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237-502: The armed forces of the former Goryeo kingdom were Joseon's armed forces during the reign of King Taejo . However, the officials of the Joseon court commanded private armies from the previous kingdom. Yi Bang-won and his officers staged a coup against Taejo and his brother Jeongjong of Joseon , inciting the first and second strife of the princes. He advised Jeongjong to ban the ownership of private armies and become king in favor of having

474-546: A haejangguk , which is any type of food eaten as a hangover cure, usually a warm soup. Another representative Pyongyang dish, Taedonggang sungeoguk , translates as "flathead grey mullet soup from the Taedong River ". The soup features flathead grey mullet (abundant in the Taedong River) along with black peppercorns and salt. Traditionally, it has been served to guests visiting Pyongyang. Therefore, there

711-475: A Jujin , the main fortress commanded by a Byeongsa , a provincial military commander who takes a regional defense and orders lower unit commanders. A Geojin , a medium-sized local administrative unit commanded by a Byeongmajeoljesa or Cheomjeoljesa (Geojin Military Commander) between the provincial capital and small local towns called Jejins , who are commanded by the chief local magistrates or

948-486: A Siberian city during winter snowfall, although edifices of traditional Korean design somewhat soften this perception. In summer, it is notable for its rivers, willow trees, flowers and parkland. Since the end of the Korean War the city was planned strictly according to Socialist principles. According to the 1953 masterplan designed Kim Jung-hee the city was planned to reach one-million residents stretching from

1185-566: A coup d'état in March 1728 by a coalition of the radical faction of the Namin and the excluded Soron faction. After the death of King Gyeongjong and the ascension of King Yeongjo to the throne, the position of the Noron faction was restored, and Soron, who had instigated the rebellion under the pretext of protecting King Gyeongjong, was punished and excluded from power. Shortly after ascending to

1422-400: A hot-summer continental monsoon climate ( Köppen : Dwa ), featuring warm to hot, humid summers and cold, dry winters. Cold, dry winds can blow from Siberia in winter, making conditions very cold; the low temperature is usually below freezing between November and early March, although the average daytime high is at least a few degrees above freezing in every month except January. The winter

1659-591: A ward of Fukuoka ), but were engaged by several samurai soon afterward. At first, the Yuan and Korean forces outnumbered the samurai, who were accustomed to smaller-scale clan rivalries; they could not match the organization and massed firepower of the invaders. Yuan forces fought with precision, losing heavy volleys of arrows into the ranks of the Japanese. The Yuan also employed an early form of rocket artillery, and their infantry used phalanx -like tactics, holding off

1896-609: A capacity of 500 MW, East Pyongyang TPS with a capacity of 50 MW, and Kangdong TPS which is under construction. Pyongyang is home to several large department stores including the Pothonggang Department Store , Pyongyang Department Store No. 1 , Pyongyang Department Store No. 2, Kwangbok Department Store, Ragwon Department Store, Pyongyang Station Department Store, and the Pyongyang Children's Department Store. The city also has Hwanggumbol Shop,

2133-505: A central army. When Sejong ascended the throne, he created various military regulations to strengthen the safety of his kingdom, supported the advancement of Korean military technology , including the development of the cannon , mortars, fire arrows and the use of gunpowder . Like Goryeo , Joseon made the Jurchens in the area around Hamhung on the northeastern Korean peninsula submit as vassals. The Joseon Koreans tried to deal with

2370-521: A certain amount of wealth to take the qualification exam, the army officers recruit the gapsa based on their martial arts proficiency. When a Gapsa completes his military service at Gyeonggapsa , he receives a commission and a 4th rank according to the Geogwan Act. Instead of being treated as a bureaucrat of a certain class and receiving a salary from the state, the military, horses, and servants' food expenses were all on their own. However, filling

2607-582: A certain number, is not managed, causing a problem that most of the numbers are falsely stated just before the Imjin War. At the end of the period of chaos after the collapse of the Yuan Dynasty, Joseon was mainly focused on dealing with the looting of the Jurchen people and Japanese pirates in the north. During the reign of King Jeongjong in 1400, the private army system was overthrown, and during

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2844-463: A chance for another war. King Injo provided refuge to Ming general Mao Wenlong and with his unit after they fled from Later Jin and came to Korea; this action caused Later Jin to invade Korea again. In 1636, Hong Taiji officially renamed his dynasty the Qing dynasty and invaded Joseon personally. The Qing forces purposely avoided battle with General Im Gyeong Eop , a prominent Joseon army commander who

3081-575: A chance to force the Japanese back to Pusan through many strategic battles. During the 1595–1596 Truce, Seonjo realized how important it was and tried to reform it with the help of Ming generals and established army training centers. Ryu Seong-ryong, the Prime Minister, spoke out about the Korean disadvantages. He examined why the Japanese had quickly overrun them and pointed out the flaws of their defense systems. Ryu also pointed out how efficient

3318-466: A cortege procession when his corpse moved through the streets with a hearse as people cried out in hysteria while watching the funeral. In 2001, North Korean authorities began a long-term modernisation programme. The Ministry of Capital City Construction Development was included in the Cabinet in that year. In 2006, Kim Jong Il's brother-in-law Jang Song Thaek took charge of the ministry. Throughout

3555-489: A familiar province's terrain. Joseon army mobilizes its troops through the Jeseungbangryak system. It allowed the military commanders from the central government to control assembled troops from the main army to the local and provincial armies. But, local officers could not individually respond to a foreign invasion outside their jurisdiction until a higher ranking general, appointed by the king's court, arrived with

3792-504: A few hundred members at any given time. They were divided into three ranks: Gapsa daegam (甲士大監), Gapsa junggam (甲士中監), and Gapsa sogam (甲士少監), with the first rank being the most senior. Members of the Gapsa were exempt from taxes and corvée labor. They were given special privileges, such as publicly carrying weapons and using specific honorific titles. The unit had several branches, each with its specific duties. The Gyeonggapsa ( 경갑사 )

4029-592: A garrison command in the southern regions without posting concurrent magistrate ( paech'i ). Nonetheless, the garrison commanders throughout the peninsula were increasingly responsible for civil policing activities at the expense of their military duties. In the Joseon Army, there are army units between the Jeon-gi (前期, "pre-period") and Hu-gi (後期, "post-period"). Jeon-gi is based on the Owi (오위) system established during

4266-553: A joint military attack on Liao, Goryeo had declined. For a time, Goryeo and Liao enjoyed an amicable relationship. In 996, Seongjong married a Liao princess. As the Khitan Empire expanded and became more powerful, it demanded that Goryeo cede the Six Garrison Settlements, but Goryeo refused. In 1009, Kang Cho staged a coup d'état , assassinating Mokjong and installing Hyeonjong on the throne. In

4503-647: A key role in coordinating with other government agencies to maintain law and order within the kingdom. The Geumguncheong was an important institution in the Joseon Dynasty, as the Restriction Guard played a critical role in maintaining the stability of the kingdom and protecting the royal family. In 1755, King Yeongjo renamed the Restriction Guard into the Dragon Tiger Guard ( Yonghoyeong ); its total number of members increased to 700. It

4740-479: A large group of civilian officers almost always accompanied him. The military officers were largely ignored and mobilized to construct temples and ponds. In 1170, a group of army officers led by Chŏng Chung-bu , Yi Ŭi-bang and Yi Ko launched a coup d'état and succeeded. King Uijong went into exile, and King Myeongjong was placed on the throne beginning its military rule. In 1179, the young general Kyŏng Tae-sŭng rose to power and began attempting to restore

4977-484: A major city in old Joseon. Pyongyang was founded in 1122 BC on the site of the capital of the legendary king Dangun . Wanggeom-seong , which was in the location of Pyongyang, became the capital of Gojoseon from 194 to 108 BC. It fell in the Han conquest of Gojoseon in 108 BC. Emperor Wu of Han ordered four commanderies be set up, with Lelang Commandery in the center and its capital established as "Joseon" (朝鮮縣, 조선현) at

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5214-405: A military commander. Using this strategic composition, a Jingwan fights and defend their provinces, and every province has several independent Jingwans . Under this system, the roles of local commanders were to be stationed at their post, know the local topography inside and out, draft the operation plan, train local soldiers, and defend their defensive quarter by mobilizing their local soldiers in

5451-537: A military unit called "Bange" (방패) was established and formalized, with officers and deputy officers. The spearmen were initially composed of highly skilled soldiers, but by the time of the establishment of the " Gyeongguk Daejeon " (경국대전), they were transformed into labor troops, including those employed in construction work. As it was a unit that handled heavy weapons like shields, soldiers were selected based on running and strength rather than martial arts. However, as naturally strong spearmen were employed as laborers, there

5688-481: A minor Korean official in service of Mongols in Ssangseong , and his son Yi Sŏng-gye. In addition, Generals Yi Sŏng-gye and Ji Yongsu led a campaign into Liaoyang and conquered it in 1356. The final attempt by the Yuan to dominate Goryeo failed when General Ch'oe Yŏng defeated an invading Mongol tumen in 1364. The Red Turbans attacked Goryeo, most likely because of military necessity. In December 1359, part of

5925-426: A newly mobilized army. It was a highly inefficient arrangement since the nearby forces would remain stationary until the mobile border commander arrived on the scene and took control. Secondly, as the appointed General often came from an outside region. The general was unlikely unfamiliar with the natural environment, the available technology, and staffing of the invaded region. Finally, as the government never maintained

6162-648: A population of 235,000. On 25 August 1945, the Soviet 25th Army entered Pyongyang and it became the temporary capital of the Provisional People's Committee for North Korea . A People's Committee was already established there, led by veteran Christian nationalist Cho Man-sik . Pyongyang became the de facto capital of North Korea upon its establishment in 1948. At the time, the Pyongyang government aimed to recapture Korea's official capital, Seoul. Pyongyang

6399-460: A professional regular army, and mandatory reserve forces was adopted to cope with such military situations. People were enlisted in the military registry regardless of sex and age, and all the men between 16 and 60 years of age were conscribed if necessary. Therefore, a minimal regular military force was maintained by each province, enabling people to carry on with their lives, and people were mobilized only during an emergency. The two corps (gun) and

6636-405: A range of weapons and equipment, including rifles, swords, and spears. The soldiers received training in military tactics and skills, as well as discipline and loyalty to their local governor and the Joseon dynasty. Although the provincial armies were not as well-funded or well-equipped as the central army, they played an important role in defending and protecting the different regions of Korea during

6873-524: A record of sea battles in 1380 whereby one hundred warships were sent to Jinpo to rout Japanese pirates there, releasing 334 captives, Japanese sorties decreasing then after. The Wako pirates were effectively expelled through gunpowder technology, which the Wako lacked after Goryeo founded the Office of Gunpowder Weapons in 1377 (but abolished twelve years later). During the 1380s, Goryeo turned its attention to

7110-514: A regiment ( yŏng ) of approximately 2,475 men. The Sogo Armies performed disastrously during the Manchu Invasions due to the county magistrates' poor management and outright corruption, who packed them with the old, weak, and infirm soldiers. During Heonjong 's reign, he reduced them to a corvée labor force, and their garrison commanders operated in the realms of public safety and pacification as thief-catching and tiger killing. After

7347-526: A role in various official ceremonies and events within the royal court. For example, they would participate in military parades and other public events, and would also serve as escorts for members of the royal family. The central army of Joseon, also known as the Royal Army or the Capital Army, was the primary military force of the Joseon dynasty, which ruled Korea from 1392 to 1897. The central army

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7584-493: A select group of highly trained soldiers who served as the personal bodyguards of the Joseon Dynasty's royal family. They were responsible for protecting the king and his immediate family members, as well as important government officials and palaces. The Restriction Guard members were selected from the most skilled and loyal soldiers in the kingdom. They underwent rigorous training in martial arts, archery, horseback riding, and other combat skills. In addition to their combat training,

7821-549: A seonbu. It was returned to Byeongbu during King Gongmin, then switched back to Gunbusa and Choongbu, and it was only renamed Byeongjo during King Gongyang. He was in charge of national defense, including operational planning, production and management of weapons, and personnel rights of military personnel. He was also in charge of transportation, such as carts and horses, communication methods, such as beacon fires and stations, and palace security. Pyongyang Pyongyang ( Korean :  평양 ; Hancha :  平壤 )

8058-559: A single military camp when King Seonjo and Ryu Seong-Ryong established the Military Training Agency ( Hunlyeondogam , 훈련도감 , alternately translated as Military Training Command). The agency carefully divided the army into units and companies. The companies had archers, arquebusiers, sworders, and spear infantry squads. The agency set up army divisions in each region of Korea and garrisoned battalions at castles. The upper-class citizens and enslaved people were subject to

8295-513: A state of readiness at all times. The soldiers were required to undergo regular training and drills to ensure that they were prepared to respond to any potential threats. They were also responsible for maintaining the fortifications and other defensive structures in and around the capital city. During times of war, the Capital Defense Standing Army played a key role in defending the capital city and its surrounding areas. It

8532-525: A status equal to that of the North Korean provinces . Pyongyang is one of the oldest cities in Korea. It was the capital of two ancient Korean kingdoms, Gojoseon and Goguryeo , and served as the secondary capital of Goryeo . Following the establishment of North Korea in 1948, Pyongyang became its de facto capital. The city was again devastated during the Korean War , but was quickly rebuilt after

8769-491: A stronghold of Christianity , namely Protestantism , especially during the Pyongyang Revival of 1907. After Kim Il Sung's death in 1994, some members of Kim Jong Il 's faction proposed changing the name of Pyongyang to "Kim Il Sung City" ( Korean :  김일성시 ; Hanja :  金日成市 ), but others suggested that North Korea should begin calling Seoul "Kim Il Sung City" instead and grant Pyongyang

9006-569: A successful campaign against local clans and the army of Later Baekje in the Chungju area, gaining more fame and recognition from the king. In 903, he led a famous naval campaign against the southwestern coastline of Later Baekje (Keumsung, later Naju) while Kyŏn Hwŏn was at war against Silla. He led several more military campaigns and helped conquered people living in poverty under Silla's rule. The public favored him due to his leadership and generosity. He also led Taebong's Navy, took Geumseong from

9243-707: A tributary state of the Qing Dynasty. The Qing dynasty continued to thrive, expanding quickly into the west after successfully conquering the Ming in 1644. Since the Manchus assimilated the massive Chinese army into their own, they became too mighty to resist. Although reformed and expanded, the Joseon military was no match against the combined Manchu and Chinese forces. Also, the Qing dynasty began to treat Joseon as its friend and closest ally. After Hyojong died, Hyeonjong rose to

9480-699: Is a common saying, "How good was the trout soup?", which is used to greet people returning from Pyongyang. Another local specialty, Pyongyang onban (literally "warm rice of Pyongyang") comprises freshly cooked rice topped with sliced mushrooms, chicken, and a couple of bindaetteok (pancakes made from ground mung beans and vegetables). In 2018, there were many high-quality restaurants in Pyongyang with Korean and international food, and imported alcoholic beverages. Famous restaurants include Okryu-gwan and Ch'ongryugwan. Some street foods exist in Pyongyang, where vendors operate food stalls . Foreign foods like hamburgers, fries, pizza, and coffee are easily found. There

9717-611: Is an active nightlife with late-night restaurants and karaoke. The city has water parks, amusement parks , skating rinks, health clubs, a shooting range, and a dolphinarium. Pyongyang has a number of sports clubs, including the April 25 Sports Club and the Pyongyang City Sports Club . Pyongyang is North Korea's industrial center. Thanks to the abundance of natural resources like coal , iron and limestone , as well as good land and water transport systems, it

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9954-532: Is borrowed from Korean "평양" (literally "flat land"), from McCune–Reischauer (MR) romanisation P'yŏngyang, a Sino-Korean word from 平壤. It indicates the geographical feature of the location to have a smooth terrain. In native Korean, the city was called "Buruna" ( 부루나 ) or less commonly "Barana" ( 바라나 ) which, using the idu system , was the pronunciation of the Chinese characters of "Pyongyang". "Buru" ( 부루 ) means "field" whereas "na" ( 나 ) means "land", therefore

10191-1031: Is constitutionally designated as the country's capital. The seat of the Workers' Party Central Committee and the Pyongyang People's Committee are located in Haebangsan-dong, Chung-guyok . The Cabinet of North Korea is located in Jongro-dong, Chung-guyok . Pyongyang is also the seat of all major North Korean security institutions. The largest of them, the Ministry of Social Security , has 130,000 employees working in 12 bureaus. These oversee activities including: police services, security of party officials, classified documents, census, civil registrations, large-scale public construction, traffic control , fire safety, civil defence , public health and customs . Another significant structure based in

10428-410: Is divided into 19 wards ( ku- or guyŏk ) (the city proper) , 2 counties ( kun or gun ), and 1 neighborhood ( dong ). Foreign media reports in 2010 stated that Kangnam-gun , Chunghwa-gun , Sangwŏn-gun , and Sŭngho-guyŏk had been transferred to the administration of neighboring North Hwanghae Province . However, Kangnam-gun was returned to Pyongyang in 2011. Panghyŏn-dong, a missile base,

10665-466: Is generally much drier than summer, with snow falling for 37 days on average. The transition from the cold, dry winter to the warm, wet summer occurs rather quickly between April and early May, and there is a similarly abrupt return to winter conditions in late October and November. Summers are generally hot and humid, with the East Asian monsoon taking place from June until September; these are also

10902-759: Is in the west-central part of North Korea; the city lies on a flat plain about 50 kilometres (31 mi) east of the Korea Bay , an arm of the Yellow Sea . The Taedong River flows southwestward through the city toward the Korea Bay. The Pyongyang plain, where the city is situated, is one of the two large plains on the Western coast of the Korean peninsula, the other being the Chaeryong plain. Both have an area of approximately 500 square kilometers. Pyongyang has

11139-566: Is put on the production and supply of fresh produce and subsidiary crops in farms on the city's outskirts. Other crops include rice , sweetcorn and soybeans . Pyongyang aims to achieve self-sufficiency in meat production. High-density facilities raise pigs, chicken and other livestock. Until the late 2010s Pyongyang still experienced frequent shortages of electricity. To solve this problem, two power stations – Huichon Power Stations 1 and 2 – were built in Chagang Province and supply

11376-475: Is the capital and largest city of North Korea , where it is sometimes labeled as the "Capital of the Revolution" ( 혁명의 수도 ). Pyongyang is located on the Taedong River about 109 km (68 mi) upstream from its mouth on the Yellow Sea . According to the 2008 population census, it has a population of 3,255,288. Pyongyang is a directly administered city ( 직할시 ; 直轄市 ; chikhalsi ) with

11613-479: Is the de facto mayor . The supreme standing state organ is the Pyongyang People's Committee, responsible for everyday events in support of the city. This includes following local Party guidance as channeled through the Pyongyang Party Committee, the distribution of resources prioritised to Pyongyang, and providing support to KWP and internal security agency personnel and families. P'yŏngyang

11850-692: The Goryeosa , the Khitans were attacked while crossing the Yalu River and many drowned. Afterward, Hyeonjong did not fulfill his promise to pay homage in person to the Liao emperor, and when demanded to cede the Six Garrison Settlements, he refused. The Khitans built a bridge across the Yalu River in 1014 and attacked in 1015, 1016, and 1017: victory went to the Koreans in 1015, the Khitans in 1016, and

12087-838: The 105th birthday of the founder and first leader, Kim Il Sung , 4,804 units were built in the new Ryomyong Street complex . The second decade of the 2000s saw the construction of residential projects in Songhwa Street near the Taedonggang Brewing Company in Sadong District (2022), in Taephyong area in Mangyongdae district, and in the Pothong Riverside Terraced Residential District located at

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12324-593: The Arch of Triumph and the Mansu Hill Grand Monument . The first of them is a 170-meter (560 ft) granite spire symbolizing the Juche ideology. It was completed in 1982 and contains 25,550 granite blocks, one for each day of Kim Il Sung's life up to that point. The most prominent building on Pyongyang's skyline is Ryugyong Hotel , the seventh highest building in the world terms of floor count,

12561-459: The Battle of Kōan . The Eastern Route Army arrived at Hakata Bay on June 23, and decided to proceed with the invasion without waiting for the larger Southern force which had still not left China. They were a short distance to the north and east of where their force had landed in 1274, and were in fact beyond the walls and defenses constructed by the Japanese. The samurai responded quickly, assaulting

12798-589: The Forbidden City as well as various monuments and memorials, which together form an important axis of symbolic places which promotes the Ideology of the Workers' Party of Korea and North Korean cult of personality around Kim family with the epicentre and Kilometre zero of the central district located at Kim Il Sung Square . The 1953 masterplan set the basic layout from which the city's development

13035-464: The Gapsa ranks was complex due to the ruling class's avoidance of military service. For this reason, the Joseon government, which had to save the budget, tried to increase the number of Gapsa by increasing the lower ranks. As a result, at the time of King Seongjong and the publication of Gyeongguk Daejeon, the number of Gapsa increases to 14,800 by 1475, but the standing army, which actually has to maintain

13272-588: The Joseon Society from villages and counties into militia armies with hierarchical command structures. They have access to the resources for maintaining and rewarding the soldiers. Five households each contributed a man to form the basic unit, an o . The o ’s in a village or town were progressively amalgamated and arranged into eleven-man squads ( tae ) including a squad leader ( taech’ong ), three-squad banners ( ki ), three-banner companies ( ch’o ), and five-company battalions ( sa ), five battalions constituted

13509-546: The Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ). Pyongyang served as the provincial capital of South Pyongan Province until 1946, and Pyongyang cuisine shares the general culinary tradition of the Pyongan province. The most famous local food is Pyongyang raengmyŏn , or also called mul raengmyŏn or just simply raengmyŏn . Raengmyŏn literally means "cold noodles", while the affix mul refers to water because

13746-693: The Manchu invasion of Korea , Injo established the Garrison Command System ( Yŏngjang chedo ) to take over the training and military preparation of Joseon and separated the military administration from the civil interference of the provincial magistrates. The Garrison Command System replaced recruitment with universal conscription, which like the Sogo system, required all citizens of Joseon to enlist because most regions lacked enough population base to maintain more than three. During Yeongjo 's reign,

13983-729: The Mansudae People's Theatre opened in 2012, the Munsu Water Park opened in 2013, and the renovated and expanded Sunan International Airport and Pyongyang Sci-Tech Complex , both completed in 2015, the Samjiyon Orchestra Theater, which was fitted out of the domed Korean People's Army Circus built in 1964, and the Pyongyang General Hospital , of which construction started in 2020. Additional re-development projects occurred in

14220-654: The March First Movement in 1919 and severe anti-Japanese socialist movement in 1920s due to economic exploitation. It was called Heijō (with the same Chinese characters 平壤 but read as へいじょう ) in Japanese. In July 1931, the city experienced anti-Chinese riots as a result of the Wanpaoshan Incident and the sensationalized media reports about it which appeared in Imperial Japanese and Korean newspapers. By 1938, Pyongyang had

14457-434: The Munjong period. The highest rank of the army was the Dowonsu (都元帥). The Commander in chief of all 8 provinces' armed forces. A temporary rank, the rank that commanded the local army. The scope of the command is flexible. Although it was the highest rank, it is said that the number of troops that Dowonsu could actually command was considerably small due to the temporary performance that was only permanent during wartime and

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14694-431: The Qing invasion of Joseon until peace arrangements were made between Korea and Qing China. While the invasions made Koreans suspicious of foreigners, the influence of Christianity began to grow after the country opened itself up to foreigners in the 16th century. Pyongyang became the base of Christian expansion in Korea. By 1880 it had more than 100 churches and more Protestant missionaries than any other Asian city, and

14931-687: The Sangju region, also defected and surrendered to Goryeo and was received as the father of a king. Kyŏn Hwŏn's oldest son, Kyŏn Sin-gŏm , led a coup with his brothers Yang-gŏm and Yong-gŏm, against their father, who favored their half-brother, Kŭm-gang, as his successor to the throne. Kyŏn Hwŏn was sent into exile and imprisoned in Geumsansa but escaped to Goryeo and was treated like Taejo's father, who died just before his surrender. In 936, Wang led his final campaign against Kyŏn Sin-gŏm of Later Baekje. Kyŏn Sin-gŏm fought against Taejo, but facing many disadvantages and inner conflict, he surrendered to Taejo. Wang finally occupied Later Baekje formally and unified

15168-432: The Taedong River to the Pothong River . The city center was planned as the main administrative district with main landscape structures constructed in between districts and are used as buffer zones so that they cannot expand freely. The city center was planned with wide avenues and streets and monumental structures and forms the central administrative district where many government and public buildings are located including

15405-442: The Treaty of Samjeondo , which required Injo to send his first son and second son to China as captives. Joseon then became a tributary state to the Qing dynasty, and the Qing went on to conquer the Central Plain in 1644. Though they lost the wars, their performance left a strong impression on the Manchus. The first emperor of the newly declared Qing dynasty later wrote: "The Koreans are incapable on horseback but do not transgress

15642-402: The armed forces of the Korean Empire . The command system of the army was that one or two provincial commanders from each province commanded a provincial base, and each county and city had a commander. The Joseon Army comprises foot soldiers, archers, musketeers, artillery, cavalry, and elite soldiers, the Pengbaesu and Gabsa . The Pengbaesu are shield-bearing foot soldiers. The Gabsa was

15879-425: The diversion of resources to the army . The 2010s and 2020s saw renewed efforts in urbanization and increasing density with the reconstruction of streets and avenues located further from the center and transformation of former rural parts of the city into high density residential districts. The streets are laid out in a north–south, east–west grid, giving the city an orderly appearance. North Korean designers applied

16116-414: The wokou menace and used naval artillery created by Ch'oe Mu-sŏn to annihilate hundreds of pirate ships. In 1388, King U (son of King Gongmin and a concubine,) and general Ch'oe Yŏng planned a campaign to invade present-day Liaoning of China. King U put General Yi Sŏng-gye (later Taejo ) in charge. Still, he stopped at the border and retreated from Wihwando to defeat Ch'oe Yŏng and overthrow

16353-421: The "Resplendent Army" in 947, and Gwangjong built fortresses north of the Chongchon River , expanding toward the Yalu River . The Khitans considered Goryeo a potential threat and, with tensions rising, invaded in 993. The Koreans were defeated in their first encounter with the Khitans, but successfully defended against them at the Chongchon River. Negotiations began between the Goryeo commander, Sŏ Hŭi , and

16590-423: The 1232 invasion. This collection of Buddhist scriptures took 15 years to carve on 81,000 wooden blocks and is still preserved. In March 1258, the dictator Ch'oe Ŭi was assassinated by Kim Chun after which authority was restored to the monarchy and peace was made with the Mongols ; however, power struggles continued in the court, and military rule did not end until 1270. Thus, dictatorship by his military group

16827-415: The 13th-century Samguk yusa . Historians deny this claim because earlier Chinese historiographical works such as the Guanzi , Classic of Mountains and Seas , Records of the Grand Historian , and Records of the Three Kingdoms , mention a much later "Joseon". The connection between the two therefore may have been asserted by North Korea for the use of propaganda. Nevertheless, Pyongyang became

17064-440: The 1953 master plan, it diverted from it in some aspects, such as the construction of high-rises along the central avenues, a step conflicted with the 1953 plan which called for more even distribution of the residential construction throughout the city in several multi-cores. The 90s saw a relative slowdown in the development of the urban structure due to the deep economic crisis and famine which swept through North Korea and led to

17301-466: The Americans but released the prisoners before they left after a diplomatic failure. These small victories and foreign diplomatic defeats made the Joseon Army blind to its inferiority to modern armies. Japan plundered and pillaged Ganghwa Island for firing on their gunboat Un'yō , finally forcing them to open doors to the world and modernize the army which will eventually lead to the development of

17538-619: The Escort Office ( Howicheong ) to defend the capital and the Gyeonggi Province. Adding to the central army was the Special Military Direct Office ( Byeolgunjigcheong ). It was involved in several major conflicts throughout the Joseon dynasty, including the Imjin War (1592–1598) against Japan and the Qing invasions of Joseon (1636–1637). Although the central army was the primary military force of

17775-608: The Gapsa that specialized in hunting and killing tigers. Tigers were a significant threat to the rural population of Korea, and the Chakhogapsa were trained to deal with this danger. They were known for their bravery and skill in hunting tigers and were highly respected by the locals. Gapsa were initially chosen from among the children of the Yangban and underwent rigorous training and performed several menial duties such as preparing horses and armaments. They had to have more than

18012-637: The Goguryeo dynasty. He led the kingdom's armies and navies against Silla and Later Baekje and unified the peninsula. Goryeo was able to mobilize sizable military might during times of war. In the early period, the army was known for successfully defending the northern borders from the Khitans and the Jurchens . But the Imperial Court and the official scholars mistreated the military and overthrew

18249-645: The House of Ch'oe's military rule, Goryeo resisted invasions by the Mongol Empire for nearly 30 years until swearing allegiance to the Mongols, with the direct dynastic rule of Goryeo monarchy. In 1231, Mongols under Ögedei Khan invaded Goryeo following the aftermath of joint Goryeo-Mongol forces against the Khitans in 1219. The royal court moved to Ganghwado in the Bay of Gyeonggi in 1232. The military ruler of

18486-589: The Iksok Force and the rebel army killing officials from the central government for not appointing northern officials to govern the northern provinces until they were defeated soon after the Battle of Manryeong. By the 16th century, the military became weak by the disavowment from Confucian scholars. During the Imjin War , Joseon mobilized few military units within a standing army. Its defense depended heavily on

18723-482: The Japanese army was since it took them only one month to get Hanseong and how well organized they were. He noted how the Japanese moved their units in complex maneuvers, often weakening their enemy with arquebuses, then attacking with melee weapons. These reforms helped Joseon Army repel the second invasion of the Japanese army and win the war. After the Injo Coup , the dissatisfied Yi Gwal who helped Injo ascend to

18960-562: The Japanese on Tsushima Island in the Oei Invasion as a response to Japanese Wokou raids on Korean coastal cities. Yi took 227 Korean ships and approximately 17,000 soldiers, landed, attacked, and plundered Japanese pirate settlements on Tsushima Island. The So clan , the ruling family of Tsushima, requested negotiations. In the diplomatic exchanges that followed, Korea permitted the So clan to continue trade with Korean coastal harbors under

19197-534: The Joseon Army underwent significant reforms. Each division consists of four brigades, each with about 2,000 gapsa constituting the core force among them and the Five Commands administers them through the General Headquarters ( Owido ), recruiting people from all provinces and the capital. The five divisions of the Owi were: Each division of the Owi was headed by a "Owi daegam" (오위대감), who

19434-571: The Joseon court, he urged Jin to invade Joseon, which led to the First Manchu invasion of Korea in 1627. Only during the peace negotiations did he find out that he had been misled. The Joseon musketeers being overwhelmed by the Manchu cavalry prompted a revision of military tactics in Korea. In previous decades, the Imjin War was seen as a demonstration of the dominance of the firearm, and Joseon adjusted military forces accordingly. Both sides of

19671-405: The Joseon dynasty, it was not always well-funded or well-equipped. The soldiers often had to provide their own weapons and equipment, and they were not always paid on time. Nevertheless, the soldiers in the central army were dedicated to their duty and played an important role in the defense and stability of the kingdom. Pengbaesu (팽배수/彭排手), heavy infantry specializing in hand-to-hand combat, were

19908-672: The Joseon period. They were often the first line of defense against potential threats and were an important part of the overall military strategy of the Joseon dynasty. Military of the Goryeo Dynasty The Military of Goryeo was the primary military force of the Goryeo dynasty . During the Later Three Kingdoms period, Wang Kŏn overthrew the Taebong ruler, Kung Ye , and renamed it Goryeo after

20145-588: The Jurchen clans such as the Odoli , Maolian and Udige capturing several castles, taking control of Hamgyong and continued pushing north expanding Korean territory to the Songhua River . He then established 4 counties, 6 garrisons, and several border forts in the region to safeguard the people from the Jurchens shaping the modern borders of Korea around 1450. In 1419, King Sejong sent Yi Jongmu to raid

20382-406: The Jurchen tribes. Led by prominent generals such as Yun Kwan and Ch'ŏk Chun-gyŏng , the well-trained Byeolmuban (別武班; "Special Warfare Army") of approximately 250,000 men initially succeeded in ravaging Jurchen territories and building the strategic "Nine Fortresses" (동북 9성, 東北九城) of which exact locations are still topics of debate. Following the invasion, numerous Jurchen tribes surrendered to

20619-692: The Jurchen-led Later Jin dynasty , keeping their alliance with the Ming dynasty. The Later Jin, who had remained primarily friendly to Joseon, began to regard Joseon as an enemy. Han Yun , who participated in the rebellion of Yi Gwal, fled to Manchuria and urged the Later Jin ruler Nurhaci to attack Joseon; thus, the friendly relationship between the Later Jin and Joseon ended. In 1619, the Joseon Expeditionary Force led Commander Gang Hong-rip to engage Later Jin with

20856-558: The Khitans as revenge for the destruction of Balhae, according to the Zizhi Tongjian . Furthermore, in his Ten Injunctions to his descendants, he stated that the Khitans are no different from beasts and should be guarded against. The "Manbu Bridge Incident" of 942 forced Goryeo to prepare itself for a conflict with the Khitan Empire: Jeongjong established a military reserve force of 300,000 soldiers called

21093-520: The King and the royal family and defending the Geumjung (禁裏) (or Geumjung (禁中), the king's residence. They number up to 50–200 men tasked with guarding the palace and escorting the king. They were divided into several different units, each with their own specific responsibilities. Naegeumwi (내금위), the inner guards who protected the King's quarters and attended to his personal needs. They were chosen from

21330-535: The King's Royal Palace Gatekeepers as a separate organization from the main body of the Royal Guards. King Yeongjo established the Sumunjangcheong (守門將廳) to manage them. They were recruited from the commoner class and were often referred to as "commoner soldiers" or "lowborn soldiers", as opposed to the aristocratic soldiers who made up the majority of the Royal Guards. Despite their lower social status,

21567-571: The Kings as puppet monarchs; Ch'oe Ch'ung-hŏn was succeeded in turn by his son Ch'oe U , his grandson Ch'oe Hang and his great-grandson Ch'oe Ŭi . Ch'oe Ch'ung-hŏn forced Myeongjong off the throne and replaced him with King Sinjong . What was different from former military leaders was the active involvement of scholars in Ch'oe's control, notably Prime Minister Yi Kyu-bo , who was a Confucian scholar-official. After Sinjong died, Ch'oe forced his son to

21804-711: The Korean Peninsula. In 1266, Kublai Khan dispatched emissaries several times to Japan, demanding that Japan become a vassal and send tribute under the threat of conflict, some through Goryeo Emissaries but the Kamakura shogunate despite the Japanese Imperial Court's request for compromise rejected them. The Mongols forced Goryeo to build warships to invade Japan, using their country as a stepping stone to conquer Japan through Kyushu, Tsushima, and their surrounding islands. The Yuan invasion force

22041-477: The Korean armies multiple times, even reaching the gates of the capital and raiding deep into the south, but were dominated by Korean General Kim Ch'wi-ryŏ ( 김취려 ; 金就礪 ) who pushed them back north to Pyongan , where the remaining Khitans were finished off by allied Mongol-Goryeo forces in 1219. Tension continued through the 12th century and into the 13th century when the Mongol invasions started. During

22278-469: The Korean peninsula. Civilian resistance was strong, and the Imperial Court at Ganghwa attempted to strengthen its fortress. Korea won several victories, but the Korean military could not withstand the waves of invasions. The repeated Mongol attacks caused havoc, loss of human lives, and famine in Korea. In 1236, Gojong ordered the recreation of the Tripitaka Koreana, which was destroyed during

22515-596: The Koreans in 1017. In 1018, Liao launched an invasion led by Xiao Paiya, the older brother of Xiao Sunning, with an army of 100,000 soldiers. The Liao army was immediately ambushed and suffered heavy casualties: the Goryeo commander Kang Kam-ch'an had dammed a large tributary of the Yalu River and released the water on the unsuspecting Khitan soldiers, who were then charged by 12,000 elite cavalry. The Liao army pushed on toward Kaesong under constant enemy harassment, but shortly turned around and retreated after failing to take

22752-539: The Later Baekje, renamed it Naju, and stationed the troops in 903. In 909, Wang Kon became Admiral of the Navy and led the naval forces. Kyŏn Hwŏn captured the envoy's ship from Yeomhae County within the jurisdiction of Gwangju. That year, Wang Kon captured Jindo and Koido (皐夷島) of the Later Baekje with 2,500 soldiers. The following year, when Kyŏn Hwŏn threatened Naju again, Wang Kŏn defeated Kyŏn Hwŏn's naval forces at

22989-714: The Lelang Commandery was destroyed by an expanding Goguryeo in 313. Goguryeo moved its capital there in 427. According to Christopher Beckwith , Pyongyang is the Sino-Korean reading of the name they gave it in their language: Piarna , or "level land". In 668, Pyongyang became the capital of the Protectorate General to Pacify the East established by the Tang dynasty of China. However, by 676, it

23226-485: The Liao commander, Xiao Sunning. In conclusion, Goryeo entered a nominal tributary relationship with Liao, severing relations with Song , and Liao conceded the land east of the Yalu River to Goryeo. Afterward, Goryeo established the "Six Garrison Settlements East of the River" in its new territory. In 994, Goryeo proposed to Song a joint military attack on Liao, but was declined; previously, in 985, when Song had proposed

23463-487: The Liao emperor, and the Khitans, who were sustaining attacks by the regrouped Korean army and disrupted supply lines, accepted and began their withdrawal. However, the Khitans were ceaselessly attacked during their withdrawal; Yang Kyu rescued 30,000 prisoners of war, but died in battle. According to the History of Liao , the Khitans were beset by heavy rains and discarded much of their armor and weapons. According to

23700-775: The Military Training Agency, the Royal Guards Command, and the Capital Garrison. The soldiers of the Three Military Garrisons lived in Hanyang and played a key role in guarding the king, guarding the palace, defending the capital, and maintaining public order. The provincial armies of Joseon were military forces that were established in different regions of Korea during the Joseon dynasty. These forces were distinct from

23937-493: The Ming Army at the Battle of Sarhū. But the allied forces lost two-thirds of the Joseon Expeditionary Force. The Jurchen released the captives and allowed them to return to their homeland. Gang Hong-rip, however, was kept for his proficiency in the Jurchen language. Later on, General Gang would be led to believe that his family had died in the political turmoil during a coup in his native kingdom of Joseon. To exact his revenge on

24174-580: The Naju port, and arrived at the port of Bannamhyeon (潘南縣), captured the pirate leader Neungchang, and sent it to Gungye to behead him. This would be Wang Kon's naval military activity before the founding of Goryeo and, at the same time, Taebong's maritime activity. However, Kung Ye began to refer to himself as the Buddha and persecuted people who expressed their opposition to his religious arguments. He executed many monks, then later, even his wife and two sons, and

24411-617: The Northern Approaches defended the northern outskirts of Hanseong through the Bukhansanseong Fortress with 23,500 soldiers. The Royal Defense Command defended the south of Hanseong through Namhanseong Fortress with 16,500 troops. Sukjeong established the Capital Garrison ( Geumwiyeong ) to defend Hanyang and escort the king with 85,000 soldiers. Among them are 30,000 professional soldiers based on

24648-557: The Qing invasions after Yi Gwal's rebellion, the Royal Guard Command ( Eoyeongcheong ), Command of the Northern Approaches ( Chongyungcheong ), and the Royal Defence Command ( Sueocheong ). The Royal Guards Command had 260 artillery troops to defend the city walls of Hanseong and suppress rebellions. It grew to 7,000 troops after the Qing invasion, and during Hyojong's reign, 21,000 troops. The Command of

24885-537: The Red Turban army moved their base to the Liaodong Peninsula . However, they were experiencing a shortage of war materials and lost their withdrawal route to the Chinese mainland. The Red Turban army led by Mao Ju-jing invaded Goryeo and took the city of Pyongyang . In January 1360, the Goryeo army led by An U and Yi Bang-sil retook Pyongyang and the northern region that the enemy had captured. Of

25122-484: The Red Turban army that had crossed the Yalu River , only 300 troops returned to Liaoning after the war. In November 1360, the Red Turban troops invaded Goryeo's northwest border with 200,000 troops again, and they occupied Gaegyeong , the capital of Goryeo, for a short period, King Gongmin escaped to Andong . However, Generals Ch'oe Yŏng , Yi Sŏng-gye (later Taejo of Joseon ), Jeong Seun and Yi Bang-sil repulsed

25359-479: The Red Turban army. Sha Liu and Guan Xiansheng , who were Red Turban generals, were killed in the battles. The Goryeo army continually chased their enemy and repelled them from the Korean Peninsula. The Mongol Invasions reduced the coastal defense capabilities of Goryeo, and the Wokou Pirates gradually intensified their looting on the coasts of Goryeo. Chŏng Mong-ju was dispatched to Japan to deal with

25596-499: The Restriction Guard also received education in Confucianism, the dominant philosophy of the time. The members of the Restriction Guard were distinguished by their distinctive black uniforms and their use of black horses. They were also equipped with special weapons, such as the geom, a type of Korean sword, and the gakgung, a type of Korean bow. The Restriction Guard played an important role in maintaining order and stability within

25833-560: The Restriction Guard and the Dragon Guard, which were composed of soldiers from the aristocracy, the Jangyongyeong Guard was open to commoners who demonstrated exceptional martial skills and loyalty to the king. This was a significant departure from the traditional social hierarchy of the Joseon Dynasty, which placed a premium on aristocratic birth and education. The Jangyongyeong Guard played an important role in defending

26070-610: The Russian army at the Battle of Hutong ( 호통 ; 好通 ), present-day Yilan , which the Qing–Joseon allied forces won. In 1658, Hyojong sent troops again to help the Qing dynasty against Russia. He dispatched 260 Joseon musketeers and cannoneers led by Shin Ryu to join the forces of Ninguta 's Military Governor Sarhuda . The joint force sailed down the Hurka and Sungari Rivers and met

26307-529: The Russian troops under the command of an Amur Cossack , Onufrij Stepanov near the fall of the Sungari River into the Amur , killing 270 Russians and driving them out of Manchu territory. The battles against Russia proved that Hyojong's reform had stabilized the Joseon army, although they never put them into action again. Despite the campaigns, Russia and Joseon remained on good terms. Yi In-jwa attempted

26544-456: The Six Garrison Settlements. The only terms were a "declaration of vassalage" and the release of a detained Liao envoy. The History of Liao claims that Hyeonjong "surrendered" and Shengzong "pardoned" him, but according to Hans Bielenstein , "[s]horn of its dynastic language, this means no more than that the two states concluded peace as equal partners (formalized in 1022)". Hyeonjong kept his reign title and maintained diplomatic relations with

26781-535: The Song dynasty. Kaesong was rebuilt, grander than before, and, from 1033 to 1044, the Cheolli Jangseong , a wall stretching from the mouth of the Yalu River to the east coast of the Korean Peninsula, was built for defense against future invasions. Liao never invaded Goryeo again. The Jurchens in the Yalu River region were tributaries of Goryeo since the reign of Wang Kŏn , who called upon them during

27018-478: The Sumungun were known for their fierce loyalty to the royal family and their skill in combat. The Sumungun were known for their distinctive uniforms, which included a red jacket with black trim and a black hat with a white feather. Their uniforms were designed to be both practical and stylish, and were often decorated with intricate patterns and designs. In addition to their duties as guards, the Sumungun also played

27255-579: The Suwonjang or simply the Suwon, were a special unit of the Royal Guards in the Joseon Dynasty of Korea. The Sumungun were responsible for guarding the gates and walls of the five royal palaces and Hanseong's city gates, and would also patrol the surrounding areas to prevent any unauthorized entry. They were highly skilled in martial arts and weaponry, and were trained to use a variety of weapons including swords, spears, and bows. In 1469, King Yejong established

27492-554: The Swedish experience of self-sufficient urban neighbourhoods throughout the entire country, and Pyongyang is no exception. Its inhabitants are mostly divided into administrative units of 5,000 to 6,000 people ( dong ). These units all have similar sets of amenities including a food store, a barber shop, a tailor , a public bathhouse, a post office , a clinic, a library and others. Many residents occupy high-rise apartment buildings. One of Kim Il Sung's priorities while designing Pyongyang

27729-720: The area around the Arch of Triumph where the Pyongyang People's Hospital no. 1 was demolished. Apartment blocks in the area of Inhŭng-dong, in Moranbong-guyok district and in the area of Sinwon-dong in Pothonggang district were demolished in 2018–2019 for the construction of new apartment buildings. Also in 2018 the Youth Park Open-Air Theatre in Sungri Street, used to host political rallies,

27966-502: The army. The French left during the winter when they received news that the priests had escaped. In 1871, the Americans too launched a putative expedition to demand the government open for trade and apologize for the General Sherman Incident. The Tiger Hunters again spearheaded the defense, but the army and their coastal fortresses did not match their superior firepower. 20 Koreans were captured as bargaining chips for

28203-399: The border, suppressing local uprisings, and maintaining order in these remote regions. The Gigapsa ( 기갑사 ) was a cavalry unit of the Gapsa. Their primary duty was to provide the main army with rapid response and reconnaissance capabilities. They were highly skilled in horseback riding and were often used for surprise attacks against enemy positions. The Chakhogapsa ( 착호갑사 ) was a branch of

28440-507: The case of conflict. However, when there was a massive invasion, there were not enough soldiers to defend their provinces as it was also a dispersed-force defense system. It requires the concentrated use of forced local forces to defend their defense perimeters, and the Bupiljeoktajinjijobeob rule prevents provinces from coming to each other's aid. They requested military commanders from the central government who did not know

28677-410: The central army of Joseon, which was based in the capital city and was responsible for defending the entire kingdom. The provincial armies were created to provide additional defense and security for specific regions of Korea. They were organized and led by the local governors of each province, who were responsible for raising and training soldiers for the army and overseeing its operations. The soldiers in

28914-496: The central army. The Jingwan system was a provincial defense system that dates back to the Goryeo Dynasty, building fortresses in strategically important places. Still, it leaves some parts of the nations open to invasion, and if one falls, it will be catastrophic in any war. In 1457 A.D, King Sejo reshuffled the defense system to secure as many defensive fortresses as possible to enhance the defensive depth. It comprises

29151-560: The city center next to the Pothong River on land previously used by the headquarters of the International Taekwon-Do Federation . Kim Jong Un ordered that the residential district be renamed "Kyongru-dong" meaning "beautiful bead terrace". From the 50s to the 70s the area was the location of the residence of Kim Il Sung and was known as "Mansion No. 5". Other recent public building projects include

29388-403: The city is the Ministry of State Security , whose 30,000 personnel manage intelligence, political prison systems, military industrial security and entry and exit management. The politics and management of the city is dominated by the Workers' Party of Korea , as they are in the national level. The city is managed by the Pyongyang Party Committee of the Workers' Party of Korea and its chairman

29625-593: The city through direct transmission lines. A second phase of the power expansion project was launched in January 2013, consisting of a series of small dams along the Chongchon River . The first two power stations have a maximum generating capacity of 300 megawatts (MW), while the 10 dams to be built under second phase are expected to generate about 120 MW. In addition, the city has several existing or planned thermal power stations . These include Pyongyang TPS with

29862-422: The command system that was not unified into one. The second highest rank was the Samdo Sunbyonsa, the Commander of three provinces – Kyongsang, Cholla and Chung Chong. The third highest rank was the Sunbyonsa, a provincial commander. The fourth highest rank was the Pangosa: a county commander defending strategic points. The Royal Guards of the Joseon Dynasty were an elite group of soldiers responsible for protecting

30099-461: The condition that the clan suppresses the activities of Japanese pirates. When King Sejo came to power he strengthened the monarchy established by King Taejong by weakening the power of the State Council and bringing staff directly under the king's control. He also strengthened the administrative system to enable the government to determine exact population numbers and to mobilize troops effectively but caused Yi Si-ae's Rebellion . Yi Si-ae led

30336-405: The contested region. In 1115 the Jurchen founded the Jin dynasty , and in 1125 Jin annihilated Liao, which was Goryeo's suzerain, and started invasion of Song . In response to the circumstantial changes, Goryeo declared itself to be a tributary state of Jin in 1126. After that, peace was maintained and Jin never actually did invade Goryeo. Although the military founded Goryeo, its authority

30573-456: The defeat of Liao to the Koreans in 1019, the Wanyan tribe of the Heishui Mohe unified the Jurchen tribes and gained in might, taking advantage of the power vacuum. At the peak of its power, Goryeo contested with the rising Wanyan tribes of which Goryeo considered them as barbaric vassals descending from the Mohe people that served their Goguryeo ancestors, in the state of total war over former territories of Goguryeo and Balhae . As

30810-442: The dish is served in a cold broth. Raengmyŏn consists of thin and chewy buckwheat noodles in a cold meat-broth with dongchimi (watery kimchi) and topped with a slice of sweet Korean pear . Pyongyang raengmyŏn was originally eaten in homes built with ondol (traditional underfloor heating ) during the cold winter, so it is also called "Pyongyang deoldeori" (shivering in Pyongyang). Pyongyang locals sometimes enjoyed it as

31047-420: The draft. All males had to enter military service to be trained and familiarized with weapons. It was also around this time that the military scholar Han Gyo (한교) wrote the martial arts manual Muyejebo , based on the book Jixiao Xinshu by the famous Chinese General Qi Jiguang . The agency initially had less than 80 troops and soon grew to about 10,000. In 1622–1624, Injo established three more camps to counter

31284-438: The emperor, establishing a military regime that lasted a century. In the middle period, the army was also known for repelling the Mongol Empire until they capitulated after the ninth invasion, reducing the emperor to the status of king. The military regime opposed Mongol rule until the royal court overthrew them under their direction. The Sambyeolcho Army revolted against the Mongols in response until they suppressed them. The navy

31521-400: The entire war, involving 1,400 UN aircraft. Already during the war, plans were made to reconstruct the city. On 27 July 1953 – the day the armistice between North Korea and South Korea was signed – The Pyongyang Review wrote: "While streets were in flames, an exhibition showing the general plan of restoration of Pyongyang was held at the Moranbong Underground Theater", the air raid shelter of

31758-508: The five grand palaces and providing close protection to the king. The officers belonging to the office were specially referred to as Martial Arts Special Guards (무예별감) or simply Martial Guards ("무감", 武監). It was also known as the military officials (mugwan (무관 (武官)). The establishment process of the Martial Arts Department is detailed in King Sunjo of Joseon 's work called Pure Study Records (순제고). The Martial Arts Department selected exceptional individuals with outstanding martial arts skills from

31995-427: The following year, under the pretext of avenging Mokjong, Emperor Shengzong of Liao led an invasion of Goryeo with an army of 400,000 soldiers. Meanwhile, Goryeo tried to establish relations with Song but was ignored, as Song had agreed to the Chanyuan Treaty in 1005. Goryeo won the first battle against Liao, led by Yang Kyu , but lost the second battle, led by Kang Cho: the Goryeo army suffered heavy casualties and

32232-402: The force was called the Eastern Route Army. They were crewed by 17,000 sailors, and transported 10,000 Korean soldiers and 15,000 Mongols and Chinese . The Southern Route Army, meanwhile, was assembled just south of the Yangtze River , in China. It is said to have consisted of 100,000 men on 3,500 ships. As before, Iki and Tsushima islands fell quickly to the much larger Yuan forces beginning

32469-433: The frontier, Yanggye, were standing armies. The Ministry of War ( Byeongjo , Korean :  병조 ; Hanja :  兵曹 ) was an administrative agency of Goryeo. It is an institution in charge of national defense. Before King Seongjong of Goryeo, the name Byeonggwan was used, and after King Seongjong of Goryeo, it was renamed Byeongbu. Then, during the Yuan dynasty, it was changed to military service and merged into

32706-412: The geopolitical situation began to shift in turbulence by the start of the 12th century, Goryeo unleashed two major military campaigns from 1104 to 1109 spearheaded by the ambitious King Yejong with vows of reclaiming former Goguryeo territories held by Jurchen tribes united under the progenitors of the Jin dynasty, Wanyan Wuyashu and Aguda , with the aims of also preventing potential aggressions from

32943-405: The government under Moranbong . "On the way of victory... fireworks which streamed high into the night sky of the capital in a gun salute briefly illuminated the construction plan of the city which would rise soon with a new look". After the war, the city was quickly rebuilt with assistance from the Soviet Union , and many buildings were built in the style of Stalinist architecture . The plans for

33180-412: The highest caliber of soldiers who served as elite foot soldiers and cavalry (or mounted infantry). In a typical battle formation, a high-ranking officer leads Joseon troops. A mid-ranking officer with two low-ranking officers beside him leads a battle formation consisting of Pengbaesu in the front, gunners following them, spearmen behind them, and archers in the rear. The Gapsa protects the formation on

33417-496: The hottest months, with average temperatures of 21 to 25 °C (70 to 77 °F), and daytime highs often above 30 °C (86 °F). Although largely transitional seasons, spring and autumn experience more pleasant weather, with average high temperatures ranging from 20 to 26 °C (68 to 79 °F) in May and 22 to 27 °C (72 to 81 °F) in September, coupled with relatively clear, sunny skies. Major government and other public offices are located in Pyongyang, which

33654-402: The invaders with waves of defenders, denying them the beachhead. At night small boats carried small bands of samurai into the Yuan fleet in the bay. Under cover of darkness they boarded enemy ships, killed as many as they could, and withdrew before dawn. This harassing tactic led the Yuan forces to retreat to Tsushima, where they would wait for the Southern Route Army. However, over the course of

33891-405: The invading Korean forces but many stayed vigilant and resumed fierce resistance led by the Wanyan tribe, complicating the phase of the war. Despite the Koreans of Goryeo having proceeded to utilizing scorched earth tactics , the Jurchen tribes under the leadership of Wanyan Wuyashu achieved a pyrrhic victory as Goryeo considered securing the Nine Fortresses too costly albeit having the upper hand in

34128-547: The invasion. Once again, Injo fled to Ganghwa Island . Meanwhile, Jin had no reason to attack Joseon and decided to go back to prepare for war against the Ming, and peace soon settled. The Later Jin and Joseon dynasties were declared brother nations, and Later Jin withdrew from the Korean peninsula. However, most Westerners kept their hard-line policy despite the war. Nurhaci, who had generally good opinions toward Korea, did not invade Korea again; however, when Nurhaci died and Hong Taiji succeeded him as ruler, Jin again began to seek

34365-430: The invasion: 600 from Southern China, 900 from Korea. Reportedly 40,000 troops were amassed in Korea and 100,000 in Southern China. Those numbers are likely an exaggeration, but the addition of Southern Chinese resources probably meant the second invasion force was still several times larger than the first invasion. Nothing is known about the size of the Japanese forces. By June 1281, 900 Yuan ships were gathered in Korea;

34602-436: The king's seal and other important royal documents. They also served as the elite unit of the central army as Joseon Kings assigned a number of units to serve on the field. In 1623, King Hyeongjong established the Restriction Guard ( Geumgun ) by integrating the Naegeumwi, Gyeomsabok, Woorimwi and the Jungrowi into the Office of the Restriction Guards ( Geumguncheong ). The Restriction Guard, also known as Geumgun in Korean, were

34839-419: The king. They were first established during the reign of King Taejong (r. 1400–1418) as a personal guard for the king and his palace. Initially, they were composed of soldiers who had distinguished themselves in battle. Still, their selection process became more rigorous over time, with candidates undergoing physical and martial tests to ensure their suitability for the unit. They were small in numbers, with only

35076-483: The king. They were also responsible for protecting the royal palace, respond to emergencies such as fires and natural disasters, and serve as a reserve force for the main army and were called upon to participate in military campaigns when necessary. The Five Army Camps ( ogunyeong , (오군영)) defended Hanseong and the surrounding fortresses primarily in Gyeonggi Province. Each king established one or more camps during their reign. The ogunyeong started in September 1593 as

35313-408: The king; he replaced and put to death the last three Goryeo kings, usurped the throne, and established in 1392 the Joseon dynasty , bringing an end to 474 years of Goryeo rule on the Korean Peninsula. In the beginning, Goryeo relied heavily on the private armies of the powerful local clans. However, its military system was gradually expanded into a centrally controlled system. It was a dual system of

35550-440: The kingdom against external threats. It also played a role in suppressing domestic rebellions and maintaining law and order throughout the kingdom. The establishment of the Jangyongyeong Guard was one of King Jeongjo's most significant military reforms, and it helped to modernize and strengthen the Joseon Dynasty's military capabilities. The King's Royal Palace Gatekeepers, Wanggung Sumunjang (왕궁수문장), or Sumungun , also known as

35787-401: The kingdom in times of crisis. The Jangyongyeong Guard was named after a famous military treatise written during the Goryeo Dynasty, which emphasized the importance of military training and discipline. The soldiers in the Jangyongyeong Guard underwent rigorous training in martial arts, archery, and other combat skills, and they were equipped with modern firearms, such as muskets and rifles. Unlike

36024-429: The kingdom, and they were known for their loyalty to the royal family and their willingness to sacrifice their lives in defense of the throne. The Office of the Restriction Guards, also known as Geumguncheong in Korean, was the administrative headquarters of the Restriction Guard during the Joseon Dynasty. It was responsible for overseeing the training, deployment, and management of the Restriction Guard. The Geumguncheong

36261-425: The kingdom. Its members were known for their bravery, loyalty, and martial prowess, and they were considered to be among the most elite soldiers in the Joseon Dynasty. In 1793, King Jeongjo established the Jangyongyoung . The unit was composed of soldiers who were selected from the common people rather than the aristocratic class, and it was intended to serve as a standing army that could be deployed quickly to defend

36498-411: The last king of Silla, King Gyeongsun, felt there was no way to revive his kingdom and surrendered his entire land to Taejo. Taejo gladly accepted his surrender and gave him the title of prince, and accepted his daughter as one of his wives (Wang had six queens and many more wives as he married daughters of every single local leader). It caused much disgust to Kyŏn Hwŏn. Kyŏn's father, who held his claim to

36735-513: The left and right flanks on foot or horses. Their officers in the Joseon army came exclusively from the yangban , and the king appointed them. Still, they valued scholarship over war as something unworthy of a Confucian gentleman-scholar. The quality of Korean generals varies. Some Korean officers being able, and others being men who had not devoted much time to the study of war, preferred archery, writing, practicing their calligraphy, and reading Confucian classics. The Border Defense Council of Joseon

36972-423: The location of Pyongyang. Several archaeological findings from the later, Eastern Han (20–220 AD) period in the Pyongyang area seems to suggest that Han forces later launched brief incursions around these parts. The area around the city was called Nanglang during the early Three Kingdoms period . As the capital of Nanglang ( 낙랑국 ; 樂浪國 ), Pyongyang remained an important commercial and cultural outpost after

37209-496: The main army, new and ill-trained recruits conscripted during war constituted a significant part of the army. Seonjo established the Sogo system in 1593, a militia system during the Imjin war based on the Ming Chinese militia system and military texts. He believed a communal nature of the defense forces would prevent the populace from deserting and allow the country to respond more quickly to invasions. Under this system, county magistrates or army commanders organized all families of

37446-441: The mainstay of early Joseon infantry. They fought in mountain warfare, and in the plains, they built a shield wall to deter the cavalry's attacks. Originally, it referred to a shield and was used as a weapon. In the early stages, shields and spears were used interchangeably. During the early Joseon Dynasty, the traditional cavalry soldiers (馬兵甲士) were assigned the role of shield troops. Then, in 1415 (15th year of King Taejong's reign),

37683-405: The masterplan, the 60s and 70s saw new wave of development which included expansion of the central boulevards, construction of high-density apartment buildings along the central boulevards, grandiose civic and cultural buildings and monumental statues and squares. This tendency included also the inclusion of traditional Korean architecture for some buildings. While the development generally followed

37920-431: The meaning of Pyongyang in native Korean would be "Land of the field". The city's other historic names include Ryugyong , Kisong , Hwangsong , Rakrang , Sŏgyong , Sodo , Hogyong , Changan , and Heijō (during Japanese rule in Korea ). There are several variants. During the early 20th century, Pyongyang came to be known among missionaries as being the " Jerusalem of the East", due to its historical status as

38157-423: The military elements from the other four military camps. It was reassigned as an independent army by King Yeongjo. The Capital Defense Standing Army was a highly trained and well-equipped military force responsible for the defense of the capital city of Hanyang (modern-day Seoul) and its surrounding areas. The Capital Defense Standing Army was established in the late 16th century, during the reign of King Seonjo, and

38394-423: The military threat posed by the Jurchens by using both forceful means and incentives and by launching military attacks. At the same time, they tried to appease them with titles and degrees, traded with them and sought to acculturate them by having Korean women marry Jurchens and integrating them into Korean culture. Despite these measures, fighting continued between the Jurchen and the Koreans. The Ming Yongle Emperor

38631-410: The military to fire on foreign ships. When the USS General Sherman arrived at Ganghwa Island, they requested the government to open for trade, but the army sank their ship and killed their crew. In 1866, the French launched a putative expedition on Ganghwa Island to demand the government release the catholic priests, but were repulsed by the Tiger Hunters. They spearheaded the defense of Ganghwa with

38868-435: The military training center (훈련도감). In 1894, the Martial Arts Department disbanded after the Gabo Reforms and the Eulmi Incident as part of the military reforms leading to the establishment of the Imperial Korean Armed Forces . The Three Military Garrisons ( Samgunyeong , 삼군영 ; 三軍營 ) was a central military camp formed during the development of the capital defense system in the late Joseon Dynasty . It consists of

39105-409: The mobilization of the citizen soldiers in case of emergency. When Japan invaded Korea, Joseon deployed a total of 84,500 regular troops. During the first invasion, the Joseon army was no match for their sheer numbers armed with arquebuses and a combination of arms, and the Japanese pushed them north to Pyongyang . When the navy , and the Righteous Army cut off supply lines, this gave the regular army

39342-409: The modern city of Pyongyang were first displayed for public viewing in a theatre building. Kim Jung-hee, one of the founding members of the Korean Architects Alliance, who had studied architecture in prewar Japan , was appointed by Kim Il Sung to design the city's master plan. Moscow Architectural Institute designed the "Pyongyang City Reconstruction and Construction Comprehensive Plan" in 1951, and it

39579-452: The monarch's full power and purge the state's corruption with his elite guard unit known as the Tobang . However, he died in 1183 and was succeeded by Yi Ŭi-min , who came from a nobi (enslaved person) background. His unrestrained corruption and cruelty led to a coup by general Ch'oe Ch'ung-hŏn , who assassinated Yi Ui-min and took supreme power in 1197. For the next 61 years, the Ch'oe house ruled as military dictators, maintaining

39816-491: The moniker "Kim Jong Il City". In the end, neither proposal was implemented. In 1955, archaeologists excavated evidence of prehistoric dwellings in a large ancient village in the Pyongyang area, called Kŭmtan-ni, dating to the Jeulmun and Mumun pottery periods. North Koreans associate Pyongyang with the mythological city of " Asadal ", or Wanggeom-seong , the first second millennium BC capital of Gojoseon ("Old Joseon") according to Korean historiographies beginning with

40053-446: The most loyal and trusted soldiers and were highly trained in martial arts. Gyeonggukdae (경국대), the elite guards who were responsible for protecting the King and the royal palace. They were also responsible for maintaining order and preventing unauthorized entry into the palace. Gyeomsabok (겸사복) were the guards who patrolled the palace grounds and outer walls. They were responsible for maintaining order and preventing unauthorized entry into

40290-418: The nation for the second time since Unified Silla ; he ruled until 943. Taejo displayed intense animosity toward the Khitans who had destroyed Balhae. The Liao dynasty sent 30 envoys with 50 camels as a gift in 942, but Wang Kŏn exiled the envoys and starved the camels under a bridge in retribution for Balhae, despite the major diplomatic repercussions. Taejo proposed to Gaozu of Later Jìn that they attack

40527-427: The news, Taejo planned a strike with 5,000 cavalrymen to attack Kyŏn's troops on the way back home at Gongsan near Daegu . He met Later Baekje forces and suffered a disastrous defeat, losing most of his army, including his generals Kim Nak and Sin Sung-gyŏm, the very same man who crowned Wang as a king. However, Goryeo quickly recovered from defeat and successfully defended Later Baekje's attack on its front. In 935,

40764-449: The next several weeks, 3,000 men were killed in close quarters combat in the hot weather. Yuan forces never gained a beachhead. The first of the Southern force ships arrived on July 16, and by August 12 the two fleets were ready to attack Japan. On August 15 a major tempest struck the Tsushima Straits , lasting two full days and destroying most of the Yuan fleet. Contemporary Japanese accounts indicate that over 4,000 ships were destroyed in

41001-604: The north and Wokou marauders from the south. King Gongmin was forced to spend many years at the Yuan court, being sent there in 1341 as a virtual prisoner before becoming king. He married the Mongol Princess Noguk as the queen consort. In the mid-14th century, the Yuan dynasty was beginning to crumble due to the Red Turban Rebellion. He used the conflict to reform the Korean government, abolish Mongolian military outposts, purge pro-Yuan sentiments, and regain lost northern territories such as Liaoyang . The Goryeo army retook these provinces partly thanks to defection from Yi Jachun ,

41238-471: The north, retaking some of Goguryeo's territories south of Manchuria. However, they lost them during the Red Turban Invasion of Goryeo but repelled them. However, the wars brought Goryeo to ruin. General Yi Sŏng-gye, who was ordered to attack the Ming to regain Liaodong retreated from Wihwado and overthrew the Goryeo and established the Joseon dynasty . From 889 to 935 AD, the Unified Shilla began to decline from corruption and internal strife, which led to

41475-627: The number of garrisons had grown to forty-nine, with nine in Pyeongan and six in Hamgyŏng Province. The other provinces had at least five, except for Kangwŏn , which could still only maintain there. Garrison commanders ( yŏngjang ) primary duty was to administer the provincial military structure and command garrisons. They also served a concurrent role of sheriffs ( t'op'osa ), shifting from military defense to catching criminals and suppressing local unrest. Magistrates were frequently appointed as garrison commanders, only nominally separating their duties. However, military men could be appointed separately to

41712-405: The objective of reclaiming former ancestral lands failed, Goryeo managed to maintain peaceful relations with the Jin dynasty which progress in conquering the Liao and Northern Song dynasty respectively. During the reign of Jurchen leader Wuyashu in 1103–1113, the border between the two nations was stabilized and Korean forces withdrew from Jurchen territories, acknowledging Jurchen control over

41949-410: The officials. The Capital Defense Standing Army was equipped with a variety of weapons and equipment, including firearms, artillery, and fortifications. It was also responsible for maintaining an effective system of communication and intelligence gathering, which allowed it to respond quickly and effectively to potential threats. One of the key functions of the Capital Defense Standing Army was to maintain

42186-454: The old apartments of the 1970s and '80s replaced by taller high rise buildings and leisure parks like the Kaesong Youth Park , as well as renovations of older buildings. In 2018, the city was described as unrecognizable compared to five years before. Notable landmarks in the city include: Pyongyang TV Tower is a minor landmark. Other visitor attractions include the Korea Central Zoo . The Reunification Highway stretches from Pyongyang to

42423-413: The palace. Woorimwi (우림위) were the archers who guarded the palace gates and were responsible for shooting arrows at any potential intruders. Jungrowi (중로위) were the guards who escorted the King and other important officials on official business outside of the palace. In 1666, King Hyeongjong established the Howechung . A select group of elite soldiers in the Joseon Dynasty who were responsible for protecting

42660-428: The principles of the military arts. They excel at infantry fighting." Hyojong rose the throne after Injo and Sohyeon 's death, he began to reform and expand the military of Korea . First, he removed Kim Ja-jeom , who had corrupted politics and had greater power than the king himself. Then, he called Song Si-yeol and Kim Sang-heon to his court, who supported the war against the Qing Dynasty. His military expansion

42897-432: The problem, and during his visit Kyushu governor Imagawa Sadayo suppressed the early wokou, later returning their captured property and people to Korea. According to Korean records, Wako pirates were particularly rampant roughly from 1350. After almost annual invasions of the southern provinces of Jeolla and Gyeongsang , they migrated northwards to the Chungcheong and Gyeonggi areas. The History of Goryeo has

43134-431: The provincial armies were recruited from the local population and were often farmers or other commoners who had some military training or experience. They were responsible for maintaining law and order in their region, as well as defending against any potential threats, such as bandits or foreign invaders. The provincial armies were organized into several units, including infantry, cavalry, and archers. They were equipped with

43371-492: The public began to turn away from him. His costly rituals and harsh rule caused even more opposition. In 918, four of his generals— Hong Yu , Pae Hyŏn-gyŏng , Sin Sung-gyŏm and Pok Chigyŏm —overthrew Taebong and installed Wang Kon as King Taejo. In 927, Kyŏn Hwŏn of Later Baekje led forces into Silla's capital, Gyeongju , capturing and executing its king, King Gyeongae . Then he established King Gyeongsun as his puppet monarch before he turned his army toward Goryeo. Hearing of

43608-415: The rebellion controlled most of the area north of the Cheongcheon River , including the fortified town of Jeongju , to withstand invasions from Manchuria (part of the Qing Empire). Whenever the rebels took over a district, they opened the government granaries and distributed the grain to the people. However, the insurgents suffered disastrous defeats in the battles of Pine Grove and Four Pine Field and forced

43845-441: The rebels to withdraw to Jeongju, which came under siege by government forces. The rebellion was put down a few months later, on May 29, when the government forces breached the town wall with a gunpowder charge. Thousands of people caught up in the uprising, including boys as young as 10, were executed. Hong Gyeong-Rae died in the fighting. Other rebel leaders were also killed in battle or executed. Joseon's isolation policies allowed

44082-442: The reign of King Sejo in 1457, a unit called Five Guards (Owi/오위/五衛) was formed, which continued until the Imjin War. The Five Guards ("Owi"; 오위 ; 五衛 ) were the five main divisions of the central army during the Joseon Dynasty in Korea. Joseon had a conscripted light infantry, standing army, and an elite cavalry-oriented organization, especially Horse Archer. It was specialized in dealing with nomadic looters. The Five Guards

44319-465: The revival of Later Baekje and Later Goguryeo . A monk named Kung Ye founded Hugoguryeo but changed the names to Majin and Taebong in later years. Taejo's father, Wang Yung (later posthumously given the temple name of Sejo of Goryeo), along with many local clans, quickly surrendered to Kung Ye. Wang Kŏn followed his father into service under Kung Ye , the future leader of Taebong , and he began his service under Kung Ye's command. In 900, he led

44556-449: The royal army, and the support from the Yeong and Honam regions was also suppressed by local forces, leading to the suppression of the rebellion. By the 19th century, royal relatives controlled the royal court through weak kings causing the military to weaken further. Hong Gyeong-Rae led an insurrection of Yangban and impoverished farmers who were unhappy with their treatment by the central government and oppressive taxation. At its height,

44793-475: The rule of Kim Jong Un a number of residential projects were constructed. In 2012, Changjon Street, a residential project with 2,784 units, was inaugurated in the heart of Pyongyang. 2013 and 2014 residential projects dedicated to scientists were completed in Unha Scientists Street and Wisong Scientists Street with more than 1,000 units each while in 2015 work took place on a residential project in Mirae Scientists Street with 2,584 units. In 2017, in dedication to

45030-506: The samurai with their shields and spears. Though unable to defeat the Yuan forces conclusively, the Japanese fought hard and inflicted heavy casualties. The Mongols burned Hakozaki Shrine to the ground during the day's fighting. Despite their initial victories, the Yuan did not pursue the further samurai inland to the defenses at Dazaifu . Nihon Ōdai Ichiran explains that the Mongols lost due to their limited supply of arrows. More likely, this resulted from their unfamiliarity with

45267-414: The six battalions (wi) were established in the capital area, while the corps called Juhyeon or Jujin were formed in local areas. The two corps (gun) and the six battalions (wi) had a total of 45 units (yeong), with each unit consisting of 1,000 soldiers. The commanders of the central army constituted Jungbang, a council of generals. The juhyeon corps in the countryside consisted of peasants. The jujin corps at

45504-410: The storm; 80% of the Yuan soldiers either drowned or were killed by samurai on the beaches. The loss of ships was so great that "a person could walk across from one point of land to another on a mass of wreckage". Gongmin regained Goryeo's Independence in the mid 14th century, and afterward Generals Ch'oe Yŏng and Yi Sŏng-gye rose to prominence with victories over invading Red Turban armies from

45741-614: The tallest unoccupied building in the world, and one of the tallest hotels in the world . It has yet to open. Pyongyang has a rapidly evolving skyline, dominated by high-rise apartment buildings. A construction boom began with the Changjon Street Apartment Complex, which was completed in 2012. Construction of the complex began after late leader Kim Jong Il described Changjon Street as "pitiful". Other housing complexes are being upgraded as well, but most are still poorly insulated, and lacking elevators and central heating. An urban renewal program continued under Kim Jong Un's leadership, with

45978-483: The terrain, the expectation of Japanese reinforcements, and the heavy losses already suffered. The Yuan forces, which may have intended to carry out a survey in force rather than an immediate invasion, returned to their ships. That night, the Yuan lost roughly one-third of its force in a typhoon. They retreated to Korea, presumably at the prodding of their sailors and captains, rather than regrouping and continuing their attack. More than 1,500 ships were requisitioned for

46215-438: The throne and continued his father's military expansion and reconstruction of the nation, devastated by the Seven-Year War and two Manchu invasions. The Naseon Jeongbeol , or "Suppression of the Russians" or the Northern campaign began when the expanded Joseon military was first put into action in 1654 when the Qing Dynasty called for help to fight against invading Russians . 150 Joseon musketeers, along with 3,000 Manchus, met

46452-438: The throne as Huijong . After seven years, Huijong led a revolt but failed. Then, Ch'oe found the pliable King Gojong instead. Although the House of Ch'oe established strong private individuals loyal to it, continuous invasion by the Mongols ravaged the whole land, resulting in a weakened defense ability, and the power of the military regime waned. Fleeing from the Mongols , in 1216, the Khitans invaded Goryeo. They defeated

46689-427: The throne incited a rebellion against him for trying to arrest his son, Yi Jeon. He led 10,000 of his soldiers to occupy Hanseong and replace him with Heungangun, his royal relative as king. But the Joseon army led by General Jang Man retook the capital and crushed the rebellion. Yi Gwal's Rebellion weakened the military, making them vulnerable to Later Jin's attack. Conservative Westerners took hard-line policy toward

46926-548: The throne, Yeongjo pursued a policy of equal recruitment, believing that factional strife was detrimental to the country's development. In response, the radical faction of the Soron group justified their rebellion by raising suspicions about the circumstances of King Gyeongjong's death and claiming that King Yeongjo was not the legitimate heir of King Sukjong, thereby securing their power. The rebellion began on March 15 when Yi In-jwa captured Cheongju Castle. The rebel forces, marching toward Hanyang (present-day Seoul), were defeated by

47163-487: The time, Ch'oe U , insisted on fighting back. Goryeo resisted for about 30 years but finally sued for peace in 1259. Meanwhile, the Mongols began a campaign from 1231 to 1259 that ravaged parts of Gyeongsang and Jeolla . There were six significant campaigns: 1231, 1232, 1235, 1238, 1247, and 1253; between 1253 and 1258, the Mongols under Möngke Khan 's general Jalairtai Qorchi launched four devastating invasions against Korea at tremendous cost to civilian lives throughout

47400-469: The use of firearms, which were introduced to Korea during this period. The Dragon Tiger Guard was distinguished by its distinctive red uniforms and its use of red banners and flags. Its members were also equipped with special weapons, such as matchlock muskets and bamboo spears. The Dragon Guard played a critical role in maintaining the security of the royal palace and the king's person, as well as in suppressing rebellions and maintaining law and order throughout

47637-514: The war lacked effective shock cavalry to take advantage of the vulnerabilities of unsupported musketeers. After the defeat at Sarhū, the Joseon forces revised their doctrine to have spearmen supporting the musketeers . In 1627, 30,000 Manchu cavalries under General Amin (阿敏) and former Korean General Gang Hong-rip invaded Joseon , calling for the restoration of Gwanghaegun and execution of Westerners leaders, including Kim Ja-jeom . General Jang Man again fought against Later Jin but could not repel

47874-433: The war with Soviet assistance. Pyongyang is the political, industrial and transport center of North Korea. It is estimated that 99% of those living in Pyongyang are members, candidate members, or dependents of members of the ruling Workers' Party of Korea (WPK). It is home to North Korea's major government institutions , as well as the WPK which has its headquarters in the so-called Forbidden City . The name Pyongyang

48111-420: The war. Contacted by the Jurchens of the Wanyan tribe that have tasted the bitterness as well of facing Korean forces in their homes for peace, Goryeo would eventually move on to reluctantly signing a peace agreement with the Wanyan tribe and later on cede the Nine Fortresses to Wuyashu, in return for tributes sent by the Jurchens, the full repatriation of Korean settlers, and the guarantee of nonaggression. Though

48348-532: The wars of the Later Three Kingdoms period, but the Jurchens switched allegiance between Liao and Goryeo multiple times, taking advantage of the tension between the two nations; posing a potential threat to Goryeo's border security, the Jurchens offered tribute to the Goryeo court, expecting lavish gifts in return. The Jurchens north of Goryeo had traditionally rendered tribute to the Goryeo monarchs and called Goryeo their "parent country" considering past ties between Goguryeo and its Mohe subjects, but thanks to

48585-415: The well-defended capital. The retreating Liao army was intercepted by Kang Kam-ch'an in modern-day Kusong and suffered a major defeat, with only a few thousand soldiers escaping. Shengzong intended to invade again but faced internal opposition. In 1020, Goryeo sent tribute and Liao accepted, thus resuming nominal tributary relations. Shengzong did not demand that Hyeonjong pay homage in person or cede

48822-405: Was a phenomenon where respectable soldiers avoided being categorized as such, leading to a gradual decline in their social status, and they were eventually organized as "Sinryangeokcheon" (신량역천) or "Cheonin," becoming one of the most difficult forms of labor. The unit consisted of 5,000 soldiers who served in shifts of 5 groups for 4 months each. The actual number of soldiers serving at any given time

49059-439: Was a special military unit in the Joseon Dynasty that was responsible for protecting the royal palace and the king's person. The name "Yonghoyeong" means "dragon tiger guard" and refers to the two mythical creatures that were believed to symbolize strength and power. Its members were selected from the most skilled soldiers in the kingdom. They underwent rigorous training in martial arts, archery, and other combat skills, as well as in

49296-455: Was a supreme administrative organ established by the central government after the Disturbance of the Three Ports . It allowed the higher military officers, the Jibyeonsa Jaesang ( 지변사재상 ; 知邊司宰相 ), to participate in the process of establishing security maneuvers to meticulously keep a keen eye on the issues of the border. The Joseon Government established various defense systems to set up provincial armies and raise militias and coordinate

49533-524: Was administrated by Kusong , North Pyongan Province . It had been transferred to the administration of P'yŏngyang on February 10, 2018. After being destroyed during the Korean War, Pyongyang was entirely rebuilt according to Kim Il Sung's vision, which was to create a capital that would boost morale in the post-war years. The result was a city with wide, tree-lined boulevards and public buildings with terraced landscaping, mosaics and decorated ceilings. Its Soviet-style architecture makes it reminiscent of

49770-400: Was again severely damaged in the Korean War , during which it was briefly occupied by South Korean forces from 19 October to 6 December 1950. The city saw many refugees evacuate when advancing Chinese forces pushed southward towards Pyongyang. UN forces oversaw the evacuation of refugees as they retreated from Pyongyang in December 1950. In 1952, it was the target of the largest aerial raid of

50007-431: Was always 1,000. They were provided with 1 bo (保), which is equivalent to 2 jeong, and during their service, they were assigned to miscellaneous positions below the rank of 8th grade. The armored soldiers ( Gapsa ( 갑사 )) are the palace guards and men-at-arms , the elite warriors of the central army who were a highly respected and privileged military unit. They were known for their bravery, martial skills, and loyalty to

50244-413: Was an important part of the social and political structure of the Joseon Dynasty, and it played a key role in maintaining public order and stability in the capital city of Hanyang, and its surrounding areas. The term "Owi" literally means "five guards" or "five defenses." The Owi system was established in the 15th century during the reign of King Sejong, and it remained in place until after the Imjin War when

50481-418: Was called "the Jerusalem of the East". In 1890, the city had 40,000 inhabitants. It was the site of the Battle of Pyongyang during the First Sino-Japanese War , which led to the destruction and depopulation of much of the city. It was the provincial capital of South Pyeongan Province beginning in 1896. During the Japanese colonial rule , Japan tried to develop the city as an industrial center, but faced

50718-414: Was composed of 15,000 Mongol , Han Chinese , and Jurchen soldiers, 6,000 to 8,000 Korean troops, and 7,000 Korean sailors. While the defending Japanese forces comprise 4,000 to 6,000 Japanese. They engaged the Japanese in conquering Tsushima, Iki Islands, and made landfall at Hakata Bay beginning the Battle of Bun'ei . After landing in the bay, the Yuan force quickly overran the town of Hakata (now

50955-409: Was derived in the next decades with a unit district system which mixes residential and industrial zoning. Those districts are spread around the central administrative district and together with it they form the key axis of directionality for the city expansion. While in the 50s the major emphasis was placed on the reconstruction of Pyongyang from its ruins as carefully a socialist city in strict line with

51192-410: Was determined to wrest the Jurchens out of Korean influence and have China dominate them instead. Korea tried to persuade Jurchen leader Mentemu (Möngke Temür) to reject the Ming overtures, but were unsuccessful since Möngke Temür folded and submitted to the Ming. In 1433, Sejong sent Kim Jongseo ( 김종서 ; 金宗瑞 ), a prominent general, north to destroy the Jurchens . Kim's military campaign engaged

51429-435: Was dispersed, and many commanders were captured or killed, including Kang Cho himself. Later, Pyongyang was successfully defended, but the Liao army marched toward Kaesong. Hyeonjong, upon the advice of Kang Kam-ch'an , evacuated south to Naju, and shortly afterward Kaesong was attacked and sacked by the Liao army. He then sent Ha Kong-jin and Go Yeong-gi to sue for peace, with a promise that he would pay homage in person to

51666-501: Was ended, and the scholars who had insisted on peace with Mongolia gained power. Goryeo was never conquered by the Mongols, but exhausted after decades of fighting, Goryeo sent Crown Prince Wonjong to the Yuan capital to swear allegiance to the Mongols; Kublai Khan accepted, and married one of his daughters to the Korean crown prince. Kublai, who became khan of the Mongols and emperor of China in 1260, did not impose direct rule over most of Goryeo. In contrast to Song China, Goryeo Korea

51903-446: Was equipped with a range of weapons and equipment, including rifles, swords, and cannons. The central army played an important role in defending the kingdom against foreign powers and maintaining internal order. King Taejo established the central army ( Gyeonggun ) in 1392, and his army, which overthrew the Goryeo dynasty, served as its basis. In 1393, he established the Three Armies Headquarters ( Ŭihŭng Samgunbu ). It

52140-429: Was guarding the Uiju Fortress at the time. A Qing army of 128,000 men marched directly into Hanseong before Injo could escape to Ganghwa Island , driving Injo to Namhan Mountain Fortress instead. They ran out of food and supplies after the Manchu cut all supply lines during the siege. Injo finally surrendered to the Qing dynasty ceremoniously, bowing to the Hong Taiji nine times as Hong Taiji's servant and agreeing to

52377-480: Was in decline. In 1014, a coup occurred, but the effects of the rebellion didn't last long, only making generals discontent with the current supremacy of the civilian officers. In addition, under the reign of King Uijong , military officers were prohibited from entering the Security Council, and even at times of state emergency, they were not allowed to assume commands. After political chaos, Uijong started to enjoy traveling to local temples and studying sutra , while

52614-404: Was initiated on the former territory of Kangdong Airfield which was demolished in 2019. In April 2024 the second stage of construction in the Hwasong area was completed in Rimhung Street with 10,000 apartments was marked with an extravagant ceremony. Pyongyang, alongside Seoul , launched a bid to host the 2032 Summer Olympics , but failed to make the joint city candidate list. Pyongyang

52851-435: Was known for aiding the Mongols in invading Japan, but the Japanese defeated them, leaving the south defenseless against Wokou Pirate raids. The navy innovated gunpowder weaponry after the Mongol's use in the invasion of Japan to retrofit their ships with cannons and rockets to strengthen their naval defenses. During the late period, King Gongmin purged Goryeo of Mongol influence and regained their sovereignty. They invaded

53088-482: Was located within the palace complex and was headed by a high-ranking government official known as the Geumgunjang, who was appointed by the king. The Geumgunjang was responsible for overseeing the day-to-day operations of the Restriction Guard and ensuring that it fulfilled its duties and responsibilities. The Geumguncheong was also responsible for managing the finances of the Restriction Guard, including its budget for weapons, equipment, and supplies. In addition, it played

53325-415: Was made up of soldiers who were selected from the various military units throughout the kingdom and were trained in the latest military tactics and equipment. It was responsible for maintaining law and order in the capital city and protecting it from external threats, including invasions from foreign forces. It was tasked with enforcing the king's laws and regulations, as well as protecting the royal family and

53562-410: Was massive, and he also built several border fortresses along Yalu River where Joseon and Qing shared a border. When a band of Dutch sailors, including Hendrick Hamel , drifted on Jeju Island , Hyojong ordered them to build muskets for the army, making it the first time to use firearms since the Imjin War. Hyojong could not implement his plan when his son Hyeonjong stopped him since Joseon had become

53799-452: Was officially adopted in 1953. The transformation into a modern, propaganda-designed city featuring Stalin-style architecture with a Korean-style arrangement (and other modernist architecture that was said to have been greatly influenced by Brazilian architect Oscar Niemeyer ) began. The 1972 Constitution officially declared Pyongyang the capital. The funeral of Kim Il Sung was held in Pyongyang in 1994. Then on 19 July, it concluded with

54036-447: Was often supplemented by other military units from throughout the kingdom, including the Escort Office, Royal Guards Command, the Command of the Northern Approaches, and the Military Training Command. The Martial Arts Department (무예청 (武藝廳)) was a division of the Military Training Agency, who served as guards for King Seonjo during the Imjin War. It was an organization composed of skilled martial artists who were responsible for guarding

54273-399: Was rebuilt. In 2021–2022 a major housing project was executed along Songhwa Street in southeast part of the city Hwasong Street in Hwasong District in northern Pyongyang with high-rises. In 2023 phase two of construction of housing in Hwasong district was launched, on the former territory of the Pyongyang Vegetable Science Institute. In addition, a complex of greenhouse farm and housing

54510-545: Was responsible for the defense of the kingdom and the maintenance of law and order. The central army was headquartered in the capital city of Hanyang (now Seoul) and was under the direct control of the king. The king appointed a military commander, known as the Saejeong, to oversee the operations of the central army. The soldiers in the central army were recruited from throughout the kingdom and were trained in military tactics and skills. They were organized into several units, including infantry, cavalry, and artillery. The central army

54747-402: Was responsible for the overall management of the division, including recruitment, training, and deployment of soldiers. The Owi were composed of soldiers who were selected from the commoner and noble class. However, the selection process was rigorous and involved physical and martial tests, as well as a background check to ensure that the candidates did not have any criminal record or disloyalty to

54984-430: Was taken by Silla , but left on the border between Silla and Balhae . Pyongyang was left abandoned during the Later Silla period, until it was recovered by Wang Geon and decreed as the Western Capital of Goryeo . During the Imjin War , Pyongyang was captured by the Japanese and held the city wall until they were defeated in the Siege of Pyongyang . Later in the 17th century, it became temporarily occupied during

55221-406: Was the first industrial city to emerge in North Korea after the Korean War. Light and heavy industries are both present and have developed in parallel. Heavy manufactures include cement , industrial ceramics, munitions and weapons, but mechanical engineering remains the core industry. Light industries in Pyongyang and its vicinity include textiles , footwear and food, among others. Special emphasis

55458-401: Was the main branch of the Gapsa and was stationed in the capital city of Seoul. Their primary duty was to guard the king and the royal palace. They were considered the most prestigious branch of the Gapsa and included the most highly skilled and respected unit members. The Yanggyegapsa ( 양계갑사 ) was stationed in the border regions of Pyeongan-do and Hamgyeong-do. Their duties included protecting

55695-488: Was the primary military force in the early Joseon Dynasty and had about 16,000 men initially, but in 1448 it was increased to about 28,000 men. The headquarters was renamed the Five Military Commands ( Owi , 오위 ; 五衛 ) by King Sejo, making it the basis of the central army. After the Imjin War, King Seonjo replaced the Five Commands for its ineffectiveness with the Capital Defense Standing Army (수도 방어 상비군) consisting of Five Military Camps ( ogunyeong , 오군영 ; 五軍營 ) and

55932-414: Was to limit the population. Authorities maintain a restrictive regime of movement into the city, making it atypical of East Asia as it is silent, uncrowded and spacious. Structures in Pyongyang are divided into three major architectural categories: monuments, buildings with traditional Korean motifs and high-rises. Some of North Korea's most recognisable landmarks are monuments, like the Juche Tower ,

56169-413: Was treated more like an Inner Asian power. The dynasty was allowed to survive, and intermarriage with Mongols was encouraged, even with the Mongol imperial family. At the same time, marriage between the Chinese and Mongols was strictly forbidden when the Song dynasty ended. Some military officials who refused to surrender formed the Sambyeolcho Rebellion and resisted in the islands off the southern shore of

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