Philosophers
122-741: The Emirate of Granada , also known as the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada , was an Islamic polity in the southern Iberian Peninsula during the Late Middle Ages , ruled by the Nasrid dynasty . It was the last independent Muslim state in Western Europe . Muslims had been present in the Iberian Peninsula, which they called Al-Andalus , since 711. By the late 12th century, following the expansion of Christian kingdoms in
244-495: A "madman". He was succeeded by his son, Muhammad V . As Muhammad V was still a minor, state affairs were managed by the hajib (chamberlain) Ridwan, the vizier Ibn al-Khatib , and the commander of the Ghazi s, Yahya ibn Umar ibn Raḥḥu. Together, they maintained a policy of peace with Castile, paying tribute and providing military assistance against Castile's enemies when requested, such as against Aragon in 1359. Muhammad V's reign
366-597: A Castilian counteroffensive had failed and Gibraltar remained in Muslim control thereafter until 1462. On 25 August 1333, Muhammad IV was assassinated by the sons of Uthman ibn Abi al-Ula, who were opposed to his policy of close relations with the Marinids. Muhammad IV was succeeded by his brother, Yusuf I ( r. 1333–1354 ), whose reign would mark the beginning of the Nasrid emirate's golden age. He began by expelling
488-841: A Viking fleet of 100 ships landed in Galicia led by king Gunrod . The Vikings defeated the Galician forces, and killed Sisnando , the bishop of Compostela. The defeat in the Battle of Fornelos left Galicia without an authority capable of facing the Vikings, who for three years camped comfortably, looting different Galician regions. In 971, Gunrod and his Vikings were surprised and defeated by Count Gonzalo Sánchez upon return towards Ría de Ferrol (where they had their stranded ships). The Galician troops captured Gunrod and many of his warriors, executing them all. Sporadic Viking assaults continued in
610-520: A conquest of North Africa. Initially, under the conditions of surrender, the Muslims who remained were guaranteed their property, laws, customs, and religion. This however, did not ensue, causing the Muslims to rebel against their Christian rulers, culminating with an uprising in 1500 . The rebellion was seen as a chance to formally end the Treaty of Granada, withdrawing the rights of Muslims. Muslims in
732-532: A cousin named Abu 'Abd Allah Muhammad, who took the throne as Muhammad VI ( r. 1360–1362 ). While in Fez, Muhammad V was accompanied by Ibn al-Khatib, who remained loyal to him. Both men also met Ibn Khaldun , who supported their cause. Eventually, Muhammad V secured the support he needed from Peter of Castile. With the support of Peter, of Uthman ibn Yahya ibn Raḥḥu (the son of Yahya ibn Umar ibn Raḥḥu), and of another figure named Ali ibn Kumasha, he returned to
854-454: A difficult siege. The siege is also notable for the first recorded use of cannons on the Iberian Peninsula, used in this case by the Muslim defenders. In the long term, the Battle of Rio Salado and the capture of Algeciras put an end to North African military interventions on the Iberian Peninsula, which had been a recurring feature of the conflicts around al-Andalus since the 11th century. This
976-531: A distinctive style within the context of pre-Romanesque art . Noteworthy features include a mix of architectural styles, experimentation with various artistic elements like modillions or horseshoe arches , and the use of mural painting techniques influenced by both Roman and Caliphal styles. In the realm of painting, illuminated manuscripts like the "beatos" exemplify the vibrancy and evolution of Leonese art, incorporating elements from Byzantine-Merovingian influences to an Islamic-Carolingian character. During
1098-570: A full siege and a fresh campaign of conquest. In the end, the Muslim kingdoms of Granada and North Africa did not provide extensive assistance. By 1265, the Castilians were invading the Vega (valley) of Granada and Ibn al-Ahmar was forced to renegotiate peace. By the time the rebellion was over, the surviving Mudéjar inhabitants of Andalucia were mostly expelled and their towns resettled by Christians from other parts of Castile. Ibn al-Ahmar's position
1220-444: A half: Bishop Sisnando of Compostela died fighting him, and his successor St Rudesind carried on the struggle until Count Gonzalo Sánchez defeated the invaders and killed Gunrod himself. Count Sánchez destroyed the entire fleet of Gunrod. In 1008, Norman Vikings attacked Galicia, destroying Santiago de Compostela and seventeen other towns, while Olaf Haraldsson of Norway raided Spain's Atlantic coast. There are also reports of
1342-424: A major defeat for Alfonso VII of Castile weakened the authority of Castile. The last two kings of an independent Kingdom of León (1157–1230) were Ferdinand II and Alfonso IX . Fernando II led León's conquest of Mérida , a city dating from Roman times. Alfonso IX , besides conquering the whole of Extremadura (including the cities of Cáceres and Badajoz ), was the most modern king of his time, founding
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#17327647804461464-460: A major invasion and besieged Granada. In the Battle of the Vega that followed, Granada scored one of its most decisive victories ever against the Castilians. Isma'il I went on to recover some towns, including Baeza and Martos . Isma'il I was assassinated by a cousin in July 1325 and was succeeded by his son, Muhammad IV ( r. 1325–1333 ), who was still a child. During this time, the emirate
1586-547: A member (usually styled emir ) of the royal family, as in Saudi Arabian governorates. Current emirates with political autonomy are listed below: These are the emirates that have either ceased to exist, are not recognized and hold no real power, or were integrated into another country and preserved as "traditional states". They are arranged by location and in order of the date of the first leader styled "emir." Kingdom of Le%C3%B3n Minority The Kingdom of León
1708-488: A more ambitious crusading military policy against Granada. The emirate's position was exacerbated by violent internal confrontations with the Banu Sarraj. This political chaos contributed to the final capture of Gibraltar by Castile in 1462. In the mid-15th century, Castile was preoccupied with several civil conflicts and disputes over succession. Henry IV had only one child, Isabella , who in 1468 married Ferdinand ,
1830-574: A path forward by making or breaking alliances according to circumstances. Muhammad II also made major changes to the army of his emirate. In addition to local recruits, he recruited Zenata Berbers from North Africa, who thenceforth composed the most important element of the army and were known as the Ghazi s , or Warriors of the Faith . Many were political exiles from the Marinid kingdom, including some from
1952-464: A reliable defender of al-Andalus. One of Ibn Hud's foremost military commanders had been a man called Muhammad ibn Yusuf ibn Nasr , commonly known as Ibn al-Ahmar, who was born in Arjona . His position in the army reportedly aroused the envy of others who accused him of planning a coup against Ibn Hud, forcing him to flee to Arjona. Ibn al-Ahmar's origins were likely modest, but he seems to have acquired
2074-670: A reputation for piety and as a successful military leader. With Ibn Hud's position weakened by his defeats, the inhabitants of the Arjona area declared Ibn al-Ahmar as their emir after Friday prayers on 16 July 1232 (26 Ramadan 629 AH ). Ibn al-Ahmar was related to the Nasrids on his father's side and to the Banu Ashqilula on his mother's side. These two families thus formed the initial core of his small army, along with other volunteers and Andalusi soldiers who had previously served
2196-605: A role in inciting the rebellion, but he did support it. The rebellion represents the last serious attempt to reverse the Castilian conquests of the 13th century and break the Christian hold on southern Iberian Peninsula. The conditions for this must have appeared favourable at the time. Ibn al-Ahmar was enjoying good relations with the Hafsids (based in present-day Tunisia ) and the Marinids (based in present-day Morocco), while
2318-586: A series of attacks on the Christian lands of north Spain in 1028, 1032, and 1038, and the Christian kingdoms in the north commonly used Vikings as mercenaries in their internecine wars. The County of Castile split off in 931, the County of Portugal separated to become the independent Kingdom of Portugal in 1139. The Kingdom of León expanded south beyond the Douro , and then beyond the Sistema Central in
2440-572: A state that consists of a federation of seven emirates (the United Arab Emirates ). A great number of previously independent emirates around the world are now part of larger states, as can be seen in Nigeria . Etymologically, emirate or amirate ( Arabic : إمارة imārah , plural: إمارات imārāt ) is the quality, dignity, office, or territorial competence of any emir (prince, commander, governor, etc.). In English,
2562-459: A third period of Taifa kingdoms. Of these leaders, the most powerful was initially Ibn Hud of Murcia ( r. 1228–1238 ), who had rebelled against the last Almohad governors and managed to unite much of what remained of al-Andalus. However, in 1231 Ibn Hud was defeated by the Leónese and lost control of Badajoz and the surrounding area, which compromised his authority and reputation as
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#17327647804462684-732: A while longer in Almería, but any hope of successful resistance ended after the Spanish capture of Baeza in November 1489. He negotiated the surrender of Almería and Guadix and agreed to retire himself to the Alpujarras region, but soon afterwards he abandoned al-Andalus completely. In 1489–90, he sold all his lands and moved to Oran (present-day Algeria ) in North Africa. Only Granada remained under Muslim control by 1490. Boabdil and
2806-501: Is a territory ruled by an emir , a title used by monarchs or high officeholders in the Muslim world . From a historical point of view, an emirate is a political-religious unit smaller than a caliphate . It can be considered equivalent to a principality in non-Muslim contexts. Currently in the world, there are two emirates that are independent states ( Kuwait and Qatar ), one state ruled by an unrecognised emirate ( Afghanistan ), and
2928-478: Is the first of the kings described by the charters as reigning in León. It is generally assumed that the old Asturian kingdom was divided among the three sons of Alfonso III of Asturias : García (León), Ordoño ( Galicia ) and Fruela ( Asturias ), as all three participated in deposing their father. When García died in 914, León went to Ordoño, who now ruled both León and Galicia as Ordoño II. At Ordoño's death in 924,
3050-523: Is traditionally known as Mozarabic art . This artistic expression, rooted in Visigothic and Andalusian traditions, produced structures ranging from modest single-nave churches to elaborate monastic complexes. Key figures, including monarchs and ecclesiastical leaders, played a pivotal role in shaping this art, with a notable infusion of Andalusian tastes. The art of León during the 9th to 11th centuries successfully merged diverse traditions, creating
3172-659: The Real Adelantamiento of the Kingdom of León, and the Merino mayor of León, among others, many of which lasted until the 19th century. The Castilian monarchs, however, soon began a process of unifying the laws of the two kingdoms, as exemplified by the Siete Partidas . By the 16th century, León became a captaincy-general . In the 19th century, León declared war, together with Galicia and Asturias, against
3294-618: The Alcazar in the style of Granada's art and architecture. Muhammad V died in 1391, bringing an end to the Nasrid dynasty's golden years. Until its fall in the late 15th century, the dynasty became embroiled in succession disputes, rivalries, and assassinations. Internal conflicts often revolved around the Banu Sarraj family (known in Spanish sources as the Abencerrajes) and their rivals, who ruthlessly pursued their own interests at
3416-796: The Almoravids in the late 11th century and followed by the Almohads in the mid 12th century. The Almohad regime grew more unstable following the defeat of the Almohads at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212 by a coalition of Christian kingdoms from the north. In 1228, the Almohad caliph Idris al-Ma'mun , wishing to focus on retaining control of the Maghreb (North Africa), decided to abandon al-Andalus. The resultant power vacuum allowed local leaders to carve out their own small states, creating
3538-585: The County of Portugal , had won independence in 1139 to become the Kingdom of Portugal . The union between León and Castile was not accepted by the Leonese people. King Ferdinand III needed two years to suppress the secessionist revolts in the Kingdom of León, so his son Alfonso X restored the independence of the Kingdom of León. However, this was not respected by his son and successor, Sancho IV , whose brother John waited until 1296, following Sancho's death
3660-719: The First French Empire in the Peninsular War , and organised the Junta General del Reino de León as its own government. The modern region of León was established in 1833 and was divided into León, Zamora, and Salamanca provinces. The art of the Kingdom of León, originating in the 10th century and flourishing until the European Romanesque period, is characterized by a unique blend of influences, notably from Al-Andalus , resulting in what
3782-472: The Galician right of inheritance, which granted men and women equality in succession, thus leaving his daughters to be the future queens of León. However, when Alfonso IX died in 1230, his son by Berenguela of Castile , Ferdinand III of Castile , invaded León and assumed the crown. He thus became the first joint sovereign of both kingdoms since the death of Alfonso VII in 1157. The isolated Atlantic province,
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3904-590: The Leonese language 's replacement by Castilian. The Kingdom of León and the Kingdom of Castile kept different Parliaments, different flags, different coin and different laws until the Modern Era, when Spain, like other European states, centralized governmental power. The Kingdom of León coexisted as a personal union under the Crown of Castile , with León possessing separate institutions, such as its own cortes ,
4026-509: The Meseta high plains, with people coming from Galicia and especially from Asturias and León. This migration of Asturian and Leonese peoples greatly influenced the Leonese language . During the repoblación period, there arose a distinct form of art known as Mozarabic art . Mozarabic art is a mixing of Visigoth, Islamic, and Byzantine elements. Notable examples of the Mozarabic style are
4148-534: The Moors . However, León was one of the first cities retaken during the Reconquista and became part of the Kingdom of Asturias in 742. León was a small town during this time, but one of the few former Roman cities in the Kingdom of Asturias which still held significance (the surviving Roman walls bear the medieval walling upon them). During Visigothic times, the city had served as a bishopric , and incorporating
4270-601: The Ottoman sultan Bayezid II ( r. 1481–1512 ). One of the documents that a Christianized Andalusi wrote to the sultan requested his help and described in poor poetry the abuse of the courts of the Inquisition , calling on him to support his defeated brothers. But Bayezid was preoccupied with the disputes of the Ottoman family , so he was content to send a note of protest to the two Catholic monarchs, on which they did not act. Emirate Works An emirate
4392-569: The University of Salamanca in 1212 and summoning in 1188 the first parliament with representation of the citizenry ever seen in Europe, the Cortes of León . Alfonso IX did not want his kingdom to disappear upon his death and designated his heirs as Sancha and Dulce, the daughters of his first wife. In order to maintain the independence of the Kingdom of León, Afonso IX applied in his testament
4514-624: The Zirids on the Albaicín hill to a new citadel he founded on the Sabika hill to the south. This became the Alhambra ( al-Qal'a al-Hamra , the 'Red Citadel'). Despite Ibn al-Ahmar's earlier alliance with Castile, Ferdinand III still attacked and captured Arjona in 1244. In the summer of 1245 he began the siege of Jaén, a more important and well-fortified town. Ibn al-Ahmar initially supported
4636-423: The northern Christian kingdoms was recurrent, while mounting civil strife led to the fragmentation of al-Andalus into smaller Taifa states in the early 11th century. This marked a precipitous decline in the power of Iberian Muslim polities and facilitated the centuries-long Christian Reconquista and the recurrent conquest of al-Andalus by North African dynasties based in what is now Morocco , commencing with
4758-481: The parias of the Taifas. When he died in 1065, his territories and the parias were split among his three sons, of whom Alfonso emerged the victor in the classic fratricidal strife common to feudal successions. Few in Europe would have known of this immense new wealth in a kingdom so isolated that its bishops had virtually no contact with Rome, except that Ferdinand and his heirs (the kings of León and Castile) became
4880-521: The 10th, 11th and 12th centuries into the so-called Extremadura Leonesa , whose southern frontier was primarily settled by military orders . The Kingdom of León became part of a personal union with Kingdom of Castile since the 1230s, in dispute from 1296 to 1300. It remained from then on and up to 1833 a constituent realm of the Crown of Castile and then the Spanish Crown. The city of León
5002-563: The 11th and 12th centuries, the arrival of Romanesque art marked a significant shift in Leonese artistic expression. Masterpieces such as the Basilica of San Isidoro became prominent examples of Romanesque sculpture and painting. This period also laid the foundation for the Romanesque predecessors of the cathedrals of León and Santiago de Compostela . Sculpture, goldsmithing, and heraldry further thrived, with King Alfonso IX pioneering
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5124-733: The Almohads. Other prominent families, such as the Banu 'l-Mawl of Cordoba and the Banu Sinadid of Jaén , joined them over the next years and thereafter remained attached to the Nasrid court. With the Reconquista in full swing, the Christian kingdoms of Castile and Aragon – under kings Ferdinand III and James I , respectively – made major conquests across al-Andalus, which the Taifa kingdoms attempted in vain to resist. Ibn al-Ahmar's new status attracted support from many Muslim towns in
5246-417: The Banu'l-Ula (the family of Uthman ibn Abi al-Ula) from his realm, in revenge for the killing of his brother, and placed another Marinid family member, Yahya ibn Umar ibn Raḥḥu, in charge of the Ghazi s. Alfonso XI remained a threat and the war between Castile and the Marinids and Nasrids continued, culminating in the Battle of Rio Salado in 1340. At sea, the Marinid navy, assisted by Hafsid ships, defeated
5368-508: The Caliphate, the Christian kingdoms, who had been sending tribute to the Caliphate, found themselves in a position to demand payments ( parias ) instead, in return for favours to particular factions or as simple extortion . Thus, though scarcely influenced by the culture of the successor territories of the former Caliphate, Ferdinand I followed the example of the counts of Barcelona and the kings of Aragon and became hugely wealthy from
5490-506: The Castilian fleet, assisted by Catalan ships. On land, however, the combined forces of Castile and Portugal, along with volunteers from elsewhere in Europe, decisively defeated the Marinid and Nasrid forces at the Salado River, near Tarifa. The Christian victory was a major milestone, allowing Castile to capture important towns on the frontier, such as Priego and Alcala la Real in 1342. Castile also captured Algeciras in 1344 after
5612-536: The Castilians, and the Banu Ashqilula joined forces to attack Granada. Muhammad II's forces managed to repel the attack, thanks in large part to the effectiveness of his new Zenata troops. The deaths of Alfonso X in 1284 and of Abu Yusuf in 1286 relieved the pressure on Granada. In 1288, Muhammad II was able to finally expel the last Banu Ashqilula from Guadix, who fled to Morocco. The Marinids, now led by Abu Ya'qub , still retained Tarifa and Algeciras. In 1292,
5734-431: The Castilians. The fall of Seville and the long-term truce with Castile effectively established the political map of the region until the 15th century. The peace allowed the Nasrid emirate to consolidate its territory and build up its governing institutions. While Granada's vassalage is emphasized by Christian sources, in practice Ibn al-Ahmar pledged allegiance to different suzerains at different times, depending on what
5856-590: The Iberian Peninsula completely and focus on his campaigns in the Maghreb instead. He ceded Algeciras and Ronda to the Nasrids, thus restoring some of Granada's former territories. After Sancho IV's death in 1295, Muhammad II spent the rest of his reign going on the offensive against Castile, taking advantage of the weakness of the young new king, Ferdinand IV . He nurtured an alliance with James II of Aragon , raided Castilian territory, and recaptured two frontier forts at Alcaudete and Quesada. After his death in 1302, he
5978-520: The Iberian Peninsula in 1362. Peter and Muhammad V's forces marched on Granada, capturing various towns and the important city of Malaga. With his fortunes turning for the worse, Muhammad VI, reportedly on the advice of his allies, surrendered himself to Peter of Castile and asked for mercy. Peter executed him instead, leaving his ally Muhammad V to reclaim the throne in 1362. After his return to power, Muhammad V continued his policy of peace with Castile and remained pragmatic. Under his rule, Nasrid diplomacy
6100-410: The Iberian Peninsula. However, Sancho III of Navarre (1004–1035) took over Castile in the 1020s, and managed León in the last year of his life, leaving Galicia to temporary independence. In the division of lands which followed his death, his son Fernando succeeded to the county of Castile. Two years later, in 1037, he defeated the king of León who died in the battle and, because Fernando was married to
6222-523: The Leonese churches of San Miguel de Escalada and Santiago de Peñalba . During the early 10th century, León expanded to the south and east, securing territory that became the County of Burgos . Fortified with numerous castles , Burgos remained within Leon until the 930s, at which time Count Ferdinand II of Castile began a campaign to expand Burgos and make it independent and hereditary. He took for himself
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#17327647804466344-429: The Leonese king's sister, he became king of León and Galicia. For nearly 30 years, until his death in 1065, he ruled over the kingdom of León and the county of Castile as Ferdinand I of León . Early in its existence, León lay directly to the north of the powerful Caliphate of Córdoba. When internal dissensions divided Al-Andalus ' loyalties in the 11th century, leading to the age of smaller Taifa successor states of
6466-426: The Marinid family itself, and some were failed rebels against the Marinid sultan Abu Yusuf ( r. 1258–1286 ). Muhammad II's first preoccupation was the Banu Ashqilula, who retained Malaga and even received some recognition from Alfonso X and from Abu Yusuf. He sought assistance from the Marinid sultan and offered him a base on the Iberian Peninsula. Abu Yusuf, who had recently captured Tangier and Ceuta on
6588-467: The Marinids as a greater threat. He made an alliance with Alfonso X and incited the Zayyanids of Tlemcen , led by Yaghmurasan , to attack the Marinids. While Alfonso X blockaded Malaga by sea, Muhammad II convinced the Marinid governor of Malaga to surrender the city to him in 1279. After a Castilian attack against Algeciras failed, however, Alfonso X made peace with the Marinids. In 1281, the Marinids,
6710-411: The Muslim armies in their own territory, Ramiro's expeditions turned the valley of the Douro into a no-man's land that separated Christian kingdoms in the north of Iberia from the Muslim states in the south. Ramiro II was nicknamed "The Devil" by Muslims because of his great military skill. As the Leonese troops advanced they were followed by a process of repoblación , which consisted of repopulating
6832-657: The Muslim population to reorganize themselves politically. After the surrender of Granada, Boabdil remained for a little over a year in a country estate in the mountainous Alpujarras, as lord of Mondújar [ es ] , before leaving for Fez in North Africa. According to al-Maqqari (d. 1632), he died in 1518 or in 1533 and was buried in Fez. Another account, by 16th-century writer Luis del Mármol Carvajal , claims that Boabdil died instead in battle in 1536. Al-Maqqari also reports that in his time (c. 1617), Boabdil's descendants were living in poverty in Fez. About 200,000 Muslims are thought to have emigrated to North Africa after
6954-699: The Muslims in the old territories of Castile to the north, who lived in stable communities and were relatively well-integrated into Castilian society. Instead, it involved the Muslim inhabitants of the Guadalquivir valley and of Castilian Andalucia , for whom the Castilian conquests of the 13th century had represented a major and still recent disruption of their communities. Some of these communities, like those of Murcia and Niebla , had been allowed to govern themselves under Castilian overlordship, while others were subjected to forced displacement and lived under harsher conditions. It's unclear whether Ibn al-Ahmar played
7076-489: The Muslims tried to start a dialogue to mitigate its effects, the authorities insisted on implementing its content. In 1568, a new rebellion broke out, which lasted three years and spread to most of the areas where there was a Muslim presence. The Spanish authorities eventually succeeded in repressing it. As a result of the repression of the Moriscos, some of them requested help from the Muslim sultans and princes, headed by
7198-403: The Nasrid emirate was the last independent Muslim polity in the peninsula. The emirate generally existed as a tributary state of the rising Crown of Castile , though it frequently warred with the latter and with other neighboring states over control of its frontier regions. Despite its precarious position, Granada enjoyed considerable cultural and economic prosperity for over two centuries and
7320-558: The Nasrids attempted to leverage the aid of the North African Marinids to ward off Castile, although Marinid interventions in the peninsula ended after Battle of Rio Salado (1340). The population of the emirate was swelled by Muslim refugees from the territories newly conquered by Castile and Aragon, resulting in a small yet densely-populated territory which was more uniformly Muslim and Arabic-speaking than before. The Alhambra palace complex, which Ibn al-Ahmar founded,
7442-411: The Nasrids became one of the longest-lived Muslim dynasties in the Iberian Peninsula. The famed Alhambra palace complex was built during this period. The population of the emirate, swollen by refugees from the north, was more homogenously Muslim and Arabic -speaking than in earlier Muslim states on the peninsula, with a Jewish minority also present. The political and cultural apogee of Nasrid Granada
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#17327647804467564-483: The Nasrids. Boabdil returned to Granada in 1487, this time with Castilian support, and managed to force al-Zaghal to flee. Once in control, he made initial offers to surrender Granada to Ferdinand and Isabella and he even cooperated at times with the Spanish forces. Meanwhile, al-Zaghal continued to lead a fierce resistance against the Spanish from outside Granada, forcing the Catholic Monarchs to deal with him first. The Siege of Málaga took place from May to August 1487 and
7686-401: The Zayyanid sultan in Tlemcen. When Henry captured Seville in 1366, forcing Peter to flee north, Muhammad V adapted by negotiating a new peace with him. When Peter returned to Seville in 1367, Muhammad V again renewed his loyalty to him. When Peter was assassinated in 1369, leaving Castile in further chaos, Muhammad V took advantage of the situation to recapture Algeciras that year. He destroyed
7808-426: The area were given the choice of expulsion or conversion. Those who remained and officially converted were thereafter known as Moriscos . Philip II of Spain ( r. 1556–1598 ) issued multiple decrees against the Morisco population, including the decree issued in 1563, which prohibited them from carrying arms, and the decree issued in 1566, which prohibited the use of the Arabic language. Philip believed that
7930-460: The city and from then on its former territory became attached to Gibraltar instead. Domestically, Muhammad V eliminated the office of the shaykh al-ghuzat , the chief of the Ghazi s, in 1370, placing the Zenata troops under the direct command of the Nasrid family for the first time. The emirate was relatively free of internal conflict during his second reign. This period also marked the pinnacle of Nasrid culture. The vizier Ibn al-Khatib (d. 1375)
8052-433: The city into Asturias brought legitimacy to the Asturian monarchs who sought to lead a unified Iberian church, during a time when most of the Iberian Peninsula was governed by Muslim powers. León was created as a separate kingdom when the Asturian king, Alfonso the Great , divided his realm among his three sons. León was inherited by García I (910–914) who moved the capital of the kingdom of Astures to León. His successor
8174-418: The city opened its gates to the rebels and Nasr was forced to abdicate and retire to Guadix. Isma'il I ( r. 1314–1325 ) became the new sultan and proved to be an effective ruler. From Guadix, Nasr caused him trouble and secured an alliance with Castile, which was then under the reign of Alfonso XI , a child overseen by two regents, Pedro and Juan. Border conflicts ensued until 1319, when Castile launched
8296-401: The city. After taking direct control of it, he decided to make it his new capital instead of Jaén, as Granada was a more important city in al-Andalus and its location was more strategic: it was geographically more defensible, farther from the Castilian frontier, and had better access to the sea. Additionally, he chose to move the ruler's residence from the Old Citadel ( al-Qasaba al-Qadima ) of
8418-417: The complex today, and commissioned the construction of the Alhambra's main mosque (no longer extant). Muhammad III then set his aims on controlling the Strait of Gibraltar. With the help of Uthman ibn Abi al-Ula , a rebel Marinid prince, he incited a rebellion against the Marinids in Ceuta and in the Gomara Mountains of Morocco. In 1306 or 1307, he captured Ceuta. He secured an alliance with Tlemcen, which
8540-500: The defenders, but in March 1246 he met with Ferdinand and negotiated a new treaty. In the Treaty of Jaén, referred to in Arabic sources as al-silm al-kabir ('the great peace'), Ibn al-Ahmar agreed to surrender Jaén and to become Ferdinand's vassal , while Castile recognized the existence of the Emirate of Granada as a state and agreed to a twenty-year truce. In 1248, Ibn al-Ahmar actively aided Ferdinand in his successful siege of Seville by sending his own military contingent to assist
8662-440: The elder son Ordoño III , who ruled from 951 to 956, suddenly died aged little more than thirty, he was succeeded by his younger half-brother Sancho I "The Fat" (956–966), as Ordoño had failed to produce a legitimate heir. Sancho's son Ramiro had been born in 961 and was only about five years old when his father died. He was also the only legitimate member of the direct family line. His mother Teresa Ansúrez had retired into
8784-479: The end of independent Muslim rule in the Iberian Peninsula. Since the Muslim conquest of 711 , much of the Iberian Peninsula had been under Muslim control. At its greatest geographical extent, Muslim control extended to most of the peninsula and part of present-day southern France . By the 10th century, under the Caliphate of Córdoba , the region was one of the most prosperous and advanced in Europe. Conflict with
8906-455: The expense of the emirate's stability. Externally, the emirate remained at peace during some periods thanks mainly to the fact that Castile continued to struggle with its own internal problems as well. War with Castile did break out between 1405 and 1410, followed by a period of peace until 1428. External wars and internal disputes continued through the 1430s and 1440s. During the early reign of Henry IV ( r. 1454–1474 ), Castile resumed
9028-505: The fall of Granada. It is known that many Muslims emigrated to Morocco after the departure of their emir, and some of them successively emigrated to Egypt and the Levant . For Jews as well, a period of tolerance under Muslim rule in the Iberian Peninsula came to an end with their expulsion by the Christian monarchy in 1492. The Christian conquest of Granada did not extinguish the spirit of the Reconquista . Isabella urged Christians to pursue
9150-524: The fall of Toledo as marking a basic change in relations with the Moorish south, turning from the simple extortion of annual tribute to outright territorial expansion. Alfonso VI was drawn into local politics by strife within Toledo and inherited the political alliances of the city-state. He found himself faced with problems unfamiliar to him, such as appointing and dealing with a Catholic bishop in Toledo and
9272-466: The federation's president and prime minister. As most emirates have either disappeared, been integrated in a larger modern state, or changed their rulers' styles, e.g. to malik (Arabic for "king") or sultan , such true emirate-states have become rare. Furthermore, in Arabic the term can be generalized to mean any province of a country that is administered by a member of the ruling class, especially of
9394-415: The following years, Castile became too preoccupied with internal conflicts to be a serious threat to Granada and a relative peace prevailed on the frontier. Despite the military defeats during his reign, Yusuf I seems to have remained trusted by his subjects and faced no serious internal challenges. Yusuf I was murdered suddenly in 1354 while at prayer in the main mosque of Granada, by a civilian described as
9516-628: The greatest benefactors of the Abbey of Cluny , where Abbot Hugh (died 1109) undertook construction of the huge third abbey church, the cynosure of every eye. The Way of Saint James called pilgrims from Western Europe to the supposed tomb of Saint James the Great in Santiago de Compostela , and the large hostels and churches along the route encouraged building in the Romanesque style. Alfonso VI
9638-499: The king of Castile, Alfonso X , was preoccupied with other matters. Initially, the Marinids even sent a contingent to assist the rebellion, landing at Tarifa . A number of cities fell into Muslim hands, including Jerez , Utrera , Lebrija , Arcos , and Medina Sidonia . Alfonso X also had to contend with revolts by some of the Castilian nobles. However, his forces progressively took back control. In some cases, as in Jerez, this involved
9760-414: The most effective way to solve the problem of the Moriscos lay in confiscating their properties and lands and completely erasing their identity, thus ending their existence as a distinct community. He issued a decree in the year 1567 forbidding them to wear their traditional embroidered clothes, mandating the use of Christian hats and pants, and further prohibited their language, customs and celebrations. When
9882-516: The new Castilian king, Sancho IV , made an alliance with Granada, Tlemcen, and Portugal with the intention to remove the Marinids from the Iberian Peninsula. He captured Tarifa in October 1292. Muhammad II expected the city to be returned to Nasrid control after this, but Sancho IV refused to cede it and the city thus remained under Christian control permanently. When a Marinid attempt to retake Tarifa failed in 1294, Abu Yaq'ub decided to withdraw from
10004-559: The new Marinid sultan, Abu al-Rabi , and solicit his aid in the defense of Algeciras . Both Algeciras and Almería successfully held out until 1310, when the Aragonese retreated. After managing to capture a few frontier forts, Castile's attacks also ended with the death of Ferdinand IV in 1312. In 1312, Nasr's cousin, Isma'il , launched a rebellion with the help of Uthman ibn Abi al-Ula. In response, Nasr sought assistance from Castile, but this only made him more unpopular. In February 1314,
10126-469: The north of Spain even into the 11th century. In 1008, Galicia and the Douro region were attacked, and in 1014 or 1015 a major raid was launched against the city of Tui at the mouth of the Minho River . The Vikings managed to successfully capture the bishop and many of the town's inhabitants. The Knýtlinga saga and Gesta Danorum describe another big raid after this one, in the year 1028. It
10248-481: The north, the area of Muslim control had been reduced to the southern parts of the peninsula governed by the Almohad Caliphate . After Almohad control retreated in 1228, the ambitious Muhammad I Ibn al-Ahmar rose to power and established the Nasrid dynasty in control of a sizeable portion of this territory, roughly corresponding to the modern Spanish provinces of Granada , Almería , and Málaga . By 1250,
10370-421: The peace was often interrupted by wars, after which vassalage was often renewed. The political history of the emirate was turbulent and intertwined with that of its neighbors. The Nasrids sometimes provided refuge or military aid to Castilian kings and noblemen, even against other Muslim states, while in turn the Castilians provided refuge and aid to some Nasrid emirs against other Nasrid rivals. On other occasions
10492-460: The previous year, to be crowned as John I, King of León, Galicia and Seville. In 1301, he abdicated, and the king of Castile assumed the Crown of León, reuniting the two kingdoms. Though the kings of Castile and León initially continued to take the title King of León as the superior title, and to use a lion as part of their standard , power in fact became centralized in Castile, as exemplified by
10614-510: The recently founded monastery of San Pelayo, of which her sister-in-law Elvira was the abbess. Another nun, Sancho's full sister Elvira Ramírez emerged as regent during his long minority. Under the regency of Elvira, fresh raids of the Northmen were repelled from the coast of Galicia. In 968, Gunrod of Norway, the Viking leader, established himself on Galician soil and held out for a year and
10736-400: The region hoping for protection. The Nasrid kingdom thus took shape initially by communities consenting to Ibn al-Ahmar's authority, rather than being submitted by conquest. Jaén, Guadix , and Baeza accepted his authority quickly in 1232, while Almería accepted him 1238 and Malaga did so in 1238 or 1239. Ibn al-Ahmar had more difficulty being recognized in larger cities, where his rule
10858-542: The remaining Nasrid elites negotiated with Ferdinand and Isabella, though little progress was made either way during that year. By 1491, the city itself lay under siege. On 25 November 1491, the Treaty of Granada was signed, setting out the conditions for surrender. On 2 January 1492, Boabdil surrendered Granada to Ferdinand and Isabella. Although some remained, the Castilians encouraged the Nasrid aristocracy to leave for North Africa, as it would likely frustrate any attempts by
10980-525: The restless Castilian nobility against a common enemy and instill subjects with a sense of loyalty to the crown. Granada's successful capture of the Castilian frontier town of Zahara in December 1481 marked the last time it was able to gain ground against Castile. The Granada War began in 1482, with Christian forces capturing Alhama de Granada in February. This was a major Christian victory, as Alhama
11102-466: The same time, internal turmoil rocked the Nasrid state. A coup d'état in March 1309 forced Muhammad III to abdicate in favour of his brother, Nasr ( r. 1309–1314 ). In the summer, Castile captured Gibraltar with the aid of Aragonese ships, Aragon laid siege to Almería , and a rebellion returned Ceuta to Marinid control. With Ceuta no longer under Granada's hold, Nasr was able to make peace with
11224-480: The service of the Nasrids as commander of the Ghazi s, a position which his family continued to hold for much of that century. Abu Thabit died in 1308, before he was able to retake Ceuta from the Nasrids. The Nasrid successes in the Strait of Gibraltar aroused concerns in Castile and Aragon. Ferdinand IV and James II agreed to launch a joint invasion of Granada, planning to divide the Nasrid territories between them. At
11346-437: The settling of garrisons in the small Muslim strongholds, the taifas , which were dependent on Toledo and which often bought the king's favour with gold from their trade with Al-Andalus and the Maghreb . Alfonso VI thus found his role as a Catholic king redefined as he governed large cities with sophisticated urban, Muslim subjects and growing Christian populations. The two kingdoms of León and Castile were split in 1157, when
11468-549: The son of John II of Aragon . By 1479, both Henry IV and John II had died, leaving Isabella and Ferdinand as rulers of a united Castile and Aragon. This was a pivotal turning point, as Granada could no longer play the two kingdoms against each other to ensure its own survival. The new royal couple, known as the Catholic Monarchs , were also united in their intention to conquer the emirate. The war against Granada offered an opportunity for Ferdinand and Isabella to harness
11590-525: The southern side of the Strait of Gibraltar , thus occupied Algeciras and Tarifa in 1275, along with Ronda further inland. While he conducted damaging raids into Christian territory, he invited both Muhammad II and the Banu Ashqilula leaders ( Abu Muhammad ibn Ashqilula of Malaga and Abu Ishaq of Guadix) to join him. In 1278, the Banu Ashqilula decided to give Malaga to Abu Yusuf, who now occupied this city as well. By now, Muhammad II felt disillusioned and saw
11712-551: The successful siege of Teba in 1330. Muhammad IV reacted to the Castilian victories by seeking an alliance with the Marinids, to whom he ceded Ronda and Algeciras again in 1327 and 1328, respectively, to use as a base. In 1332, he visited Fez to personally seek the intervention of the Marinid sultan, Abu al-Hasan ( r. 1331–1348 ), against Castile. Abu al-Hasan pledged his support and sent an army to Algeciras in 1333. It besieged Gibraltar and captured it in June. By August,
11834-557: The term is pronounced / ˈ ɛ m ər ə t , - ɪər -, - ɪ t , - eɪ t / or / ɛ ˈ m ɪər ə t , - ɪ t , - eɪ t , i ˈ -/ in British English and / ˈ ɛ m ər ə t / or / ɪ ˈ m ɪər ə t / in American English. The United Arab Emirates is a federal state that comprises seven federal emirates, each administered by a hereditary emir, these seven forming the electoral college for
11956-614: The throne went to his brother Fruela II (924–925), who died of leprosy a year later. Fruela's death in 925 was followed by a civil war, after which Alfonso, the eldest son of Ordoño II, emerged as the new king Alfonso IV , ruling from 925 to 932. After a further power struggle, Ramiro , the younger brother of Alfonso IV, became king in 932, having captured his brother Alfonso, as well as the three sons of Fruela II – Alfonso, Ordoño and Ramiro. Alfonso IV may have died soon after, but he left two infant sons, called Ordoño and Fruela. When Ramiro died in 951, he left two sons by two different wives. When
12078-399: The title Count of Castile, in reference to the many castles of the territory (around Burgos), and continued expanding his area at the expense of León by allying with the Caliphate of Córdoba , until 966, when he was defeated by Sancho I of León . Sancho I died towards the end of 966 and five year old Ramiro III (966–982) ascended to the throne of León. In the second year of his reign, 968,
12200-552: The war effort. Meanwhile, civil war erupted in Granada as a result of succession struggles in the Nasrid ruling house, which undermined any focused resistance to the Spanish advance. In July 1482, Muhammad XII , known as Boabdil to the Christians, led a successful coup against his father, Abu'l Hasan . Abu'l Hasan, a capable military leader, was forced to flee to Malaga and the emirate was divided between him and his son. Boabdil
12322-416: Was Ordoño II of León (914–924). Ordoño II was also a military leader who brought expeditions from León south to Seville , Córdoba , and Guadalajara , in the heart of the Muslim territory. After a few years of civil wars during the reigns of Fruela II , Alfonso Fróilaz and Alfonso IV , Ramiro II (931–951) assumed the throne and brought stability to the kingdom. A brave military commander who defeated
12444-728: Was a major figure of literature, as was his successor, Ibn Zamrak (d. 1392). In the Alhambra, Muhammad V undertook major construction projects, including the Palace of the Lions . For the general population in the city, he sponsored the construction of a hospital ( maristan ), the Maristan of Granada , between 1365 and 1367. His reign was also a high point of cultural exchange with the Castilian court of Peter in Seville, who built his palace in
12566-591: Was an independent kingdom situated in the northwest region of the Iberian Peninsula . It was founded in 910 when the Christian princes of Asturias along the northern coast of the peninsula shifted their capital from Oviedo to the city of León . The kings of León fought civil wars, wars against neighbouring kingdoms, and campaigns to repel invasions by both the Moors and the Vikings , all in order to protect their kingdom's changing fortunes. García
12688-500: Was exceptionally effective, even amidst the convoluted politics of the Iberian Peninsula in this era. The ongoing Castilian Civil War meant that Castile was not in a position to threaten Granada. Muhammad V initially supported Peter, his former ally, against his rival, Henry of Trastámara . He sent troops to help Peter, which provoked Henry's Aragonese allies into attacking Granadan ships at sea. Muhammad V, in turn, used these Christian attacks to solicit materials and funds from Musa II ,
12810-675: Was founded by the Legio VII Gemina ("twin seventh legion") of the Roman Empire . It was the headquarters of that legion in the Late Roman Empire and was a centre for trade in gold , which was mined at Las Médulas nearby. In 569, the city was conquered by the Arian Visigothic king Liuvigild , who did not harass the already well-established Catholic population. In 717, León fell again, this time to
12932-445: Was further threatened by the rebellion of the Banu Ashqilula in 1266. The latter were probably alienated by his decision to establish a line of succession through his sons Muhammad and Yusuf, which would distance them from the throne. They occupied Malaga and turned to Alfonso X for aid. Granada and Castile became embroiled in conflict and in each other's affairs, with Ibn al-Ahmar also supporting new Castilian rebels in 1272. The situation
13054-417: Was his ally. In Granada, which was under the authority of Ibn Hud, the local Banu Khalid family led a propaganda campaign on behalf of the Nasrids. A revolt successfully stormed the city's citadel on 17 April 1238 (1 Ramadan 635 AH). Ibn al-Ahmar was then officially declared the new ruler with the help of Abu l-Hasan Ali al-Ru'ayni, a former secretary of Ibn Hud. On hearing of this, Ibn al-Ahmar quickly came to
13176-477: Was in the 14th century, particularly in the second reign of Muhammad V . After this period, internal dynastic conflicts escalated. After 1479, Granada faced a united Castile and Aragon under the Catholic Monarchs intent on conquering it. In 1491, after the decade-long Granada War , the emirate was forced to capitulate . Muhammad XII , the last Nasrid ruler, formally surrendered Granada in January 1492, marking
13298-519: Was interrupted by a palace coup in August 1359 that placed his half-brother, Isma'il II ( r. 1359–1360 ), on the throne. Muhammad V escaped to Guadix, where he had support from the local garrison, but was unable to rally further support from Almería or from Peter I , the Castilian king. He moved on and took refuge at the court of the Marinid ruler Abu Salim in Fez. Isma'il II was soon assassinated in June 1360 by one of his former co-conspirators,
13420-448: Was led by Ulv Galiciefarer , who tried to go to the Riá de Arousa area and then became a mercenary for Rodrigo Romániz, but was defeated by the bishop of Compostela. The last recorded raids occurred during the period 1047–1066 when Cresconius , the bishop of Compostela, fought and won several battles against the Vikings. The Kingdom of León continued to be the most important of all those of
13542-467: Was located in the heart of the emirate, on the road between Granada and the emirate's second city, Malaga. This marked the beginning of a grinding 10-year war. The Christian force was made up of troops provided by Castilian nobles, towns, and the Santa Hermandad , as well as Swiss mercenaries. The Catholic Church also encouraged other Christian countries to offer their troops and their finances to
13664-445: Was not resolved by the time Ibn al-Ahmar died in 1273 and was succeeded by his son, Muhammad II ( r. 1273–1302 ). During Muhammad II's reign a long-term pattern of diplomacy and geopolitical competition became evident, with the Nasrids, Castilians, and Marinids each playing with or against each other at various times. Each of these dynasties was also faced by other internal and external enemies. The Nasrids thus sought to forge
13786-500: Was one of the most difficult and prolonged engagements of the war. The strongly-fortified city put up a vigorous resistance, led by one of al-Zaghal's commanders, while Boabdil continued to stand back or actively help the Catholic Monarchs. Because the city resisted, its inhabitants were given little mercy and either killed or enslaved, which encouraged other Muslim towns to surrender more quickly after this. Al-Zaghal held out
13908-523: Was one of the most important kings of León of the Middle Ages . He assumed control of first León, and later Castile and Galicia, when his brother died attacking the Leonese city of Zamora . He was crowned Emperor of Spain over all the kings of the Iberian Peninsula. The 1085 taking of Toledo by Alfonso VI of León was seen as an epochal event in medieval Iberia, as Toledo was the first major Andalusi city conquered by Christians. Modern historians see
14030-458: Was partly due also to the weakness of the Marinid state, which suffered from internal disarray in the second half of the 14th century. Spurred by his successes, Alfonso XI went on to begin a new siege of Gibraltar in 1349, but the following year he died from the Black Death that was sweeping through the region. After his death, the siege ended, leaving Gibraltar under Marinid control. Over
14152-488: Was progressively expanded under his successors. Ibn al-Ahmar reigned with relative peace and stability until 1264, when the Mudéjar revolt took place in Castile, lasting until 1266. Mudéjar is a term used to refer to the Muslims who lived under the rule of the Christian kingdoms at this time, among whom different communities lived under different circumstances. The rebellion of 1264 was wide-ranging but it did not involve
14274-586: Was seen as too harsh. Cordoba accepted him in 1232 for a few months and Seville accepted him for only a month in 1234. He was temporarily forced to acknowledge the authority of Ibn Hud again in 1234, in return for the latter's recognition of his authority over Arjona and Jaén. Towards 1236, the Castilian offensive intensified and the strategic situation became increasingly precarious for al-Andalus. On multiple occasions, Ibn al-Ahmar responded by aligning himself with Ferdinand III, even against other Muslim rulers. When Ferdinand conquered Cordoba in 1236 , Ibn al-Ahmar
14396-435: Was shaken by more internal turmoil, due in particular to the intrigues of the Ghazi s, led by Uthman ibn Abi al-Ula and his family. In 1327–28, they assassinated the vizier , Ibn Mahruq, and took effective control of the young emir. Meanwhile, Alfonso XI, now grown up, was eager to establish himself as a crusader . Aided by volunteers from Northern Europe , he led his army on multiple offensives against Granada, culminating in
14518-530: Was subsequently captured by the Castilians in 1483 and was only released after making major concessions that undermined his credibility in Granada. He agreed to resettle in Guadix while his father resumed control of Granada. Abu'l Hasan died in 1485, shortly after abdicating to his brother, Muhammad ibn Sa'd (Muhammad XIII) , known as al-Zaghal. After this, the Spanish campaigns continued unabated and made slow but steady progress, while internal strife continued among
14640-466: Was succeeded by his son, Muhammad III ( r. 1302–1309 ), who largely continued the same policies. Eventually, when Ferdinand IV solidified his control over his kingdom in 1306, Muhammad III changed diplomatic direction by making peace with him and resuming tribute payments to Castile. At the Alhambra, Muhammad III erected the Partal Palace , which is the oldest palace still standing within
14762-661: Was tactically advantageous. Aside from Ibn Hud in 1234, on subsequent occasions he also declared his allegiance to the Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad (before 1244), to the Almohad caliph Abd al-Wahid II al-Rashid (also before 1244), and to the Hafsids in Tunis (in 1242 and 1264). Arabic sources do not mention his vassalage to Castile. In the long-term, the Treaty of Jaén still formed a basis for Nasrid relations with Castile, but
14884-496: Was under a Marinid siege at the time, and proceeded to occupy Asilah , Larache , and Ksar es-Seghir along the Moroccan coast. When the Marinid sultan Abu Ya'qub died in 1307, Uthman ibn Abi al-Ula declared himself sultan in his stead, but his bid for the throne failed as Abu Thabit , Abu Ya'qub's grandson, lifted the siege of Tlemcen and returned to retake Asilah and Ksar es-Seghir. Uthman took refuge in Granada and entered into
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