishment of Protestant missions. In particular, Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg (10 July 1682 – 23 February 1719) became
24549-411: The works reflect Novalis's more philosophical and scientific sides, most of which were not systematically collected, published, and translated until the 20th century. Their publication has called for a reassessment of Novalis and his role as a thinker as well as an artist. Novalis's works were originally issued in two volumes by his friends Ludwig Tieck and Friedrich Schlegel (2 vols. 1802; a third volume
24716-421: Was Heinrich Ulrich Erasmus Freiherr (Baron) von Hardenberg (1738–1814), the estate owner and a salt-mine manager. His mother was Auguste Bernhardine (née von Böltzig ) (1749–1818), who was Heinrich's second wife. Novalis was the second of eleven children. Although Novalis had an aristocratic pedigree, his family was not wealthy. Novalis's early education was strongly influenced by Pietism . His father
24883-577: Was a member of the Herrnhuter Unity of Brethren branch of the Moravian Church and maintained a strict pietist household. Until the age of nine, he was taught by private tutors who were trained in pietist theology; subsequently, he attended a Herrnhut school in Neudietendorf for three years. When he was twelve, Novalis was put under the charge of his uncle Gottlob Friedrich Wilhelm Freiherr von Hardenberg (1728-1800), Land commander of
25050-622: Was a response to the French Revolution and its implications for the French enlightenment, which Novalis saw as catastrophic. It anticipated the growing German and Romantic critiques of the then-current enlightenment ideologies in the search for a new European spirituality and unity. Below are some available English translations, as well as two excerpts that illustrate how Europa has variously been interpreted. Additional works that have been translated into English are listed below. Most of
25217-434: Was a visionary who saw contemporary Christianity as a stage to an even higher expression of religion where earthly love rises to a heavenly love as death itself is defeated by that love. At the end of the nineteenth century, the playwright and poet Maurice Maeterlinck also described Novalis as a mystic. However, Maeterlinck acknowledged the impact of Novalis's intellectual interests on his religious views, describing Novalis as
25384-436: Was added in 1846). Editions of Novalis's collected works have since been compiled by C. Meisner and Bruno Wille (1898), by Ernst Heilborn (3 vols., 1901), and by J. Minor (4 vols., 1907). Heinrich von Ofterdingen was published separately by J. Schmidt in 1876. The most current version of Novalis's collected works, a German-language, six-volume edition of Novalis works Historische-Kritische Ausgabe - Novalis Schriften (HKA),
25551-566: Was also able to expand his intellectual social circle. On his way to Freiberg, he met Friedrich Schelling , and they later went on an art tour of Dresden together. He visited Goethe and Friedrich Schlegel's older brother, August, in Weimar and met the writer Jean Paul in Leipzig. In December 1798, Novalis became engaged for the second time. His fiancée was Julie von Charpentier, a daughter of Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Toussaint von Charpentier,
25718-620: Was disorganized and incomplete. A systematic and more comprehensive collection of Novalis's fragments from his notebooks was not available until the twentieth century. During the nineteenth century, Novalis was primarily seen as a passionate love-struck poet who mourned the death of his beloved and yearned for the hereafter. He was known as the poet of the blue flower , a symbol of romantic yearning from Novalis's unfinished Novel Heinrich von Ofterdingen that became an key emblem for German Romanticism. His fellow Jena Romantics, such as Friedrich Schlegel, Tieck, and Schleiermacher, also describe him as
25885-704: Was influenced significantly by Moravians (e.g., Zinzendorf , Peter Boehler ) and Pietists connected to Francke and Halle Pietism. The fruit of these Pietist influences can be seen in the modern American Methodists, especially those who are aligned with the Holiness movement . Pietism had an influence on religion in America, as many German immigrants settled in Pennsylvania, New York, and other areas. Its influence can be traced in certain sectors of Evangelicalism . Balmer says that: Evangelicalism itself, I believe,
26052-480: Was not only well read in his chosen disciplines; he also sought to integrate his knowledge with his art. This goal can be seen in his use of the fragment , a form that he wrote in alongside Friedrich Schlegel, and published in Schlegel's journal Athenaeum . The fragment allowed him to synthesize poetry, philosophy, and science into a single art form that could be used to address a wide variety of topics. Just as Novalis's literary works have established his reputation as
26219-468: Was not published in full until 1826. It is a poetical, cultural-historical speech with a focus on a political utopia with regard to the Middle Ages. In this text Novalis tries to develop a new Europe which is based on a new poetical Christendom which shall lead to unity and freedom. He got the inspiration for this text from a book written by Schleiermacher, Über die Religion ( On Religion ). The work
26386-625: Was not simply distinguished by noble ranks and titles, but was also seen as a distinctive ethos. Title 9, §1 of the General State Laws for the Prussian States declared that the nobility's responsibility "as the first social class in the state" was "the defence of the country, as well as the supporting of the exterior dignity and the interior constitution thereof" . Most German states had strict laws concerning proper conduct, employment, or marriage of nobles. Violating these laws could result in temporary or permanent Adelsverlust ("loss of
26553-559: Was partly inspired by Schiller, who argued that analogy allows facts to be connected into a harmonious whole, and by his relationship with Friedrich Schlegel, who sought to explore the revelations of religion through the union of philosophy and poetry. The "magic wand of analogy" allowed Novalis to use metaphor, analogy and symbolism to bring together the arts, science, and philosophy in his search for truth. This view of Novalis's writing suggests that his literary language must be read carefully. His metaphors and images- even in works like Hymns to
26720-496: Was performed without anesthesia. In January 1797, Novalis was appointed auditor to the salt works at Weissenfels. To earn a stable income for his intended marriage, he accepted the position and moved to Weissenfels to assume his duties. Sophie, on the other hand, stayed with her family. Sophie once more became extremely ill, during which time Novalis's parents finally relented and agreed to the couple's engagement. However, two days after her fifteenth birthday, Sophie died, while Novalis
26887-477: Was published in 1815, Just was criticized for misrepresenting Novalis's poetic nature because he had written that Novalis was also a hard-working mine inspector and magistrate. Even the literary critic Thomas Carlyle , whose essay on Novalis played a major role in introducing him to the English-speaking world and took Novalis's philosophical relationship to Fichte and Kant seriously, emphasized Novalis as
27054-424: Was still in Weissenfels. Four months later, Novalis's brother Erasmus, who had been diagnosed with tuberculosis, also died. The death of Sophie, as well as his younger brother, affected Novalis deeply. Their deaths catalyzed his more intensive commitment to poetic expression. Sophie's death also became the central inspiration for one of the few works Novalis published in his lifetime, Hymnen an die Nacht ( Hymns to
27221-417: Was suffering from a particularly severe flare-up of his chronic tuberculosis . In 1791, he published his first work, a poem dedicated to Schiller, "Klagen eines Jünglings" ("Lament of a Youth"), in the magazine Neue Teutsche Merkur , an act that was partly responsible for Novalis's father withdrawing him from Jena and looking into another university where Novalis would attend more carefully to his studies. In
27388-480: Was taken from his 12th-century ancestors who named themselves de Novali , after their settlement Grossenrode , which is called magna Novalis in Latin. Novalis can also be interpreted as "one who cultivates new land", which connotes the metaphoric role that Novalis saw for himself. This metaphoric sense of his pen name can be seen in the epigraph of Pollen , the first work he published as Novalis: "Friends,
27555-460: Was the opium of the people was prefigured by Novalis's statement in Pollen where he describes " philistines " with the following analogy, "Their so-called religion works just like an opiate: stimulating, sedating, stilling pain through innervation". Hungarian philosopher György Lukács derived his concept of philosophy as transcendental homelessness from Novalis. In his 1914–15 essay Theory of
27722-604: Was the last great surge of the waves of the ecclesiastical movement begun by the Reformation ; it was the completion and the final form of the Protestantism created by the Reformation. Then came a time when another intellectual power took possession of the minds of men." Dietrich Bonhoeffer of the German Confessing Church framed the same characterization in less positive terms when he called Pietism
27889-426: Was the second of eleven children; his early household observed a strict Pietist faith. He studied law at the University of Jena , the University of Leipzig , and the University of Wittenberg . While at Jena, he published his first poem and befriended the playwright and fellow poet Friedrich Schiller . In Leipzig, he then met Friedrich Schlegel , becoming lifelong friends. Novalis completed his law degree in 1794 at
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