152-461: The National Childhood Vaccine Injury Act ( NCVIA ) of 1986 (42 U.S.C. §§ 300aa-1 to 300aa-34) was signed into law by United States President Ronald Reagan as part of a larger health bill on November 14, 1986. NCVIA's purpose was to eliminate the potential financial liability of vaccine manufacturers due to vaccine injury claims to ensure a stable market supply of vaccines, and to provide cost-effective arbitration for vaccine injury claims. Under
304-546: A Republican . In the 1964 U.S. presidential election , Reagan gave a speech for presidential contender Barry Goldwater that was eventually referred to as " A Time for Choosing ". Reagan argued that the Founding Fathers "knew that governments don't control things. And they knew when a government sets out to do that, it must use force and coercion to achieve its purpose" and that "We've been told increasingly that we must choose between left or right". Even though
456-492: A Vaccine Information Statement (VIS) to the vaccine recipient, their parent or legal guardian prior to each dose. A VIS must be given with every vaccination, including each dose in a multi-dose series. Each VIS contains a brief description of the disease, as well as the risks and benefits of the vaccine. Each VIS is developed by the CDC and distributed to state and local health departments as well as individual providers. The law
608-481: A balanced budget . The United States borrowed heavily to cover newly spawned federal budget deficits. Reagan described the tripled debt the "greatest disappointment of his presidency". Jeffrey Frankel opined that the deficits were a major reason why Reagan's successor, Bush, reneged on his campaign promise by raising taxes through the Budget Enforcement Act of 1990 . On March 30, 1981, Reagan
760-556: A lifeguard at the Rock River in Lowell Park . In 1928, Reagan began attending Eureka College at Nelle's approval on religious grounds. He was a mediocre student who participated in sports, drama, and campus politics. He became student body president and joined a student strike that resulted in the college president's resignation. Reagan was initiated as a member of Tau Kappa Epsilon Fraternity and served as president of
912-709: A small government and a strong national defense , since he believed the United States was behind the Soviet Union militarily. Heading into 1980, his age became an issue among the press, and the United States was in a severe recession . In the primaries , Reagan unexpectedly lost the Iowa caucus to George H. W. Bush . Three days before the New Hampshire primary , the Reagan and Bush campaigns agreed to
1064-523: A social movement , it has utilized multiple tools both within traditional news media and also through various forms of online communication . Activists have primarily (though far from entirely) focused on issues surrounding children , with vaccination of the young receiving pushback, and they have sought to expand beyond niche subgroups into national political debates . Although concepts such as various myths and conspiracy theories alongside outright disinformation and misinformation have been spread by
1216-583: A "strapping young buck", which became an example of dog whistle politics , and attacked Ford for handing the Panama Canal to Panama's government while Ford implied that he would end Social Security . Then, in Illinois, he again criticized Ford's policy and his secretary of state, Henry Kissinger . Losing the first five primaries prompted Reagan to desperately win North Carolina's by running
1368-488: A bill to create the holiday in 1983 after it passed both houses of Congress with veto-proof margins. In 1984, he signed legislation intended to impose fines for fair housing discrimination offenses. In March 1988, Reagan vetoed the Civil Rights Restoration Act of 1987 , but Congress overrode his veto. He had argued that the bill unreasonably increased the federal government's power and undermined
1520-744: A bond between him and the American people that was never really broken". Later, Reagan came to believe that God had spared his life "for a chosen mission". Reagan appointed three Associate Justices to the Supreme Court of the United States : Sandra Day O'Connor in 1981, which fulfilled a campaign promise to name the first female justice to the Court, Antonin Scalia in 1986, and Anthony Kennedy in 1988. He also elevated William Rehnquist from Associate Justice to Chief Justice in 1986. The direction of
1672-476: A compulsory school vaccination law in Massachusetts in 1855. The Anti-Vaccination Society of America was founded in 1879, after a visit to the United States by British anti-vaccine activist William Tebb , and opposed compulsory smallpox vaccination for smallpox from the final decades of the 19th century through the 1910s. During this period, smallpox vaccination was the only form of vaccination that
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#17327765647261824-490: A contractor of the vaccine manufacturers called the connection a "myth" and "nonsense". However, before that point, criticism of the studies showing no connection and a few well-publicized anecdotal reports of permanent disability that were blamed on the DPT vaccine gave rise to anti-DPT movements in the 1970s. In the United States, low profit margins and an increase in vaccine-related lawsuits led many manufacturers to stop producing
1976-458: A debate on the podcast. Upon declining the invitation, Hotez was harassed by their fans, with anti-vaccine activist Alex Rosen confronting him at his home. In his book The Deadly Rise of Anti-science: A Scientist's Warning , Hotez describes how he and other scientists who publicly defend vaccines have been attacked on social media, harassed with threatening emails, intimidated, and confronted physically by opponents of vaccination. He attributes
2128-498: A family dating syphilitic symptoms from the time of vaccination, when all the other members of the family have been clear. We strongly advise parents to go to prison, rather than submit to have their helpless offspring inoculated with scrofula, syphilis, and mania". Notable members of the Anti-Compulsory Vaccination League included James Burns , George Dornbusch and Charles Thomas Pearce . After
2280-589: A federal no-fault system to compensate victims of injury caused by mandated vaccines. The NCVIA also mandates that all health care providers must report certain adverse events following vaccination to the Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS). The NCVIA also established a committee from the Institute of Medicine (IOM) to review the existing literature on vaccine adverse events occurring after immunization . As
2432-545: A grassroots campaign and uniting with the Jesse Helms political machine that viciously attacked Ford. Reagan won an upset victory, convincing party delegates that Ford's nomination was no longer guaranteed. Reagan won subsequent victories in Texas, Alabama, Georgia, and Indiana with his attacks on social programs, opposition to forced busing , increased support from inclined voters of a declining George Wallace campaign for
2584-474: A group of linked websites, attracting visitors with one site and appealing for money and selling merchandise on others. Their activities to gain attention and obtain funding displayed a "hybrid monetization strategy". They attracted attention by combining eye-catching aspects of "junk news" and online celebrity promotion. At the same time, they developed campaign-specific communities to publicize and legitimize their position, similar to radical social movements. In
2736-480: A leading conservative figure. After being elected governor of California in 1966 , he raised the state taxes, turned the state budget deficit into a surplus and implemented harsh crackdowns on university protests. Following his loss to Gerald Ford in the 1976 Republican Party presidential primaries , Reagan won the Republican Party's nomination and then a landslide victory over President Jimmy Carter in
2888-462: A limited acting range, was dissatisfied with the roles he received. As a result, Lew Wasserman renegotiated his contract with his studio, allowing him to also make films with Universal Pictures , Paramount Pictures , and RKO Pictures as a freelancer. With this, Reagan appeared in multiple western films , something that had been denied to him while working at Warner Bros. In 1952, he ended his relationship with Warner Bros., but went on to appear in
3040-412: A one-on-one debate sponsored by The Telegraph at Nashua, New Hampshire , but hours before the debate, the Reagan campaign invited other candidates including Bob Dole , John B. Anderson , Howard Baker and Phil Crane . Debate moderator Jon Breen denied seats to the other candidates, asserting that The Telegraph would violate federal campaign contribution laws if it sponsored the debate and changed
3192-449: A particular viewpoint. Particularly on social media, beware of sensational headlines that appeal to emotion, fact-check information broadly (not just through your usual sources), and consider possible agendas or conflicts of interest of those relaying information. Other suggestions for countering anti-vaccine activism focus on changing the operation of social media platforms. Interventions such as accuracy nudges and source labeling change
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#17327765647263344-431: A positive take on free markets . Under GE vice president Lemuel Boulware , a staunch anti-communist, employees were encouraged to vote for business-friendly politicians. In 1961, Reagan adapted his speeches into another speech to criticize Medicare . In his view, its legislation would have meant "the end of individual freedom in the United States". In 1962, Reagan was dropped by GE, and he formally registered as
3496-953: A result of the NCVIA, the National Vaccine Program Office (NVPO) was established within the DHHS. The NVPO is responsible for coordinating immunization-related activities between all DHHS agencies, including the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Food and Drug Administration (FDA), National Institutes of Health (NIH) and the Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA). The NCVIA requires that all health care providers who administer vaccines against diphtheria , tetanus , pertussis , polio , measles , mumps , rubella , hepatitis B , Haemophilus influenzae type b and varicella must provide
3648-472: A result, taxes on sales, banks, corporate profits, inheritances, liquor, and cigarettes jumped. Kevin Starr states, Reagan "gave Californians the biggest tax hike in their history—and got away with it". In the 1970 gubernatorial election , Unruh used Reagan's tax policy against him, saying it disproportionally favored the wealthy. Reagan countered that he was still committed to reducing property taxes. By 1973,
3800-707: A set of neoliberal reforms dubbed "Reaganomics", which included monetarism and supply-side economics . Reagan worked with the boll weevil Democrats to pass tax and budget legislation in a Congress led by Tip O'Neill , a liberal who strongly criticized Reaganomics. He lifted federal oil and gasoline price controls on January 28, 1981, and in August, he signed the Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981 to dramatically lower federal income tax rates and require exemptions and brackets to be indexed for inflation starting in 1985. Amid growing concerns about
3952-626: A special election. Reagan's first tenure saw various labor–management disputes, the Hollywood blacklist , and the Taft–Hartley Act 's implementation. On April 10, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) interviewed Reagan and he provided them with the names of actors whom he believed to be communist sympathizers . During a House Un-American Activities Committee hearing, Reagan testified that some guild members were associated with
4104-683: A total of 53 films, his last being The Killers (1964). In April 1937, Reagan enlisted in the United States Army Reserve . He was assigned as a private in Des Moines' 322nd Cavalry Regiment and reassigned to second lieutenant in the Officers Reserve Corps. He later became a part of the 323rd Cavalry Regiment in California. As relations between the United States and Japan worsened, Reagan
4256-876: A vaccine caused an adverse event, or how common the event might be. After Republicans gained a majority in the U.S. House of Representatives in January 2023, the House Judiciary Committee used legal action to oppose both disinformation research and government involvement in fighting disinformation. One of the projects targeted was the Virality Project, which has examined the spread of false claims about vaccines. The House Judiciary Committee sent letters, subpoenas, and threats of legal action to researchers, demanding notes, emails and other records from researchers and even student interns, dating back to 2015. Institutions subjected to such inquiries included
4408-405: A vocal critic of President Carter in 1977. The Panama Canal Treaty 's signing, the 1979 oil crisis , and rise in the interest, inflation and unemployment rates helped set up his 1980 presidential campaign, which he announced on November 13, 1979 with an indictment of the federal government. His announcement stressed his fundamental principles of tax cuts to stimulate the economy and having both
4560-486: A well-known film actor. During his acting career, Reagan was elected president of the Screen Actors Guild twice, serving from 1947 to 1952 and from 1959 to 1960. In the 1950s, he became the host for General Electric Theater and also worked as a motivational speaker for General Electric . Subsequently, Reagan's " A Time for Choosing " speech during the 1964 U.S. presidential election launched his rise as
4712-584: Is a "diabolical operation". It was customary at the time for popular preachers to publish sermons, which reached a wide audience. This was the case with Massey, whose sermon reached North America, where there was early religious opposition, particularly by John Williams . A greater source of opposition there was William Douglass , a medical graduate of Edinburgh University and a Fellow of the Royal Society , who had settled in Boston. Vaccination itself
National Childhood Vaccine Injury Act - Misplaced Pages Continue
4864-515: Is brought up in arguments made by anti-vaccine activists . It has been faulted by those claiming that it has resulted in the end of civil liability for vaccines, in spite of its creation of the NVICP as an alternative avenue for compensation. The NVICP, with its burden of proof being more lenient than scientific standards of proof, has still resulted in a low award rate . Ronald Reagan Ronald Wilson Reagan (February 6, 1911 – June 5, 2004)
5016-694: Is less popular with Republicans than Democrats. While private entities like Facebook, Twitter and Telegram could legally establish guidelines for moderation of information and disinformation on their platforms (subject to local and international laws) such companies do not have strong incentives to control disinformation or to self-regulate. Algorithms that are used to maximize user engagement and profits can lead to unbalanced, poorly sourced, and actively misleading information. Criticized for its role in vaccine hesitancy , Facebook announced in March 2019 that it would provide users with "authoritative information" on
5168-719: Is one example of a successful direct outreach initiative. Another is the New York State Vaccine Equity Task Force. In line with the Strategic Advisory Group of Experts (SAGE)'s 3C's model, outreach to communities has focused on addressing mistrust and increasing Confidence, providing information to improve risk assessment (Complacency), and improving access to COVID-19 vaccines (Convenience). It has been necessary to counter disinformation in all three areas. Recommendations for combating vaccine disinformation include increasing
5320-470: The Journal of Communication published a study of the political economy underlying vaccine disinformation. Researchers identified 59 English-language "actors" that provided "almost exclusively anti-vaccination publications". Their websites monetized disinformation through appeals for donations, sales of content-based media and other merchandise, third-party advertising, and membership fees. Some maintained
5472-540: The 1948 presidential election , and Helen Gahagan Douglas for the U.S. Senate in 1950 . It was Reagan's belief that communism was a powerful backstage influence in Hollywood that led him to rally his friends against them. Reagan began shifting to the right when he supported the presidential campaigns of Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1952 and Richard Nixon in 1960. When Reagan was contracted by General Electric (GE), he gave speeches to their employees. His speeches had
5624-488: The 1980 presidential election . In his first term as U.S. president, Reagan began implementing " Reaganomics ", which involved economic deregulation and cuts in both taxes and government spending during a period of stagflation . On the world stage, he escalated the arms race , transitioned Cold War policy away from the policies of détente with the Soviet Union , and ordered the 1983 invasion of Grenada . Within
5776-561: The AFL–CIO to fight right-to-work laws , and continued to speak out against racism when he was in Hollywood. In 1945, Reagan planned to lead an HICCASP anti-nuclear rally, but Warner Bros. prevented him from going. In 1946, he appeared in a radio program called Operation Terror to speak out against rising Ku Klux Klan activity in the country, citing the attacks as a "capably organized systematic campaign of fascist violence and intimidation and horror". Reagan also supported Harry S. Truman in
5928-516: The Black Monday stock market crash, although the markets eventually recovered. By 1989, the BLS measured the unemployment rate at 5.3 percent. The inflation rate dropped from 12 percent during the 1980 election to under 5 percent in 1989. Likewise, the interest rate dropped from 15 percent to under 10 percent. Yet, not all shared equally in the economic recovery, and both economic inequality and
6080-555: The Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) measured the unemployment rate at 10.8 percent. Around the same time, economic activity began to rise until its end in 1990 , setting the record for the longest peacetime expansion. In 1983, the recession ended and Reagan nominated Volcker to a second term in fear of damaging confidence in the economic recovery. Reagan appointed Alan Greenspan to succeed Volcker in 1987. Greenspan raised interest rates in another attempt to curb inflation, setting off
6232-592: The Communist Party and that he was well-informed about a "jurisdictional strike". When asked if he was aware of communist efforts within the Screen Writers Guild , he called information about the efforts "hearsay". Reagan resigned as SAG president November 10, 1952, but remained on the board; Walter Pidgeon succeeded him as president. The SAG fought with film producers for the right to receive residual payments , and on November 16, 1959,
National Childhood Vaccine Injury Act - Misplaced Pages Continue
6384-559: The DPT vaccine caused permanent brain injury known as pertussis vaccine encephalopathy in rare cases. No studies showed a causal connection, and later studies showed no connection of any type between the DPT vaccine and permanent brain injury. The alleged vaccine-induced brain damage proved to be an unrelated condition, infantile epilepsy . In 1990, an editorial in the Journal of the American Medical Association by
6536-565: The Defense Intelligence Agency to discover why the United States was unable to maintain its economic competitiveness. According to program director Michael Sekora, their findings helped the country surpass the Soviets in terms of missile defense technology. Reagan sought to loosen federal regulation of economic activities, and he appointed key officials who shared this agenda. William Leuchtenburg writes that by 1986,
6688-742: The Democratic nomination , and repeated criticisms of Ford and Kissinger's policies, including détente . The result was a seesaw battle for the 1,130 delegates required for their party's nomination that neither would reach before the Kansas City convention in August and Ford replacing mentions of détente with Reagan's preferred phrase, " peace through strength ". Reagan took John Sears ' advice of choosing liberal Richard Schweiker as his running mate, hoping to pry loose of delegates from Pennsylvania and other states, and distract Ford. Instead, conservatives were left alienated, and Ford picked up
6840-545: The Employment Development Department published a report suggesting that the experiment that ran from 1971 to 1974 was unsuccessful. Reagan declined to run for the governorship in 1974 and it was won by Pat Brown's son, Jerry . Reagan's governorship, as professor Gary K. Clabaugh writes, saw public schools deteriorate due to his opposition to additional basic education funding. As for higher education, journalist William Trombley believed that
6992-517: The People's Park . One student was shot and killed while many police officers and two reporters were injured. Reagan then commanded the state National Guard troops to occupy Berkeley for seventeen days to subdue the protesters, allowing other students to attend class safely. In February 1970, violent protests broke out near the University of California, Santa Barbara , where he once again deployed
7144-527: The Southern strategy to garner white support for Republican candidates. Reagan's supporters have said that this was his typical anti-big government rhetoric, without racial context or intent. In the October 28 debate , Carter chided Reagan for being against national health insurance. Reagan replied, " There you go again ", though the audience laughed and viewers found him more appealing. Reagan later asked
7296-623: The Stanford Internet Observatory at Stanford University , the University of Washington , the Atlantic Council 's Digital Forensic Research Lab and the social media analytics firm Graphika. Researchers emphasized that they have academic freedom to study disinformation as well as freedom of speech to report their results. Despite conservative claims that the government acted to censor speech online, "no evidence has emerged that government officials coerced
7448-767: The United States Army Air Forces (AAF). Reagan became an AAF public relations officer and was subsequently assigned to the 18th AAF Base Unit in Culver City where he felt that it was "impossible to remove an incompetent or lazy worker" due to what he felt was "the incompetence, the delays, and inefficiencies" of the federal bureaucracy . Despite this, Reagan participated in the Provisional Task Force Show Unit in Burbank and continued to make theatrical films. He
7600-468: The economic boom of the 1990s . Reagan took office in the midst of stagflation . The economy briefly experienced growth before plunging into a recession in July 1981. As Federal Reserve chairman, Paul Volcker fought inflation by pursuing a tight money policy of high interest rates , which restricted lending and investment, raised unemployment, and temporarily reduced economic growth. In December 1982,
7752-432: The presidential oath of office . In his inaugural address , Reagan commented on the country's economic malaise, arguing, "In this present crisis, government is not the solution to our problem, government is the problem". As a final insult to President Carter, Iran waited until Reagan had been sworn in before announcing the release of their American hostages. Reagan advocated a laissez-faire philosophy, and promoted
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#17327765647267904-582: The secret and illegal sale of arms to Iran to fund the Contras , and a more conciliatory approach in talks with Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev culminating in the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty . Reagan left the presidency in 1989 with the American economy having seen a significant reduction of inflation, the unemployment rate having fallen, and the U.S. having entered its then-longest peacetime expansion. At
8056-616: The 1930s. In the United Kingdom , the Compulsory Vaccination Act of 1853 required that every child be vaccinated within three or four months of birth. It set a precedent for the state regulation of physical bodies, and was fiercely resisted. The following year, in 1854, John Gibbs published the first anti-compulsory-vaccination pamphlet, Our Medical Liberties . By the 1860s, anti-vaccinationism in Britain
8208-459: The 1970s for a national level vaccination requirement for children entering schools. Joseph A. Califano Jr. appealed to state governors, and by 1980, all 50 states legally required vaccination for school entrance. Many of these laws allowed exemptions in response to lobbyists. In New York State, a 1967 law allowed exemptions from receiving polio vaccine for members of religious organizations such as Christian Scientists . Anti-vaccine activism in
8360-622: The 2000s regained prominence through exploratory research based on 12 cases that made claims about a link between the MMR vaccine and autism . These claims were subsequently extensively investigated and found to be false, and the original study turned out to be based on faked data. The scientific consensus is that there is no link between the MMR vaccine and autism, and that the MMR vaccine's benefits in preventing measles , mumps , and rubella greatly outweigh its potential risks. The idea of an autism link
8512-534: The Black Panthers". The act marked the beginning of both modern legislation and public attitude studies on gun control. Reagan also signed the 1967 Therapeutic Abortion Act that allowed abortions in the cases of rape and incest when a doctor determined the birth would impair the physical or mental health of the mother. He later expressed regret over signing it, saying that he was unaware of the mental health provision. He believed that doctors were interpreting
8664-569: The Brown administration about high taxes, uncontrolled spending, the radicals at the University of California, Berkeley , and the need for accountability in government". Meanwhile, many in the press perceived Reagan as "monumentally ignorant of state issues", though Lou Cannon said that Reagan benefited from an appearance he and Brown made on Meet the Press in September. Ultimately, Reagan won
8816-573: The DPT vaccine by the early 1980s. By 1985, vaccine manufacturers had difficulty obtaining liability insurance . The price of the DPT vaccine skyrocketed as a result, leading providers to curtail purchases, thus limiting availability. Only one company was still manufacturing pertussis vaccine in the US by the end of 1985. Because of this, Congress passed the National Childhood Vaccine Injury Act (NCVIA) in 1986, establishing
8968-704: The District of Columbia. He won the popular vote by a narrower margin, receiving nearly 51 percent to Carter's 41 percent and Anderson's 7 percent. In the United States Congress , Republicans won a majority of seats in the Senate for the first time since 1952 while Democrats retained the House of Representatives . Reagan was inaugurated as the 40th president of the United States on Tuesday, January 20, 1981. Chief Justice Warren E. Burger administered
9120-470: The Family Law Act that granted no-fault divorces . Insufficiently conservative to Reagan and many other Republicans, President Gerald Ford suffered from multiple political and economic woes. Ford, running for president, was disappointed to hear him also run. Reagan was strongly critical of détente and Ford's policy of détente with the Soviet Union. He repeated "A Time for Choosing" around
9272-854: The Fifth Circuit "severely limits the ability of the White House, the surgeon general, [and] the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention... to communicate with social media companies about content related to Covid-19... that the government views as misinformation". In October 2023, this injunction was paused by the Supreme Court of the United States , pending further litigation. Algorithms and user data can be used to identify selected subgroups who can then be provided with specialized content. This type of approach has been used both by anti-vaccine activists and by health providers who hope to counter vaccine-related disinformation. For example, in
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#17327765647269424-662: The London Society for the Abolition of Compulsory Vaccination, with William Young as secretary. The Vaccination Inquirer , established by Tebb in 1879, was adopted as the official organ of the Society. A series of fourteen "Vaccination Tracts" was begun by Young in 1877 and completed by Garth Wilkinson in 1879. William White was the first editor of the Vaccination Inquirer and after his death in 1885, he
9576-403: The NCVIA, the National Vaccine Injury Compensation Program (NVICP) was created to provide a federal no-fault system for compensating vaccine-related injuries or death by establishing a claim procedure involving the United States Court of Federal Claims and special masters . In the 1970s and 1980s, a controversy erupted related to the question of whether the whole-cell pertussis component of
9728-480: The National Guard. On April 7, Reagan defended his policies regarding campus protests, saying, "If it takes a bloodbath, let's get it over with. No more appeasement". During his victorious reelection campaign in 1970, Reagan, remaining critical of government, promised to prioritize welfare reform . He was concerned that the programs were disincentivizing work and that the growing welfare rolls would lead to both an unbalanced budget and another big tax hike in 1972. At
9880-546: The New Hampshire primary by more than 39,000 votes. Soon thereafter, Reagan's opponents began dropping out of the primaries, including Anderson, who left the party to become an independent candidate. Reagan easily captured the presidential nomination and chose Bush as his running mate at the Detroit convention in July. The general election pitted Reagan against Carter amid the multitude of domestic concerns and ongoing Iran hostage crisis that began on November 4, 1979. Reagan's campaign worried that Carter would be able to secure
10032-469: The Reagan administration eliminated almost half of the federal regulations that had existed in 1981. The 1982 Garn–St. Germain Depository Institutions Act deregulated savings and loan associations by letting them make a variety of loans and investments outside of real estate. After the bill's passage, savings and loans associations engaged in riskier activities, and the leaders of some institutions embezzled funds. The administration's inattentiveness toward
10184-464: The Republican primary, Reagan defeated George Christopher , a moderate Republican who William F. Buckley Jr. thought had painted Reagan as extreme. Reagan's general election opponent, incumbent governor Pat Brown , attempted to label Reagan as an extremist and tout his own accomplishments. Reagan portrayed himself as a political outsider, and charged Brown as responsible for the Watts riots and lenient on crime. In numerous speeches, Reagan "hit
10336-434: The SAG presidency on June 7, 1960, and also left the board; George Chandler succeeded him as SAG president. In January 1940, Reagan married Jane Wyman , his co-star in the 1938 film Brother Rat . Together, they had two biological daughters: Maureen in 1941, and Christine in 1947 (born prematurely and died the following day). They adopted one son, Michael , in 1945. Wyman filed to divorce Reagan in June 1948. She
10488-559: The Supreme Court's reshaping has been described as conservative. Early in August 1981, the Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization (PATCO) went on strike , violating a federal law prohibiting government unions from striking. On August 3, Reagan said that he would fire air traffic controllers if they did not return to work within 48 hours; according to him, 38 percent did not return. On August 13, Reagan fired roughly 12,000 striking air traffic controllers who ignored his order. He used military controllers and supervisors to handle
10640-399: The United States to every person within its jurisdiction does not import an absolute right in each person to be, at all times and in all circumstances, wholly freed from restraint. There are manifold restraints to which every person is necessarily subject for the common good". In 1880, William Tebb enlarged and reorganized the Anti-Compulsory Vaccination League in the UK with the formation of
10792-453: The United States, the Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS) is used to gather information on potential vaccine adverse reactions, but is susceptible to unverified reports, misattribution, underreporting , and inconsistent data quality . Raw, unverified data from VAERS has often been used by the anti-vaccine community to justify misinformation regarding the safety of vaccines; it is generally not possible to find out from VAERS data if
10944-889: The United States, the CDC's Social Vulnerability Index (SVI) has been used to identify communities that have traditionally been under-served or are at elevated risk for infection, morbidity, and mortality. Programs have been developed in such communities to address disinformation and vaccine hesitancy. Steps have been taken to counter anti-vaccine messaging by directly engaging with communities. Outreach efforts include call centers and texting campaigns, partnering with local community leaders, and holding community-based vaccine clinics. Creating digital and science literacy resources and distributing them via schools, libraries, municipal offices, churches and other community groups can help to counter misinformation in under-resourced communities. The Black Doctors COVID-19 Consortium in Philadelphia
11096-523: The United States. Afterward, Reagan starred in Kings Row (1942) as a leg amputee, asking, "Where's the rest of me?" His performance was considered his best by many critics. Reagan became a star, with Gallup polls placing him "in the top 100 stars" from 1941 to 1942. World War II interrupted the movie stardom that Reagan would never be able to achieve again as Warner Bros. became uncertain about his ability to generate ticket sales. Reagan, who had
11248-621: The advertisements. The ads often linked to commercial products, such as natural remedies and books. Kennedy was suspended from Facebook in August 2022, but reinstated in June 2023. In 2023, however, state governments that were politically aligned with anti-vaccine activists successfully sought a preliminary injunction to prevent the Biden Administration from seeking to pressure social media companies into fighting misinformation. The order issued by United States Court of Appeals for
11400-419: The amount of federal tax had fallen for all or most taxpayers, but most strongly affected the wealthy. The Tax Reform Act of 1986 reduced the number of tax brackets and top tax rate, and almost doubled personal exemptions . To Reagan, the tax cuts would not have increased the deficit as long as there was enough economic growth and spending cuts. His policies proposed that economic growth would occur when
11552-465: The anti-vaccination movement and fringe doctors in a way that has significantly increased vaccine hesitancy (and altered public policy around the ethical , legal, and medical matters related to vaccines), no serious sense of hesitancy or of debate (in the broad sense) exists within mainstream medical circles about the benefits of vaccination. One scholarly article from 2021 has described the present scientific consensus as "clear and unambiguous". At
11704-486: The audience if they were better off than they were four years ago, slightly paraphrasing Roosevelt's words in 1934. In 1983, Reagan's campaign managers were revealed to having obtained Carter's debate briefing book before the debates. On November 4, 1980, Reagan won in a decisive victory in the Electoral College over Carter, carrying 44 states and receiving 489 electoral votes to Carter's 49 in six states and
11856-495: The backing of Reagan Democrats . Though he advocated socially conservative view points, Reagan focused much of his campaign on attacks against Carter's foreign policy . In August, Reagan gave a speech at the Neshoba County Fair , stating his belief in states' rights . Joseph Crespino argues that the visit was designed to reach out to Wallace-inclined voters, and some also saw these actions as an extension of
12008-457: The board elected Reagan SAG president for the second time; he replaced Howard Keel , who had resigned. During this second stint, Reagan managed to secure payments for actors whose theatrical films had been released between 1948 and 1959 and subsequently televised. The producers were initially required to pay the actors fees, but they ultimately settled instead for providing pensions and paying residuals for films made after 1959. Reagan resigned from
12160-512: The budget cuts Reagan enacted damaged Berkeley's student-faculty ratio and research. Additionally, the homicide rate doubled and armed robbery rates rose by even more during Reagan's eight years, even with the many laws Reagan signed to try toughening criminal sentencing and reforming the criminal justice system. Reagan strongly supported capital punishment, but his efforts to enforce it were thwarted by People v. Anderson in 1972. According to his son, Michael, Reagan said that he regretted signing
12312-541: The budget had a surplus, which Reagan preferred "to give back to the people". In 1967, Reagan reacted to the Black Panther Party 's strategy of copwatching by signing the Mulford Act to prohibit the public carrying of firearms. The act was California's most restrictive piece of gun control legislation , with critics saying that it was "overreacting to the political activism of organizations such as
12464-542: The city of Berkeley , making it a major theme in his campaigning. On February 5, 1969, Reagan declared a state of emergency in response to ongoing protests and acts of violence at the University of California, Berkeley, and sent in the California Highway Patrol . In May 1969, these officers, along with local officers from Berkeley and Alameda county, clashed with protestors over a site known as
12616-496: The companies to take action against accounts". The actions of the House Judiciary Committee have been described as an "attempt to chill research,” creating a "chilling effect" through increased time demands, legal costs and online harassment of researchers. Persons undertaking efforts to counter vaccine misinformation, including public health experts who use social media, have been targeted for harassment by anti-vaccine activists. For example, Slovakian physician Vladimír Krčméry
12768-412: The context in which information is presented. For example, correct information can be directly presented to counter disinformation. Other possibilities include flagging or removing misleading information on social media platforms. Research suggests that a majority of individuals in the United States would support the removal of harmful misinformation posts and the suspension of accounts. This position
12920-577: The country before announcing his campaign on November 20, 1975, when he discussed economic and social problems, and to a lesser extent, foreign affairs. Both candidates were determined to knock each other out early in the primaries, but Reagan would devastatingly lose the first five primaries beginning with New Hampshire, where he popularized the welfare queen narrative about Linda Taylor , exaggerating her misuse of welfare benefits and igniting voter resentment for welfare reform, but never overtly mentioning her name or race. In Florida, Reagan referred to
13072-417: The cultural and religious values of communities. In countering anti-vaccine disinformation, both factual and emotional aspects need to be addressed. Whether people will update a mistaken belief is complicated and involves psychological factors and social goals as well as accuracy of information. There is some evidence that both debunking and " pre-bunking " of disinformation can be effective, at least in
13224-619: The current model of US public health communication, which tends to rely on a single credible messenger (e.g. Anthony Fauci ) and is susceptible to disinformation attacks. To deal with disinformation, community networks would need to address issues of liberty and human rights as well as vaccine safety, effectiveness and access. Networks could also help to show support for those attacked by anti-vaccine activists. Ideas that would eventually coalesce into anti-vaccine activism have existed for longer than vaccines themselves. Some philosophical approaches (e.g. homeopathy , vitalism ) are incompatible with
13376-687: The death of Richard B. Gibbs in 1871, the Anti-Compulsory Vaccination League "languished" until 1876 when it was revived under the leadership of Mary Hume-Rothery and the Rev. W. Hume-Rothery. The Anti-Compulsory Vaccination League published the Occasional Circular which later merged into the National Anti-Compulsory Vaccination Reporter . In the United States, many states and local school boards established immunization requirements, beginning with
13528-462: The debate began. The moderator asked Bob Malloy, the volume operator, to mute Reagan's microphone. After Breen repeated his demand to Malloy, Reagan furiously replied, "I am paying for this microphone, Mr. Green! [ sic ]". This turned out to be the turning point of the debate and the primary race. Ultimately, the four additional candidates left, and the debate continued between Reagan and Bush. Reagan's polling numbers improved, and he won
13680-583: The efficacy of vaccination. The League dissolved after the death of Higgins in 1929. Anti-vaccine activism ebbed for much of the twentieth century, but never completely vanished. In the UK, the National Anti-Vaccination League continued to publish new issues of its journal until 1972, by which time the global campaign for smallpox eradication through vaccination had made the disease so uncommon that compulsory vaccination for smallpox
13832-588: The enforcement of civil rights law, arousing the ire of civil rights advocates. In 1987, Reagan unsuccessfully nominated Robert Bork to the Supreme Court as a way to achieve his civil rights policy that could not be fulfilled during his presidency; his administration had opposed affirmative action , particularly in education, federal assistance programs, housing and employment, but Reagan reluctantly continued these policies. In housing, Reagan's administration saw considerably fewer fair housing cases filed than
13984-525: The governorship with 57 percent of the vote compared to Brown's 42 percent. Brown had spent much of California's funds on new programs, prompting them to use accrual accounting to avoid raising taxes. Consequently, it generated a larger deficit, and Reagan would call for reduced government spending and tax hikes to balance the budget . He worked with Jesse M. Unruh on securing tax increases and promising future property tax cuts. This caused some conservatives to accuse Reagan of betraying his principles. As
14136-405: The ground rules hours before the debate. As a result, the Reagan campaign agreed to pay for the debate. Reagan said that as he was funding the debate, he could decide who would debate. During the debate, when Breen was laying out the ground rules and attempting to ask the first question, Reagan interrupted in protest to make an introductory statement and wanted other candidates to be included before
14288-427: The host of MCA Inc. television production General Electric Theater at Wasserman's recommendation. It featured multiple guest stars, and Ronald and Nancy Reagan, continuing to use her stage name Nancy Davis, acted together in three episodes. When asked how Reagan was able to recruit such stars to appear on the show during television's infancy, he replied, "Good stories, top direction, production quality". However,
14440-426: The incorrect explanation was previously thought to be correct. The cultivation of critical thinking, health and science awareness, and media literacy skills are all recommended to help people more critically assess the credibility of the information they see. People who seek out multiple reputable news sources at local and national levels are more likely to detect disinformation than those who rely on few sources from
14592-1069: The increase in aggressiveness of the anti-vaccination movement to the influence of the extreme wing of the Republican Party. Hotez estimates that roughly 200,000 preventable deaths from COVID-19, mainly among Republicans, occurred in the US because of refusal to be vaccinated. At the extreme end, opposition to vaccination has resulted in substantial violence against vaccinators. In Pakistan, "more than 200 polio team workers have lost their lives" (team members include not only vaccinators but police and security personnel) from "targeted killing and terrorism" while working on polio vaccination campaigns. Various efforts have been suggested and undertaken to address concerns about vaccines and counter anti-vaccine disinformation. Efforts include social media advertising campaigns, by public health organizations, in support of public health goals. Best practices for combating vaccine mis- and disinformation include addressing issues openly, clearly identifying areas of scientific consensus and areas of uncertainty, and being sensitive to
14744-453: The industry contributed to the savings and loan crisis and costly bailouts. The deficits were exacerbated by the early 1980s recession, which cut into federal revenue. The national debt tripled between the fiscal years of 1980 and 1989, and the national debt as a percentage of the gross domestic product rose from 33 percent in 1981 to 53 percent by 1989. During his time in office, Reagan never fulfilled his 1980 campaign promise of submitting
14896-718: The internet have been argued to be characterized by a number of differences from medical and scientific literature. These include: For example, a 2020 study examined Instagram posts related to the HPV vaccine , which can prevent some types of cancer. Anti-vaccine posts were more likely than pro-vaccine posts to be sent by non-healthcare individuals, to include personal narratives, and to reference other Instagram users, links, or reposts. Anti-vaccine posts were also more likely to involve concealment or distortion, particularly conspiracy theories and unsubstantiated claims. In total, 72.3% of antivaccine posts made inaccurate claims, including exaggerating
15048-622: The issue: e.g. National Vaccine Information Center (USA), Vaccination Risk Awareness Network (Canada), Australian Vaccination Network. In November 2013 the Australian Vaccination Network was ordered by the New South Wales Administrative Decisions Tribunal to change their name so that consumers are aware of the anti-vaccination nature of the group. Lateline reported that former AVN president Meryl Dorey "claimed she
15200-559: The league's Secretary by 1909. In 1906, George Bernard Shaw wrote a supportive letter to the National Anti-Vaccination League, equating methods of vaccination with "rubbing the contents of the dustpan into the wound". In 1908, the Anti-Vaccination League of America was created by Charles M. Higgins and industrialist John Pitcairn Jr. , with anti-vaccination campaigns focused on New York and Pennsylvania . Members were opposed to compulsory vaccination laws. Higgins
15352-514: The local chapter. Reagan played at the guard position for the 1930 and 1931 Eureka Red Devils football teams and recalled a time when two black football teammates were refused service at a segregated hotel; he invited them to his parents' home nearby in Dixon and his parents welcomed them. At the time, his parents' stance on racial questions was unusually progressive in Dixon. Reagan himself had grown up with very few black Americans there and
15504-667: The medical establishment and the government to reap huge profits for the medical establishment at the expense of the public." However, the authors only considered the use of "newspaper articles and letters, books, journals, and pamphlets to warn against the dangers of vaccination", and did not address the impact of the internet. Comments on YouTube videos during the COVID-19 pandemic clustered similarly around "concerns about side-effects, effectiveness, and lack of trust in corporations and government". In some instances, anti-vaccine organizations have used names intended to sound non-partisan on
15656-422: The microbiological paradigm that explains how the immune system and vaccines work. Vaccine hesitancy and anti-vaccine activism exist within a broader context that involves cultural tradition, religious belief, approaches to health and disease, and political affiliation. Opposition to variolation for smallpox (a predecessor to vaccination) was organized as early as the 1720s around the premise that vaccination
15808-518: The mounting federal debt , Reagan signed the Tax Equity and Fiscal Responsibility Act of 1982 , one of the eleven times Reagan raised taxes. The bill doubled the federal cigarette tax , rescinded a portion of the corporate tax cuts from the 1981 tax bill, and according to Paul Krugman , "a third of the 1981 cut" overall. Many of his supporters condemned the bill, but Reagan defended his preservation of cuts on individual income tax rates. By 1983,
15960-471: The nation's commercial air traffic until new controllers could be hired and trained. The breaking of the PATCO strike demoralized organized labor, and the number of strikes fell greatly in the 1980s. With the assent of Reagan's sympathetic National Labor Relations Board appointees, many companies also won wage and benefit cutbacks from unions, especially in the manufacturing sector. During Reagan's presidency,
16112-435: The nineteenth century, the principles, practices and impact of vaccination were matters of active scientific debate. The principles behind vaccination were not clearly understood until the end of the nineteenth century. The importance of hygiene in the preparation, storage, and administration of vaccines was not always understood or practiced. Reliable statistics on vaccine efficacy and side effects were difficult to obtain before
16264-528: The number of homeless individuals increased during the 1980s. Critics have contended that a majority of the jobs created during this decade paid the minimum wage. In 1981, in an effort to keep it solvent, Reagan approved a plan for cuts to Social Security. He later backed off of these plans due to public backlash. He then created the Greenspan Commission to keep Social Security financially secure, and in 1983 he signed amendments to raise both
16416-484: The pastor was out of town. Reagan credited her spiritual influence and he became a Christian . According to American political figure Stephen Vaughn , Reagan's values came from his pastor, and the First Christian Church's religious, economic and social positions "coincided with the words, if not the beliefs of the latter-day Reagan". Jack focused on making money to take care of the family, but this
16568-612: The presence of trusted health agencies and credible information on social media, partnering with social media platforms to promote evidence-based public health information, and identifying and responding to emerging concerns and disinformation campaigns. Networked communities of public health officials and other stakeholders, connecting with the public through a variety of credible and trusted messengers, are recommended. Sharing of messages through such networks could help to debunk and counter highly networked and coordinated disinformation attacks. A networked community approach would differ from
16720-516: The procedure, and complaining that these petitions had not been made public. The journal reported the formation of the Anti-Compulsory Vaccination League "To overthrow this huge piece of physiological absurdity and medical tyranny", and quoted Richard Gibbs (a cousin of John Gibbs) who ran the Free Hospital at the same address as stating "I believe we have hundreds of cases here, from being poisoned with vaccination, I deem incurable. One member of
16872-697: The program's payroll taxes and retirement age for benefits. He had signed the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1981 to cut funding for federal assistance such as food stamps, unemployment benefits , subsidized housing and the Aid to Families with Dependent Children , and would discontinue the Comprehensive Employment and Training Act . On the other side, defense spending doubled between 1981 and 1985. During Reagan's presidency, Project Socrates operated within
17024-612: The progress of the brightest discovery which has ever been made! But the contest is in vain! Time has drawn aside the veil which obstructed our knowledge of this invaluable blessing; and in the examples of the Emperor of Constantinople, of the Dowager Empress of Russia, and the King of Spain, we may date the downfall of further opposition." Coxe's expectation of an end to opposition to vaccination proved premature, and through much of
17176-549: The provision loosely and more abortions were resulting. After Reagan won the 1966 election, he and his advisors planned a run in the 1968 Republican presidential primaries . He ran as an unofficial candidate to cut into Nixon's southern support and be a compromise candidate if there were to be a brokered convention . He won California's delegates, but Nixon secured enough delegates for the nomination . Reagan had previously been critical of former governor Brown and university administrators for tolerating student demonstrations in
17328-700: The release of the American hostages in Iran as part of the October surprise , Carter "suggested that Reagan would wreck Social Security " and portrayed him as a warmonger, and Anderson carried support from liberal Republicans dissatisfied with Reagan's conservatism. One of Reagan's key strengths was his appeal to the rising conservative movement. Though most conservative leaders espoused cutting taxes and budget deficits, many conservatives focused more closely on social issues like abortion and gay rights . Evangelical Protestants became an increasingly important voting bloc, and they generally supported Reagan. Reagan also won
17480-433: The remaining uncommitted delegates and prevailed, earning 1,187 to Reagan's 1,070. Before giving his acceptance speech, Ford invited Reagan to address the convention; Reagan emphasized individual freedom and the dangers of nuclear weapons. In 1977, Ford told Cannon that Reagan's primary challenge contributed to his own narrow loss to Democrat Jimmy Carter in the 1976 United States presidential election . Reagan emerged as
17632-635: The rights of churches and business owners. Later in September, legislation was passed to correct loopholes in the Fair Housing Act of 1968 . Early in his presidency, Reagan appointed Clarence M. Pendleton Jr. , known for his opposition to affirmative action and equal pay for men and women, as chair of the United States Commission on Civil Rights despite Pendleton's hostility toward long-established civil rights views. Pendleton and Reagan's subsequent appointees greatly eroded
17784-582: The risks of vaccines and minimizing risks of disease. A number of specific disinformation tactics have been noted in anti-vaccination messaging, including: Information is more likely to be believed after repeated exposure. Disinformers use this illusory truth effect as a tactic, repeating false information to make it feel familiar and influence belief. Anti-vaccine activists have leveraged social media to develop interconnected networks of influencers that shape people's opinion, recruit allies, impact policy and monetize vaccine-related disinformation. In 2022,
17936-403: The same period, Reagan also survived an assassination attempt , fought public-sector labor unions, expanded the war on drugs , and was slow to respond to the growing AIDS epidemic . In the 1984 presidential election , he defeated Carter's former vice president, Walter Mondale , in another landslide victory. Foreign affairs dominated Reagan's second term, including the 1986 bombing of Libya ,
18088-611: The same time, however, the anti-vax movement has partially succeeded in distorting common understandings of science in popular culture . In a 2002 paper in the British Medical Journal , two medical historians suggested that the arguments made against the safety and effectiveness of vaccines in the late 20th century are similar to those of the early anti-vaccinationists. Both the 19th and 20th century arguments included "vaccine safety issues, vaccine failures, infringement of personal liberty, and an unholy alliance between
18240-516: The same time, the Federal Reserve increased interest rates to combat inflation, putting the American economy in a mild recession . Reagan worked with Bob Moretti to tighten up the eligibility requirements so that the financially needy could continue receiving payments. This was only accomplished after Reagan softened his criticism of Nixon's Family Assistance Plan . Nixon then lifted regulations to shepherd California's experiment. In 1976,
18392-565: The same time, the national debt had nearly tripled since 1981 as a result of his cuts in taxes and increased military spending, despite cuts to domestic discretionary spending. Reagan's policies also contributed to the end of the Cold War and the end of Soviet communism . Alzheimer's disease hindered Reagan post-presidency, and his physical and mental capacities gradually deteriorated, ultimately leading to his death in 2004. Historical rankings of U.S. presidents have typically placed Reagan in
18544-576: The share of employees who were part of a labor union dropped from approximately one-fourth of the total workforce to approximately one-sixth of the total workforce. Despite Reagan having opposed the Voting Rights Act of 1965 , the bill was extended for 25 years in 1982. He initially opposed the establishment of Martin Luther King Jr. Day , and alluded to claims that King was associated with communists during his career, but signed
18696-419: The short term. Elements that may help to correct inaccurate information include: warning people before they are exposed to misinformation; high perceived credibility of message sources, affirmations of identity and social norms; graphical presentation; and focusing attention on clear core messages. Alternative explanations of a situation need to fit plausibly into the original scenario and ideally indicate why
18848-459: The six months before and after the policy changes. It found a moderate but significant decrease in the number of likes for anti-vaccine posts following the policy changes. Likes of pro-vaccine posts were unchanged. Facebook has been criticized for not being more aggressive in countering disinformation. In response to efforts to police misinformation, anti-vaccine communities on social media have adopted coded language to refer to vaccinated persons and
19000-604: The speech was not enough to turn around the faltering Goldwater campaign , it increased Reagan's profile among conservatives. David S. Broder and Stephen H. Hess called it "the most successful national political debut since William Jennings Bryan electrified the 1896 Democratic convention with his famous 'Cross of Gold' address ". In January 1966, Reagan announced his candidacy for the California governorship , repeating his stances on individual freedom and big government . When he met with black Republicans in March, he
19152-1082: The station received by wire as the games were in progress. Simultaneously, he often expressed his opposition to racism. In 1936, while traveling with the Cubs to their spring training in California, Reagan took a screen test that led to a seven-year contract with Warner Bros. Reagan arrived at Hollywood in 1937, debuting in Love Is on the Air (1937). Using a simple and direct approach to acting and following his directors' instructions, Reagan made thirty films, mostly B films , before beginning military service in April 1942. He broke out of these types of films by portraying George Gipp in Knute Rockne, All American (1940), which would be rejuvenated when reporters called Reagan "the Gipper" while he campaigned for president of
19304-445: The tax cuts spur investments, which would result in more spending, consumption, and ergo tax revenue. This theoretical relationship has been illustrated by some with the controversial Laffer curve . Critics labeled this " trickle-down economics ", the belief that tax policies that benefit the wealthy will spread to the poor. Milton Friedman and Robert Mundell argued that these policies invigorated America's economy and contributed to
19456-406: The three previous administrations. Anti-vaccine activism Anti-vaccine activism , which collectively constitutes the " anti-vax " movement , is a set of organized activities proclaiming opposition to vaccination , and these collaborating networks have often fought to increase vaccine hesitancy by disseminating vaccine-based misinformation and/or forms of active disinformation . As
19608-414: The topic of vaccines. Facebook introduced several policies chosen to reduce the impact of anti-vaccine content, without actually removing it. These included reducing the ranking of anti-vaccine sources in searches and not recommending them; rejecting ads and targeted advertising that contained vaccine misinformation; and using banners to present vaccine information from authoritative sources. A study examined
19760-616: The upper tier, and his post-presidential approval ratings by the general public are usually high. Ronald Wilson Reagan was born on February 6, 1911, in an apartment and commercial building in Tampico, Illinois , as the younger son of Nelle Clyde Wilson and Jack Reagan . Nelle was committed to the Disciples of Christ , which believed in the Social Gospel . She led prayer meetings and ran mid-week prayers at her church when
19912-729: The vaccines themselves. Supply-side interventions reduce circulation of misinformation directly at their sources through actions such as application of social media policies, regulation, and legislation. A study published in the journal Vaccine examined advertisements posted in the three months prior to the Facebook's 2019 policy changes. It found that 54% of the anti-vaccine advertisements on Facebook were placed by just two organizations, funded by well-known anti-vaccination activists. The Children's Health Defense / World Mercury Project chaired by Robert F. Kennedy Jr. and Stop Mandatory Vaccination , run by campaigner Larry Cook, posted 54% of
20064-543: The viewership declined in the 1960s and the show was canceled in 1962. In 1965, Reagan became the host of another MCA production, Death Valley Days . Reagan began his political career as a Democrat , viewing Franklin D. Roosevelt as "a true hero". He joined the American Veterans Committee and Hollywood Independent Citizens Committee of the Arts, Sciences and Professions (HICCASP), worked with
20216-707: Was a prominent member of the government advisory team during the COVID-19 pandemic in Slovakia , and was the first person in that country to receive a COVID-19 vaccine . Due to his prominent role in the vaccination campaign, Krčméry and his family became a target of anti-vaccine activists, who physically threatened him and his family. In June 2023, Texas-based physician and researcher Peter Hotez tweeted his concerns about Robert F. Kennedy Jr. sharing misinformation about vaccines on Joe Rogan 's podcast. Rogan, Kennedy, and Twitter owner Elon Musk asked Hotez to participate in
20368-623: Was a victim of hate groups and vested interests" in response to the ruling. Although physicians and nurses are still rated as the most trusted source for vaccine information, some vaccine-hesitant individuals report being more comfortable discussing vaccines with providers of complementary and alternative (CAM) treatments. With the rise of the internet, many people have turned online for medical information. In some instances, anti-vaccine activists seek to steer people away from vaccination and health-care providers and towards alternative medicines sold by certain activists. Anti-vaccination writings on
20520-612: Was active in the working class, labor aristocracy, and lower middle class. It had become associated with alternative medicine and was part of a larger culture of social and political dissent that included both labor unions and religious dissenters. In June 1867, the publication "Human Nature" campaigned in the United Kingdom against "The Vaccination Humbug", reporting that many petitions had been presented to Parliament against Compulsory Vaccination for smallpox , including from parents who alleged that their children had died through
20672-479: Was also ordered to temporary duty in New York City to participate in the sixth War Loan Drive before being reassigned to Fort MacArthur until his discharge on December 9, 1945, as a captain . Throughout his military service, Reagan produced over 400 training films . When Robert Montgomery resigned as president of the Screen Actors Guild (SAG) on March 10, 1947, Reagan was elected to that position in
20824-680: Was an American politician and actor who served as the 40th president of the United States from 1981 to 1989. A member of the Republican Party , he became an important figure in the American conservative movement , and his presidency is known as the Reagan era . Born and raised in Illinois, Reagan graduated from Eureka College in 1932 and was hired the next year as a sports broadcaster in Iowa. In 1937, he moved to California where he became
20976-507: Was complicated by his alcoholism. Reagan had an older brother, Neil . The family lived in Chicago, Galesburg , and Monmouth before returning to Tampico. In 1920, they settled in Dixon, Illinois , living in a house near the H. C. Pitney Variety Store Building . Reagan attended Dixon High School , where he developed interests in drama and football . His first job involved working as
21128-594: Was criticized for opposing the Civil Rights Act of 1964 . Reagan responded that bigotry was not in his nature and later argued that certain provisions of the act infringed upon the rights of property owners. After the Supreme Court of California ruled that the initiative that repealed the Rumford Act was unconstitutional in May, he voiced his support for the act's repeal, but later preferred amending it. In
21280-522: Was described as the "Mecca of antivaccination". The UK movement grew, and as the influence of the London Society overshadowed the Hume-Rotherys and it took the national lead, it was decided in February 1896 to re-form the Society as The National Anti-Vaccination League . Arthur Phelps was elected as president. In 1898, the league took on a school leaver named Lily Loat , who was elected as
21432-506: Was first suggested in the early 1990s and came to public notice largely as a result of the 1998 Lancet MMR autism fraud, which Dennis K Flaherty at the University of Charleston characterized as "perhaps the most damaging medical hoax of the last 100 years". The fraudulent research paper authored by Andrew Wakefield and published in The Lancet falsely claimed the vaccine was linked to colitis and autism spectrum disorders. The paper
21584-417: Was invented by British physician Edward Jenner , who published his findings on the efficacy of the practice for smallpox in 1798. By 1801, the practice had been widely endorsed in the scientific community, and by several world leaders. Philadelphia physician John Redman Coxe , noting that even then false accounts were circulated of negative effects of vaccination, wrote, "Such are the falsehoods which impede
21736-519: Was no longer required in the United Kingdom. New vaccines were developed and used against diseases such as diphtheria and whooping cough . In the UK, these were often introduced on a voluntary basis, without arousing the same kind of anti-vaccination response that had accompanied compulsory smallpox vaccination. In the United States, numerous measles outbreaks occurred in the 1960s and 1970s, and were shown to be more frequent in states that lacked mandatory vaccination requirements. This led to calls in
21888-685: Was oblivious to racial discrimination. After obtaining a Bachelor of Arts degree in economics and sociology from Eureka College in 1932, Reagan took a job in Davenport, Iowa , as a sports broadcaster for four football games in the Big Ten Conference . He then worked for WHO radio in Des Moines as a broadcaster for the Chicago Cubs . His specialty was creating play-by-play accounts of games using only basic descriptions that
22040-491: Was ordered for active duty while he was filming Kings Row . Wasserman and Warner Bros. lawyers successfully sent draft deferments to complete the film in October 1941. However, to avoid accusations of Reagan being a draft dodger , the studio let him go in April 1942. Reagan reported for duty with severe near-sightedness . His first assignment was at Fort Mason as a liaison officer , a role that allowed him to transfer to
22192-464: Was retracted in 2010 but is still cited by anti-vaccine activists. The claims in the paper were widely reported, leading to a sharp drop in vaccination rates in the UK and Ireland. Promotion of the claimed link, which continued in anti-vaccination propaganda for the next three decades despite being refuted, was estimated to have led to an increase in the incidence of measles and mumps , resulting in deaths and serious permanent injuries. Following
22344-480: Was shot by John Hinckley Jr. outside the Washington Hilton . Also struck were: James Brady , Thomas Delahanty , and Tim McCarthy . Although "right on the margin of death" upon arrival at George Washington University Hospital , Reagan underwent surgery and recovered quickly from a broken rib, a punctured lung, and internal bleeding. Professor J. David Woodard says that the assassination attempt "created
22496-479: Was succeeded by Alfred Milnes. Frances Hoggan and her husband authored an article for the Vaccination Inquirer in September 1883 which argued against compulsory vaccination. The London Society focused on lobbying parliamentary support in the 1880s and early 1890s. They gained support from several members of the House of Commons of which the most prominent was Peter Alfred Taylor , the member for Leicester , which
22648-594: Was the League's chief spokesman and pamphleteer. Historian James Colgrove noted that Higgins "attempted to overturn the New York State's law mandating vaccination of students in public schools". The League should not be confused with the Anti-Vaccination Society of America , that was formed in 1879. Higgins was criticized by medical experts for spreading misinformation and ignoring facts as to
22800-636: Was uninterested in politics, and occasionally recriminated, reconciled and separated with him. Although Reagan was unprepared, the divorce was finalized in July 1949. Reagan would also remain close to his children. Later that year, Reagan met Nancy Davis after she contacted him in his capacity as the SAG president about her name appearing on a communist blacklist in Hollywood ; she had been mistaken for another Nancy Davis. They married in March 1952, and had two children, Patti in October 1952, and Ron in May 1958. Reagan has three grandchildren. Reagan became
22952-464: Was unnatural and an attempt to thwart divine judgment. Religious arguments against inoculation , the earliest arguments against vaccination, were soon advanced. For example, in a 1722 sermon entitled "The Dangerous and Sinful Practice of Inoculation", the English theologian Reverend Edmund Massey argued that diseases are sent by God to punish sin and that any attempt to prevent smallpox via inoculation
23104-529: Was widely practiced, and the society published a periodical opposing it, called Vaccination . A series of American legal cases, beginning in various states and culminating with that of Henning Jacobson of Massachusetts in 1905, upheld the mandating of compulsory smallpox vaccination for the good of the public. The court ruled in Jacobson v. Massachusetts that "the liberty secured by the Constitution of
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