115-809: Joseon and Ming Empire victory 148 ships The Battle of Noryang , the last major battle of the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) , was fought between the Japanese navy and the combined fleets of the Joseon Kingdom and the Ming dynasty . It took place in the early morning of 16 December (19 November in the Lunar calendar ) 1598 and ended past dawn. The allied force of about 150 Joseon and Ming Chinese ships, led by admirals Yi Sun-sin and Chen Lin , attacked and either destroyed or captured more than half of
230-441: A panokseon was its multiple decks. The first deck had non-combatant personnel, such as the rowers, who were positioned between the lower deck and the upper deck, away from enemy fire. The combatant personnel were stationed on the upper deck, which allowed them to attack the enemy from a higher vantage point. The panokseon also had a raised roofed observation platform where the commander stood. The panokseon served as
345-431: A "sinister grin" attached to the outside. Overall, 158,800 soldiers, laborers, and transport troops (of whom a quarter had firearms) were prepared to take part in the invasion, with roughly a third of the force being armed fighting units (samurai, their attendants, and ashigaru conscripts), while the other two thirds filled a support ion (doctors, priests, secretaries, boatmen, and labourers). The following table shows
460-472: A Joseon panokseon (one of two given to the Ming fleet by Yi) and rowed to his aid. Several Ming ships, mistaking the panokseon for a Japanese ship, opened fire and disabled it. The stricken panokseon drifted towards the Japanese and they boarded and killed everyone on board, including Deng. By the middle of the battle, as dawn was about to break, the allied fleet had the upper hand and half of Shimazu's fleet
575-487: A certain amount of wealth to take the qualification exam. Instead of being treated as a bureaucrat of a certain class and receiving a salary from the state, the military, horses, and servants' food expenses were all on their own. For this reason, the Joseon government, which had to save the budget, tried to increase the number of Gapsa by increasing the lower ranks. As a result, the number of Gapsa increases to 14000 by 1475, but
690-742: A great success. In the 15th century, under the lead of Sejong the Great , who was himself a pioneer of scientific research, the performance of these heavy artillery improved dramatically. Having built a cannon range next to the Royal Court, and after much experimentation and study, King Sejong finally increased the extent of the cannons’ firepower from 300 metres (980 ft) to 1,000 metres (3,300 ft). Naval cannons were also developed at this time and among them, Heaven, Earth, Black and Yellow cannon were later employed by Yi Sun-sin. The development of artillery steadily continued after King Sejong, and saw
805-417: A position in the imperial tributary system as of 1404. This relationship ended in 1408 when Japan, unlike Korea, chose to end its recognition of China's regional hegemony and cancel any further tribute missions. Membership in the tributary system was a prerequisite for any economic exchange with China. In exiting the system, Japan relinquished its trade relationship with China. One thousand years earlier,
920-461: A samurai to pull his opponent from his horse. If samurai wished to cut his opponent rather than stab, the weapons were the ōdachi , an extremely long sword with a huge handle, or the naginata , a polearm with very sharp curved blade. The most famous of all the samurai weapons was the katana , a sword described by the British military historian Stephen Turnbull as "...the finest edged weapon in
1035-595: A ship to sit comfortably on the tideland when the tide is out, after coming ashore or inside a wharf at high water. It also ensures greater mobility, a shallow draft, and in particular allows a ship to make sharp changes of direction at short notice. The panokseon 's features were among the main reasons why Admiral Yi was able to employ the Crane Wing formation at the Battle of Hansan Island with great success. Panokseons were propelled by both sails and oars. Of
1150-437: A significant part of their fleet consisted of light transports. The Japanese ships were well-armed with arquebuses and also had some captured Joseon cannon. The allied fleet was outnumbered, but made up for it with ships which, on average, had superior firepower and heavier, more sturdy construction. The allied fleet waited for Shimazu on the west end of Noryang Strait. The battle began around 02:00 am on 16 December. It was, from
1265-511: A special trading position as the single checkpoint to Korea for all Japanese ships and had permission from Korea to trade with as many as 50 of its own vessels, the Sō family had a vested interest in preventing conflict with Korea, and delayed the talks for nearly two years. Even when Hideyoshi renewed his order, Sō Yoshitoshi reduced the visit to the Korean court to a campaign to better relations between
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#17327982562491380-594: A tactical sense, therefore, Hideyoshi cannot be considered as one of the commanders, but, as his will drove the whole project along until he died, his political influence cannot be underestimated". The Ming Chinese army was the largest in Asia, with a total of around 845,000 troops. However, in 1592 the Imperial Army was engaged in wars with the Mongols and in crushing a rebellion in the northwest . The Ming army
1495-553: A ten-month-long military stalemate. With Toyotomi Hideyoshi's death in 1598, limited progress on land, and continued disruption of supply lines by the Joseon Navy, the Japanese forces in Korea were ordered to withdraw back to Japan by the new governing Council of Five Elders . Final peace negotiations between the parties followed, and continued for several years, ultimately resulting in the normalization of relations. In Korean ,
1610-477: A volley of musket fire to clear enemy ships and employ the grapple and board method. The traditional and main naval strategy employed by the Japanese was that of hand-to-hand boarding combat, whereby sailors would attempt to board an enemy ship and rely on melee weapon combat on the decks to achieve victory. This method was mainly used because Japanese soldiers excelled at melee combat and because their ships were very fast. The Japanese Navy's concept of sea battle
1725-473: A war against China. Upon the ambassadors' return, the Joseon court held serious discussions concerning Japan's invitation, while Hwang Yun-gil reported conflicting estimates of Japanese military strength and intentions. They nonetheless pressed that a war was imminent. Kim Saung-il claimed that Hideyoshi's letter was nothing but a bluff. Moreover, the court, aware only that Japan was in turmoil with various clan armies fighting each other, substantially underrated
1840-489: A withdrawal of Japanese forces towards the coastal regions of the peninsula. The pursuing Ming and Joseon forces, however, failed to dislodge the Japanese from their fortresses and entrenched positions in the southern coastal areas where both sides became locked in a ten-month-long military stalemate. With Toyotomi Hideyoshi's death in September 1598, limited progress on land, and continued disruption of supply lines along
1955-434: Is that they were not all invented to meet the sudden emergency of war. These weapons in fact made their appearance some 200 years prior to the 1592–1598 Japanese invasions of Korea. Thanks to the efforts of Ch'oe Mu-sŏn , a general and a chemist, Korea began manufacturing and developing gunpowder and powder-based weapons. Korean cannons first saw action in 1380 against a large fleet of Japanese pirate ships and were found to be
2070-484: The panokseon was broad and flat, making it ideal for the installation of cannons. Panokseons came in different sizes; the largest vessels estimated to range between 70 feet (21 m) and 100 feet (30 m) in length. Other sources indicate that the variation in size was greater, from 50 feet (15 m) to 110 feet (34 m). The ship usually had 8 to 10 oars on each side, 50 to 60 oarsmen and sailors and another 125 marines (i.e. fighting men). Because of
2185-412: The panokseon , the hulls of the Japanese vessels had sharp, V-shaped bows. A sharp underside was favorable for swift or long-distance travel in the open seas because of lower water resistance (thus these ships had faster cruising speeds). Since this variety of hull had a deep draft (penetrates deeper into the water), however, the turning radius of such ships was considerably large and changing direction
2300-541: The Battle of Shizugatake in 1583, where samurai had fought one another mano a mano , and where Katō demonstrated his skills with a cross-bladed spear with great effect by cutting so many men, whose severed and salted heads were thereafter tied to a stalk of green bamboo and carried by one of Katō's attendants into battle. Katō was a devoted follower of Nichiren Buddhism , a type of Buddhism closely associated with militarism and ultra-nationalism in Japan, and his relations with
2415-618: The Catholic Konishi were extremely unfriendly, to the extent that the two men almost never met during the campaign in Korea. Katō's battle standard was a white pennant which carried a message alleged to have been written by Nichiren himself reading Namu Myōhō Renge Kyō ("Hail to the Lotus of the Divine Law"). The naval commander was Wakisaka Yasuharu , another of the "Seven Spears of Shizugatake", who had been named daimyō of
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#17327982562492530-548: The Chūgoku region , informed Terumoto of Nobunaga's plan to invade China. In 1585, Hideyoshi told the Portuguese Jesuit Father Gaspar Coelho of his wish to conquer all of East Asia. Hideyoshi asked Coelho to send a message to his master, King Philip II of Spain , who was also King Philip I of Portugal, asking that he make his navy available to help Japan (Ming China, Spain, and Portugal were
2645-598: The Gambeson , or by wearing Scale armour . Pengbaesu ( 팽배수 ; 彭排手 ), heavy infantry specializing in hand-to-hand combat, were the mainstay of early Joseon infantry, wearing Chain mail or Mail and plate armour and armed with a round shield and sword. They responded to nomadic raids with shields and knives in mountain warfare, and in the plains, they built a shield wall to deter the cavalry's attacks. The elite troops and officers, made up of noblemen's sons called Gapsa ( 갑사 ; 甲士 ), They had to have more than
2760-563: The Imjin War , involved two separate yet linked invasions: an initial invasion in 1592 ( Korean : 임진왜란 ; Hanja : 壬辰倭亂 ), a brief truce in 1596, and a second invasion in 1597 ( 정유재란 ; 丁酉再亂 ). The conflict ended in 1598 with the withdrawal of Japanese forces from the Korean Peninsula after a military stalemate in Korea's southern provinces. The invasions were launched by Toyotomi Hideyoshi with
2875-479: The Ming commander into lifting the blockade . At first, Chen agreed to withdraw the allied fleet, but Yi steadfastly refused to comply. Then Chen suggested that the allied fleet attack smaller, more vulnerable wajō , such as the fort at Namhae . Yi rejected that strategy as well. Yi argued that Konishi, who commanded one of the largest wajō , would be allowed to escape if the allies were to leave and fight elsewhere. On 15 December, about 20,000 Japanese troops from
2990-535: The Sui and Tang dynasties of China had complicated political and trading relations with the Three Kingdoms of Korea . Ming China, on the other hand, had close trading and diplomatic relations with the Joseon, which remained integrated in the imperial tributary system, but also received tribute and trade from Sō clan of Tsushima , Japan. Ming China and Joseon Korea shared much in common. Both emerged during
3105-422: The daimyōs from acting on any ambitions against his rule. Fighting a war away from Japanese territory would also prevent territorial destruction, and maintain the infrastructure of the state. Such considerations would be consistent with the fact that Hideyoshi was not shōgun and had no links with the imperial bloodline. Stephen Turnbull also suggests personal ambition and megalomania of Hideyoshi as reasons for
3220-669: The tributary states , which also included countries such as the Ryukyu Kingdom , Lan Xang , Đại Việt , and the Ayutthaya Kingdom , in return for accepting the subservient tributary role of a "younger brother". In 1402, the Japanese shogun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu (despite not being the Emperor of Japan ) was conferred the title of "King of Japan" by the Chinese emperor and through this title had similarly accepted
3335-568: The wajō of Sach'on , Goseong , and Namhae boarded 500 ships and began to mass east of the Noryang Strait in an attempt to break the allied blockade of Sunch'on . The overall commander of this relief force was Shimazu Yoshihiro , the leader of the Sach'on wajō . The objective of the allied fleet was to prevent the link-up of Shimazu's fleet with the fleet of Konishi, then attack and defeat Shimazu's fleet. The objective of Shimazu's fleet
3450-410: The wakō had staged a series of samurai raids into Korea, some of which were so large as to be "mini-invasions". Hideyoshi mistakenly thought his enemies were weak. Hideyoshi planned for a possible war with Korea long before he had completed the unification of Japan. He made preparations on many fronts. As early as 1578, Hideyoshi, then fighting under Oda Nobunaga against Mōri Terumoto for control of
3565-489: The "great general gun" and the folang zhi ( 佛朗支 ), the latter being breech-loaded artillery guns. One of the Chinese commanders was Li Rusong , a man who has been traditionally disparaged in Japanese accounts. In Turnbull's estimate, he was "one of Ming China's most accomplished generals". Although Li was defeated at the Battle of Pyokjeyek, his defeat was temporary. He was an able strategist who achieved his goal of forcing
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3680-467: The 14th century after the end of the Yuan dynasty , embraced Confucian ideals in society, and faced similar threats ( Jurchen raiders and wokou ). Both had competing internal political factions, which would influence decisions made prior to and during the war. Because of close trade and common enemies, Joseon and Ming had a friendly alliance. By the last decade of the 16th century, Toyotomi Hideyoshi ,
3795-539: The 500 Japanese ships commanded by Shimazu Yoshihiro , who was attempting to link-up with Konishi Yukinaga . The battered survivors of Shimazu's fleet limped back to Busan and a few days later, left for Japan. At the height of the battle, Yi was hit by a bullet from an arquebus and died shortly thereafter. Chen Lin reported the news back to the Wanli Emperor , and since then, Chen and Yi were celebrated as national heroes. Due to setbacks in land and sea battles,
3910-402: The Chinese infantry were the crossbow and the arquebus, while the cavalry were usually mounted archers. Chinese infantry wore conical iron helmets and suits of armor made from leather or iron. According to Turnbull, "Chinese field artillery and siege cannon were the finest in the region". Chinese artillery was made from cast iron, and were divided into several types, the most important being
4025-411: The Chinese tributary system. Hideyoshi replied with another letter, but since it was not presented by a diplomat in person as expected by custom, the court ignored it. After this denial of his second request, Hideyoshi proceeded to launch his armies against Korea in 1592. At the core of the Japanese military were the samurai , the military caste of Japan who dominated Japanese society. Japanese society
4140-639: The Japanese armies had been driven back to their network of fortresses, or wajō (和城), on the southeastern Korean coast. However, the wajō could not hold the entire Japanese army, so, in June 1598, Toyotomi Hideyoshi , the Taikō who instigated the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) , and also the acting Japanese Lord of War, ordered 70,000 troops mostly from the Japanese Army of the Right to withdraw to
4255-466: The Japanese fighting troops sent into Korea were ashigaru (light infantry), who were usually conscripted peasants armed with spears, tanegashima (Japanese arquebuses), or yumi (Japanese bows). Unlike the samurai with their expensive suits of armor, the ashigaru wore cheap suits of iron armour around their chests. The ashigaru armed with arquebuses were trained to fight in the European style, with
4370-424: The Japanese forces in the south, which weakened the Japanese hold in the cities they occupied. Afterwards, with supply difficulties hampering both sides, neither the Japanese nor the combined Ming and Joseon forces were able to mount a successful offensive or gain any additional territory, resulting in a military stalemate in the areas between Hanseong and Kaesong . The war continued in this manner for five years, and
4485-539: The Japanese forces saw overwhelming success on land, capturing both Hanseong , the capital of Korea, and Pyongyang , and completing the occupation of large portions of the Korean Peninsula in three months. The Japanese forces, well-trained, confident, and experienced after the numerous battles and conflicts of the Sengoku period , typically held the field in most land engagements. This success on land, however,
4600-541: The Japanese out of Korea, and Japanese accounts focusing on his defeat at Pyokjeyek served to distract from his achievements. Another Chinese naval commander was Chen Lin , a native of Guangdong who proved pivotal in defeating Japan and defending Korea. After helping win the war, Chen was celebrated as a hero in Korea and China. Chen subsequently became the founder of the Gwangdong Jin clan of Korea, and today, his descendants are spread across China and Korea. Chen
4715-419: The Japanese to use their arquebuses and fight using their traditional fighting style of boarding enemy ships. When Chen's flagship was attacked, Yi had to order his fleet to engage in hand-to-hand combat as well. Song Hui-rip, the captain of Yi's flagship, was struck in the helmet by an arquebus ball and fell unconscious for a time. The vessels got so close that Joseon ships were able to throw burning wood onto
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4830-406: The Korean military, Hideyoshi sent an assault force of 26 ships to the southern coast of Korea in 1587. On the diplomatic front, Hideyoshi began to establish friendly relations with China long before he had completed the unification of Japan. He also helped to police the trade routes against the wokou. In 1587, Hideyoshi sent his first envoy, Yutani Yasuhiro ( 柚谷康広 ) , to Korea, which was during
4945-514: The Koreans had come to pay a tributary homage to Japan. For this reason, the ambassadors were not given the formal treatment that was due to diplomatic representatives. In the end, the Korean ambassadors asked for Hideyoshi to write a reply to the Korean king, for which they waited 20 days at the port of Sakai . The letter, redrafted as requested by the ambassadors on the ground that it was too discourteous, invited Korea to submit to Japan and join in
5060-559: The Koreans to resist. Konishi had converted to Catholicism in 1583, and was known to the Spanish and Portuguese as Dom Agostinho. Katō Kiyomasa , who led the Second Division into Korea, was known in Japan as Toranosuke ("the young tiger") and to the Koreans as the "devil general", on account of his ferocity. Katō was one of the " Seven Spears of Shizugatake ", a group of seven samurai who distinguished themselves in combat at
5175-3260: The Ming army to remain. The Ming agreed and left behind a force of 3–4,000, which aided Joseon efforts in rebuilding and training forces until 1601. 34°56′43″N 127°52′35″E / 34.94528°N 127.87639°E / 34.94528; 127.87639 Japanese invasions of Korea (1592%E2%80%931598) Joseon Political leaders [REDACTED] King Seonjo [REDACTED] Prince Gwanghae [REDACTED] Ryu Seong-ryong Yun Du-su Military commanders [REDACTED] Yi Sun-sin † [REDACTED] Yi Eokgi † [REDACTED] Won Gyun † [REDACTED] Gwon Yul [REDACTED] Sin Rip † [REDACTED] Gim Si-min † Song Sang-hyeon † Go Gyeong-myeong † Gim Cheon-il † Jo Heon † Yi Il Gwak Jae-u Jeong Gi-ryong Kim Deok-ryeong Yujeong Hyujeong Jeong Mun-bu Gim Chung-seon Ming Political leaders [REDACTED] Wanli Emperor Zhao Zhigao Wang Xijue Inspectors, generals, field commanders Li Rusong Chen Lin Song Yingchang Ma Gui (pr.) Yang Hao Li Shizhen Wu Weizhong Deng Zilong † Toyotomi regime Political leaders [REDACTED] Emperor Go-Yōzei [REDACTED] Toyotomi Hideyoshi [REDACTED] Toyotomi Hidetsugu Military commanders [REDACTED] Ukita Hideie [REDACTED] Kobayakawa Hideaki [REDACTED] Kobayakawa Takakage [REDACTED] Kobayakawa Hidekane [REDACTED] Ishida Mitsunari [REDACTED] Katō Kiyomasa [REDACTED] Konishi Yukinaga [REDACTED] Mōri Terumoto [REDACTED] Mōri Hidemoto [REDACTED] Mōri Yoshimasa [REDACTED] Nabeshima Naoshige [REDACTED] Hosokawa Tadaoki [REDACTED] Katō Yoshiaki [REDACTED] Shimazu Yoshihiro [REDACTED] Shimazu Toyohisa [REDACTED] Shimazu Tadatsune [REDACTED] Hachisuka Iemasa [REDACTED] Ōtomo Yoshimune [REDACTED] Tachibana Muneshige [REDACTED] Tsukushi Hirokado [REDACTED] Ankokuji Ekei [REDACTED] Ikoma Chikamasa [REDACTED] Ikoma Kazumasa [REDACTED] Kuroda Nagamasa [REDACTED] Fukushima Masanori [REDACTED] Sō Yoshitoshi [REDACTED] Kurushima Michifusa † [REDACTED] Chōsokabe Motochika [REDACTED] Tōdō Takatora [REDACTED] Arima Harunobu [REDACTED] Akizuki Tanenaga [REDACTED] Itō Suketaka [REDACTED] Kuki Yoshitaka [REDACTED] Wakisaka Yasuharu [REDACTED] Ōmura Yoshiaki [REDACTED] Ōtani Yoshitsugu [REDACTED] Hasegawa Hidekazu [REDACTED] Gamō Ujisato [REDACTED] Ōyano Tanemoto † [REDACTED] Asano Nagamasa Joseon: 84,500+ –192,000 (including sailors and insurgent fighters) 300 ships (200 scuttled in
5290-523: The Ming court in response to raids by Sino-Japanese pirates known as the wakō . By seeking to invade China, Hideyoshi was in effect claiming for Japan the role traditionally played by China in East Asia as the center of the East Asian international order. He rallied support in Japan as a man of relatively humble origins who owed his position to his military might. Finally, during the 1540s–1550s,
5405-475: The Ming. In 1597, Japan renewed its offensive by invading Korea a second time. The pattern of the second invasion largely mirrored that of the first. The Japanese had initial successes on land, capturing several cities and fortresses, only to be halted and forced to withdraw to the southern coastal regions of the peninsula. However, the pursuing Ming and Joseon forces were unable to dislodge the Japanese from these positions, where both sides again became locked in
5520-512: The allied fleet had 8,000 sailors and marines under Yi, 5,000 Ming men of the Guangdong Squadron, and 2,600 Ming marines who fought aboard Korean ships, a total of almost 16,000 sailors and fighting men. The Ming fleet was divided into two squadrons, the larger of which was commanded by Chen and the smaller by Deng Zilong . The allied fleet was well-equipped with cannon, mortars, archers, and arquebusiers. The Japanese had 500 ships, but
5635-530: The archipelago. On 18 September 1598, Hideyoshi unexpectedly died at Fushimi castle . The Japanese forces in Korea were ordered to withdraw back to Japan by the new governing Council of Five Elders . The Sunch'on wajō was the westernmost Japanese fortress and contained 14,000 troops commanded by Konishi Yukinaga , who was the leader of Japan's vanguard contingent during the first invasion, in 1592. Yi Sun-sin and Chen Lin blocked Konishi from retreat, but Konishi sent many gifts to Chen in an attempt to bribe
5750-432: The base for the Korean warship type called the geobukseon , which was used to great effect during the 1592-1598 Japanese invasions of Korea . In line with the traditional structure of Korean ships, the panokseon had a U-shaped hull and a flat keel. This feature was due to the nature of the southern and western Korean coastal waters, which have a large tidal range and flat, expansive tidal plains. A flat keel enables
5865-583: The center for the mobilization of the invasion forces. In 1592, Hideyoshi sent a letter to the Philippines demanding tribute from the Spanish governor general and stating that Japan had already received tribute from Korea (which was a misunderstanding) and the Ryukyus. As for the military preparations, the construction of as many as 2,000 ships may have begun as early as 1586. To estimate the strength of
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#17327982562495980-403: The combined strength and abilities of many Japanese armies at the time. Some, including King Seonjo, argued that Ming should be informed about the dealings with Japan, as failure to do so could make Ming suspect Korea's allegiance, but the court finally concluded to wait further until the appropriate course of action became definite. In the end, Hideyoshi's diplomatic negotiations did not produce
6095-541: The crown as Taejo of Joseon, thus establishing a new dynasty. In search of a justification for its rule given the lack of a royal bloodline, the new regime received recognition from China and integration into the Imperial Chinese tributary system within the context of the Mandate of Heaven . Within this tributary system, China assumed the role of a "big brother", with Korea maintaining the highest position among
6210-423: The decks of Japanese ships. Heavy Japanese arquebus fire forced the Chinese sailors to keep their heads low, while the Japanese closed in. Several parties boarded Chen's flagship and in the hand-to-hand fighting that ensued, Chen's son was injured parrying a sword thrust directed at his father. Seeing Chen's ship in trouble, the Ming left wing commander Deng Zilong and two hundred of his personal guard transferred to
6325-445: The desired result with Korea. The Joseon Court approached Japan as a country inferior to Korea, and saw itself as superior according to its favored position within the Chinese tributary system. It mistakenly evaluated Hideyoshi's threats of invasions to be no better than the common wokou Japanese pirate raids. The Korean court handed to Shigenobu and Genso, Hideyoshi's third embassy, King Seonjo's letter rebuking Hideyoshi for challenging
6440-511: The dreams of his late lord, Oda Nobunaga , and to mitigate the possible threat of civil disorder or rebellion posed by the large number of now-idle samurai and soldiers in unified Japan. It is also possible that Hideyoshi might have set a more realistic goal of subjugating the smaller neighbouring states (the Ryukyu Islands , Taiwan , and Korea) and treating the larger or more distant countries as trading partners, because throughout
6555-407: The emperors of China as their overlords and paid tribute in exchange for being allowed to trade with China. Japan had usually resisted the demand to pay tribute to China, but shōgun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu had acknowledged the emperor of China as his overlord in return for access to the huge Chinese market. Japan's right to pay tribute and, with it, the right to trade with China was ended in the 1540s by
6670-412: The fasteners did not rust, thus accounting for greater integrity of the hull. Panokseons had on board several varieties of cannon, such as those named Heaven, Earth, Black and Yellow. Heaven was the largest cannon with the greatest range and the most common cannon on the ships. Earth was a smaller cannon and Black and Yellow were smaller still. The Heaven cannon fired daejŏn (a long, thick arrow in
6785-491: The first invasion (1592–1593) is called the "Japanese Disturbance of Imjin" ( 倭亂 ), where 1592 is an imjin year in the sexagenary cycle . The second invasion (1597–1598) is called the "Second War of Jeong-yu" ( 丁酉 ). Collectively, the invasions are referred to as the "Imjin War". In Chinese , the wars are referred to as the " Wanli Korean Campaign", after the reigning Chinese emperor . In Japanese ,
6900-507: The forces of Gotō Sumiharu, who held the fief of Fukue (assessed at 140,000 koku ) on the Gotō archipelago . Family records show he led a force of 705, with 27 horses, 220 of which were fighting men, while 485 filled a support role. The breakdown of the fighting contingent was the following: Another daimyō whose military service quota has been preserved in a written record is Shimazu Yoshihiro , whose contribution consisted of: The majority of
7015-652: The fore-and-aft variety as early as the Mediterranean dromons of the Middle Ages . When the Age of Discovery began in the fifteenth century, multiple-masted ships equipped with both types of sails eventually appeared. In Korea fore-and-aft sail-equipped (i.e. double-masted) ships had been in use since the eighth century. The panokseon therefore had two masts by default, and possessed sufficient crew such that their position and angle could easily be managed so that
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#17327982562497130-486: The height of its power. Under the rule of the Wanli Emperor , Ming China quickly interpreted the Japanese invasions as a challenge and threat to the Imperial Chinese tributary system . The Ming's interest was also to keep the war confined to the Korean peninsula and out of its own territory. They entered into the conflict by dispatching reinforcements to attack from the north. In the engagements that followed,
7245-405: The history of warfare". Samurai never carried shields, with the katana being used to deflect blows. By 1592, the armor of the samurai was lamellae made from iron or leather scales tied together which had been modified to include solid plate to help protect the samurai from bullets. Samurai engaged in psychological warfare by wearing an iron mask into battle with a mustache made of horsehair and
7360-518: The hull. This difference in structural integrity also determined the number of cannons that could be carried on board, as well as their ammunition caliber. Because the Japanese ships lacked the strength to withstand the recoil of cannon, even the largest ship class, atakebune , could carry only four at most (six if there were two smaller breech loading swivel guns). A sekibune could only carry two. A panokseon could carry at least 20 cannons, but usually carried more (in some cases up to 50). Since
7475-484: The hulls of Korean warships were strong enough, moreover, they were able to carry a large number of long-range cannons. These could be installed with ease on the large upper deck of panokseon ships, and their angle configured at will to increase the range. Since the Japanese warships only allowed for a very limited number of cannons, their sailors mainly used muskets, which had a range of 100–200 m (330–660 ft); as such Japanese naval commanders would attempt to use
7590-399: The initial phase of the war) Ming: 1st. (1592–93) 48,000 Japan 1st. (1592) 158,800 (including labourers and sailors) 700 transport ships 300 warships 2nd. (1597–98) 141,900 Joseon: 1,000,000+ civilian and military deaths (including 260,000+ troops killed or wounded) 50,000–60,000 captives The Japanese invasions of Korea , commonly known as
7705-556: The intent of conquering the Korean Peninsula and China proper , which were ruled by the Joseon and Ming dynasties, respectively. Japan quickly succeeded in occupying large portions of the Korean Peninsula, but the contribution of reinforcements by the Ming, as well as the disruption of Japanese supply fleets along the western and southern coasts by the Joseon Navy , forced the Japanese forces to withdraw from Pyongyang and
7820-431: The invasion of Korea, Hideyoshi sought for legal tally trade with China. Hideyoshi's need for military supremacy as a justification for his rule, which lacked shōgunal background, could have, on an international level, been eventually transformed into an order with Japan's neighboring countries below Japan. Hideyoshi did not take the title of Shōgun on the grounds that he lacked the necessary Minamoto descent, but since it
7935-483: The invasion. Hideyoshi had, in a series of wars, conquered Japan and now wanted to turn to bigger things, noting that he spoke not only of his desire to "slash his way" into Korea to invade China, but also the Philippines , and India . Furthermore, for thousands of years, China had been the intellectual, economic, military, and political center of East Asia, and traditionally, the states of East Asia had acknowledged
8050-484: The invention of the bigyeokjincholloe , a timed grenade that flung out hundreds of metal shards upon explosion, and the dapoki , a machine capable of firing many arrows at once. One of the types of cannons were arrows with a pipe filled with gunpowder. By the time of the Japanese invasions of Korea, the cannons used by the Korean naval forces were capable of firing a variety of projectiles, including fragmenting iron shot, stones, and buckshot, several hundred yards. Among
8165-561: The island of Awaji in the Seto Inland Sea in 1585, where he learned much about seafaring as the island is located close to whirlpools which are notoriously dangerous for sailors. Toyotomi Hideyoshi never left Japan, remaining near Kyoto; however, the idea of conquering China was his obsession, and throughout the war, he refused to accept defeat, treating the war as simply a question of willpower, believing if only his samurai fought hard enough, he could take China. Turnbull writes: "In
8280-756: The main naval powers of the time). However, Philip refused Hideyoshi, preferring not to upset China. The defeat of the Odawara -based Hōjō clan in 1590 finally brought about the second unification of Japan, and Hideyoshi began preparing for the next war. Beginning in March 1591, the Kyūshū daimyōs and their labor forces constructed Nagoya Castle in Nagoya, Saga (modern-day Karatsu, Saga , not to be confused with present-day Nagoya city in Aichi Prefecture ), as
8395-429: The majority of the Joseon army was focused on defending the northern provinces from Japanese offensives, while also supporting Ming army campaigns to recapture territory occupied by the Japanese. Consequently, it was the combination of these Ming-led land campaigns and Joseon-led naval warfare that eventually forced the Japanese army to withdraw from Pyongyang to the south, where the Japanese continued to occupy Hanseong and
8510-633: The men trained to fire their guns in formation to create a volley of fire, then to go down on their knees to reload, while the men behind them fired, and the cycle repeated over and over again. The commander of the Japanese First Division and overall commander of the invasion force was Konishi Yukinaga , a daimyō of Uto from Higo Province in Kyushu , chosen as commander of the invasion force more because of his diplomatic skills than military skills, as Toyotomi Hideyoshi did not expect
8625-528: The most feared projectiles fired by the Earth cannons was a ballista-like large iron arrow covered in incendiary material, which was used to great effect against Japanese ships. The differences between the Panokseon and Japanese ships were significant. The Japanese equivalents were the large Atakebune class and the medium sekibune -class ships, which superficially resembled panokseon . In contrast to
8740-458: The most preeminent daimyō , had unified all of Japan in a brief period of peace. Since he came to hold power in the absence of a legitimate successor of the Minamoto lineage necessary for the imperial shōgun commission, he sought military power to legitimize his rule and to decrease his dependence on the imperial family. It is also suggested that Hideyoshi planned an invasion of China to fulfill
8855-464: The north. During the reign of King Jeongjong in 1400, the private army system was overthrown, and during the reign of King Sejo in 1457, a unit called Five Guards ( 오위 ; 五衛 ; Owi ) was formed, which continued until the Imjin War. In the early days of the war, Joseon had a conscripted light infantry, standing army, and an elite cavalry-oriented organization, especially Horse Archer. It
8970-465: The northern provinces. Afterwards, with righteous armies (Joseon civilian militias) conducting guerrilla warfare against the occupying Japanese forces and supply difficulties hampering both sides, neither force was able to mount a successful offensive or gain any additional territory, resulting in a military stalemate. The first phase of the invasion ended in 1596, and was followed afterwards by ultimately unsuccessful peace negotiations between Japan and
9085-554: The pegs and masts. Oak is a strong but heavy wood, so its use on ships was limited to the frame. Pine was also strong, but much lighter. Pine was usually allowed to season incompletely so that it would bend flexibly and not become too stiff. Despite its advantages pine had many knots and had to be cut thickly, thus the panokseon were built using thicker timbers. Instead of iron nails panokseons were held together by means of oak pegs, matching indentations, and interlocking teeth. This meant that as its boards absorbed water and expanded
9200-488: The power of the arquebus greatly contributed to the failures of the Korean army early in the war. In April 1590, the Korean ambassadors, including Hwang Yun-gil and Kim Saung-il, left for Kyoto , where they waited for two months while Hideyoshi was finishing his campaign against the Hojo clan . Upon his return, they exchanged ceremonial gifts and delivered King Seonjo's letter to Hideyoshi. Hideyoshi mistakenly assumed that
9315-499: The promise of a Korean embassy to Japan in exchange for a group of Korean rebels which had taken refuge in Japan. In 1587, Hideyoshi had ordered the adopted father of Yoshitoshi and the daimyō of Tsushima Island , Sō Yoshishige ( 宗義調 ) , to offer the Joseon Dynasty an ultimatum of submitting to Japan and participating in the conquest of China, or facing the prospect of open war with Japan. However, as Tsushima Island enjoyed
9430-481: The remainder of the battle, Wan wore his uncle's armor and continued to beat the war drum to let the rest of the fleet know that the Admiral's flagship was still in the fight. Chen's ship was again in trouble, and Yi's flagship rowed to his rescue. Yi's flagship fought off and sank several Japanese ships, and Chen called for Yi to thank him for coming to his aid. However, Chen was met by Wan who announced that his uncle
9545-406: The rough waters around Korea's coast, as well as the sudden changes in tides and currents, Korean boats throughout history had to be strong. Korean ship building tradition created simple, but very structurally sound vessels. Throughout Korea's naval history, strength and power was emphasized rather than speed. Two types of woods were used to construct panokseon : pine for the hull and oak for
9660-593: The rule of King Seonjo , to re-establish diplomatic relations between Korea and Japan (broken since the wokou raid in 1555). Hideyoshi hoped to use this as a foundation to induce the Korean court to join Japan in a war against China. Yasuhiro, with his warrior background and an attitude disdainful of the Korean officials and their customs, failed to receive the promise of future ambassadorial missions from Korea. Around May 1589, Hideyoshi's second embassy, consisting of Sō Yoshitoshi , Yanagawa Shigenobu ( 柳川調信 ) , and Buddhist monk Genso ( 玄蘇 ) , reached Korea and secured
9775-454: The sails could be used in all winds, whether adverse or favorable. Panokseons had two to three levels stacked up on top of each other. By having multiple levels the rowers at the bottom were relatively safe, and marines at the top would have a height advantage over the enemy, firing down upon them and avoiding boarding of the ship. The upper deck had a tower in the middle of the ship that would be used for command and observation. The deck of
9890-405: The shape of a rocket) with a range of 500 metres (1,600 ft), as well as jeolhwan (cannon shot) which could travel up to a distance of 1 kilometre (0.62 mi). Wangu, a kind of mortar, which fired stones or shells with a radius of 20 centimetres (7.9 in), was also used by the Korean navy. Hwachas were also used on panokseons . Another noteworthy aspect of Korea’s heavy fire-arms
10005-609: The south coast of Namhae Island, towards Pusan. As the Japanese retreated, Yi ordered a vigorous pursuit. During this time a stray arquebus bullet from an enemy ship struck him near the armpit, on his left side. Sensing that the wound was fatal, the admiral uttered, "We are about to win the war – keep beating the war drums. Do not announce my death." Only three people witnessed Yi Sun-sin's death including Yi Hoe (his eldest son), his adjutant Song Hui-rip , and Yi Wan, his nephew. They struggled to regain their composure and carried Sun-sin's body into his cabin before others could notice. For
10120-616: The southern end of Namhae Island , bypassing both the Noryang Strait and the battle. Although he knew the battle was raging, he made no effort to help Shimazu. This led to the loss of crucial supply lines that caused the inevitable loss of all Japanese strongholds in Korea. Konishi Yukinaga , Shimazu Yoshihiro , Katō Kiyomasa , and other Japanese generals of the Left Army congregated in Busan and withdrew to Japan on 21 December. The last ships sailed to Japan on 24 December. Yi Sun-sin's body
10235-495: The southern regions with the exception of the southwestern Jeolla Province . The pursuing Ming and Joseon armies attempted to advance further into the south, but were halted by the Japanese army at the Battle of Byeokjegwan . Subsequently, the Japanese armies launched a counterattack in an attempt to reoccupy the northern provinces but were repelled by the defending Joseon army at Haengju fortress . Additionally, Joseon's civilian-led armies actively waged guerrilla warfare against
10350-482: The standing army, which actually has to maintain a certain number, is not managed, causing a problem that most of the numbers are falsely stated just before the war. they wore Brigandine armor, which was popular in Manchuria and Mongolia at the time. This is called Dujeong-gap ( 두정갑 ; 頭釘甲 ). Panokseon Panokseon ( Korean : 판옥선 ) was a class of Korean oar- and sail-propelled ship that
10465-451: The thin, lower density timber used to build them, particularly cedar and fir . These were light weight woods and as they had fewer knots than pine, could be cut thinner. The sekibune in particular, being the standard warship of the Japanese fleet, was built primarily as a transport ship and to be as light as possible, increasing its speed at the expense of structural integrity. This is consistent with traditional Japanese naval tactics of
10580-424: The time, which emphasized boarding enemy ships and engaging their crews in hand-to-hand combat. Another major difference was the use of iron nails versus the use of wood pegs to hold the ship together. Korean ships were held together by interlocking teeth in the wood and wood pegs. The Japanese warships, on the other hand, relied on iron nails which, as time passed and corrosion and rust set in, eventually weakened
10695-523: The two basic types of sail - square and lateen - the square sail has strong performance downwind but struggles windward, whereas the fore-and-aft lateen sail excels against the wind, at the cost of an increased crew requirement for handling. In the civilizations of Europe and around the Mediterranean Sea, square sails were used in the galleys of Ancient Greece and the Viking longships , and
10810-426: The two countries. Near the end of the ambassadorial mission, Yoshitoshi presented King Seonjo a brace of peafowl and matchlock guns—the first advanced firearms to come to Korea. Ryu Seong-ryong , a high-ranking scholar official, suggested that the military put the arquebus (a matchlock firearm) into production and use, but the Korean court failed to appreciate its merits. This lack of interest and underestimation of
10925-487: The very beginning, a desperate affair with the Japanese determined to fight through the allied fleet and the allies equally determined to keep them from breaking through and advancing. As in Yi's previous battles, the Japanese were unable to respond effectively as the Korean and Chinese cannon prevented them from moving. When the Japanese fleet was significantly damaged, Chen ordered his fleet to engage in melee combat. This allowed
11040-488: The war is called Bunroku no eki ( 文禄の役 ) . Bunroku referring to the Japanese era name spanning the period from 1592 to 1596. The second invasion (1597–1598) is called Keichō no eki ( 慶長の役 ) . During the Edo period (17–19th centuries), the war was also called Kara iri ( 唐入り ) ("entry into China" or, more accurately, "entry into Tang ", the dynasty whose name is synonymous with China ). Japan's ultimate purpose
11155-478: The western and southern coasts by the Joseon navy, the remaining Japanese forces in Korea were ordered to withdraw back to Japan by the new governing Council of Five Elders . Final peace negotiations between the parties followed afterwards and continued for several years, ultimately resulting in the normalization of relations. In 1392, General Yi Seonggye led a successful coup to take political power in Korea from U of Goryeo . Seonggye's followers forced him to take
11270-431: Was an exception in that it had two masts, but the main parts of its vessels were square-rigged and their sails were again limited to use in favorable winds. It is worthwhile also to compare the hulls of the two nations’ respective warships, and their relative strength. The panokseon used thick, high density boards, giving an overall sturdiness to the ship’s structure. Japanese warships were structurally weaker, due to
11385-583: Was brought back to his home town in Asan to be buried next to his father, Yi Chong (in accordance with Korean tradition). The court gave him the posthumous rank of Minister of the Right . Shrines, both official and unofficial, were constructed in his honor. In 1643, Yi was given the title of chungmugong , "duke/lord of loyal valor". Chen gave a eulogy while attending Yi's funeral. He then withdrew his forces to Ming China and received high military honors. Joseon officials feared another Japanese invasion and requested
11500-466: Was capable of considerable feats of organization, for example bringing 400 artillery guns across 480 km of harsh landscape to provide firepower against the Mongols. The core of the Ming army was the infantry, divided into five sections; those armed with guns, swords, archers with fire arrows , archers with ordinary arrows, and spearmen, backed up by the cavalry and artillery. The basic weapons for
11615-463: Was constrained by the naval campaigns of the Korean navy which would continue to raid Japanese supply fleets in its coastal waters, hampering the Japanese advances as supply lines were disrupted along the Western Korean coast and Japanese naval reinforcements were repelled. These trends, with some exceptions on both sides, held true throughout much of the conflict. In 1592, Ming China was at
11730-568: Was dead. It is said that Chen himself was so shocked that he fell to the ground three times, beating his chest and crying. News of Yi's death spread quickly throughout the allied fleet. Out of 500 Japanese ships under Shimazu 's command, an estimated 200 were able to make it back to Busan Harbor (other Joseon archives record that Shimazu's remnants were fiercely pursued by Yi Sun-sin 's fleet: only 50 ships of Shimazu's armada ever managed to escape). Konishi Yukinaga left his fortress on 16 December and his men were able to retreat by sailing through
11845-421: Was divided into four castes : samurai, peasants, artisans, and merchants, in that order. The samurai caste owned most of the land in Japan, had the sole right to carry swords and to execute on the spot any commoner who was insufficiently deferential, and were allowed to own horses and ride into battle. The standard samurai weapon by 1592 was the yari , a spear meant to stab, often with a cross-blade that allowed
11960-402: Was either sunk or captured. It was said that Yoshihiro's flagship was sunk and that he was clinging to a piece of wood in the icy water. Japanese ships came to his rescue, pulling him to safety. During the course of the battle, the ships fought from the west end of the strait all the way across to the east end, almost to the open water. The Japanese sustained heavy damage and began to retreat along
12075-444: Was followed by a brief interlude between 1596 and 1597 during which Japan and the Ming engaged in ultimately unsuccessful peace talks. In 1597, Japan renewed its offensive by invading Korea a second time. The pattern of the second invasion largely mirrored that of the first. The Japanese had initial successes on land, but the contribution of the Ming forces, as well as the Joseon navy's disruption of Japanese supply fleets, resulted in
12190-492: Was given the nickname Guangdong Master for his naval and military accomplishments. Officers in the Joseon Army and Navy came exclusively from the aristocracy, but unlike the high militarist Japanese aristocracy trained to be soldiers from their youth onward, for the Joseon aristocracy, scholarship was valued and war was disparaged as something unworthy of a Confucian gentleman-scholar. The quality of Korean generalship
12305-671: Was not sure whether the allied fleet was continuing the blockade of Konishi's wajō , on its way to attack an abandoned wajō further east, or blocking their way on the western end of Noryang Strait. Yi, meanwhile, knew exactly where Shimazu was after receiving reports from scouts and local fishermen. The Joseon fleet consisted of 82 panokseon multi-decked oared ships. The Ming fleet consisted of six large war junks (true battle vessels most likely used as flagships) that were driven by both oars and sails, 57 lighter war ships driven by oars alone (most likely transports converted for battle use), and two panokseon provided by Yi. In terms of manpower,
12420-523: Was specialized in dealing with nomadic looters. However, as the Joseon army was easily defeated in the early days of the Imjin War, the Joseon government felt limited in the Five Guard system and switched to the Five Army Camps system. Light infantry protected their chests by wearing eomsimgap ( 엄심갑 ; 掩心甲 ), which was made of leather over a cloth robe that served a similar function to
12535-470: Was the invasion of Ming China. However, during the war, as the reality that the conflict was largely confined to the Korean Peninsula seeped in, Toyotomi Hideyoshi would soon alter his original objectives. In 1592, with an army of more than 160,000 soldiers and approximately 700 ships, Toyotomi Hideyoshi launched what would end up being the first of two invasions of Korea , with the intent of conquering Joseon Korea and eventually, Ming China . Initially,
12650-480: Was the main class of warship used by Joseon during the late 16th century. The first ship of this class was constructed in 1555. These ships were built from sturdy pine wood and, as the primary warship of the Korean Navy, they were instrumental in victories under the command of Admiral Yi Sun-shin against numerically larger Japanese fleets during the 1592-1598 Japanese invasions of Korea . A key feature of
12765-426: Was therefore a lengthy process. In addition, ships with larger drafts have a more difficult time of navigating narrow and shallower waters. Japanese ships were thus vastly less maneuverable than the panokseon in Korea's narrow channel waters. The medium-sized sekibune ships, smaller craft, and most Japanese transport ships had a single mast and could only sail in favorable winds. The atakebune ship type
12880-407: Was therefore one of a fight between crews rather than the vessels themselves. This was the most common naval strategy in the world during this time, and was also used by the Spanish and the home fleets of the Mediterranean and Indian Ocean of the day. The Korean Navy, however, utilizing superior warships and firepower, engaged in a more modern, distanced kind of naval warfare, and Korean panokseons of
12995-465: Was to cross Noryang Strait, link up with Konishi and retreat to Busan . Shimazu knew that Konishi was trying to cause disunity within the Joseon - Ming alliance and hoped that they would be busy elsewhere or still blockading the Sunch'on wajō and thus vulnerable to an attack from their rear. On 15 December, a huge Japanese fleet was amassed in Sach'on Bay, on the east end of the Noryang Strait. Shimazu
13110-409: Was very common in 16th-century Japan for genealogists to "discover" that someone had illustrious ancestry for the right price, that suggests that Hideyoshi was planning on creating a new office for himself to replace the bakufu . Hideyoshi was also tempted by an external conflict to prevent internal rebellion within Japan, which would keep his newly formed state united against a common enemy, and prevent
13225-514: Was very variable, with some Korean officers being able and others being men who had not devoted much time to the study of war, preferring archery, writing, practicing their calligraphy, and reading Confucian classics. At the end of the period of chaos after the collapse of the Yuan Dynasty, Joseon was mainly focused on dealing with the looting of the Jurchen people and Japanese pirates in
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