163-691: Newark has long been the largest city in New Jersey . Founded in 1666, it greatly expanded during the Industrial Revolution , becoming the commercial and cultural hub of the region . Its population grew with various waves of migration in the mid 19th century, peaking in 1950. It suffered greatly during the era of urban decline and suburbanization in the late 20th century. Since the millennium it has benefited from interest and re-investment in America's cities, recording population growth in
326-409: A Massachusetts transplant named Seth Boyden . Boyden came to Newark in 1815, and immediately began a torrent of improvements to leather manufacture, culminating in the process for making patent leather . Boyden's genius led to Newark's manufacturing nearly 90% of the nation's leather by 1870, bringing in $ 8.6 million in revenue to the city in that year alone. In 1824, Boyden, bored with leather, found
489-434: A body-centered cubic (bcc) crystal structure . As it cools further to 1394 °C, it changes to its γ-iron allotrope, a face-centered cubic (fcc) crystal structure, or austenite . At 912 °C and below, the crystal structure again becomes the bcc α-iron allotrope. The physical properties of iron at very high pressures and temperatures have also been studied extensively, because of their relevance to theories about
652-430: A nuclear spin (− 1 ⁄ 2 ). The nuclide Fe theoretically can undergo double electron capture to Cr, but the process has never been observed and only a lower limit on the half-life of 4.4×10 years has been established. Fe is an extinct radionuclide of long half-life (2.6 million years). It is not found on Earth, but its ultimate decay product is its granddaughter, the stable nuclide Ni . Much of
815-499: A supernova for their formation, involving rapid neutron capture by starting Fe nuclei. In the far future of the universe, assuming that proton decay does not occur, cold fusion occurring via quantum tunnelling would cause the light nuclei in ordinary matter to fuse into Fe nuclei. Fission and alpha-particle emission would then make heavy nuclei decay into iron, converting all stellar-mass objects to cold spheres of pure iron. Iron's abundance in rocky planets like Earth
978-498: A black majority, a faster turnover than most other northern cities had experienced. Evaluating the riots of 1967 , Newark educator Nathan Wright, Jr. said, "No typical American city has as yet experienced such a precipitous change from a white to a black majority." The misfortune of the Great Migration and Puerto Rican migration was that Southern blacks and Puerto Ricans were moving to Newark to be industrial workers just as
1141-582: A colony with strict church rules similar to the one they had established in Milford, Connecticut . Treat wanted to name the community "Milford." Another settler, Abraham Pierson , had previously been a preacher in England's Newark-on-Trent , and adopted the name; he is also quoted as saying that the community reflecting the new task at hand should be named "New Ark" for "New Ark of the Covenant ." The name
1304-513: A compromise bill that would have extended the status for two years. In May 2018, Governor Phil Murphy signed a law that reinstated the program in these five cities and extended the expiration date in other zones. Newark is one of nine cities in New Jersey designated as eligible for Urban Transit Hub Tax Credits by the state's Economic Development Authority . Developers who invest a minimum of $ 50 million within 0.5 miles (0.8 km) of
1467-478: A decline of nearly 40% as residents moved to surrounding suburbs. White flight from Newark to the suburbs started in the 1940s and accelerated in the 1960s, due in part to the construction of the Interstate Highway System . The 1967 riots resulted in a significant population loss of the city's middle class, many of them Jewish , which continued from the 1970s through to the 1990s. On net,
1630-533: A developer of an aeroponic technology for farming moved its headquarters from Finger Lakes to Newark. By 2016, it had built the world's largest vertical farm in a Newark warehouse. The company was recognized in 2019 by Fast Company as one of the world's most innovative companies in data science . Broadridge Financial Solutions , a public FinTech company, announced a relocation of 1,000 jobs to Newark in 2017. In 2021, WebMD , an online publisher, announced that it will relocate and create up to 700 new jobs in
1793-454: A distorted sodium chloride structure. The binary ferrous and ferric halides are well-known. The ferrous halides typically arise from treating iron metal with the corresponding hydrohalic acid to give the corresponding hydrated salts. Iron reacts with fluorine, chlorine, and bromine to give the corresponding ferric halides, ferric chloride being the most common. Ferric iodide is an exception, being thermodynamically unstable due to
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#17327718653201956-495: A higher percentage of its residents in public housing than any other American city. The largely Italian-American First Ward was one of the hardest hit by urban renewal. A 46-acre (19 hectare) housing tract, labeled a slum because it had dense older housing, was torn down for multi-story, multi-racial Le Corbusier -style high rises, named the Christopher Columbus Homes. The tract had contained 8th Avenue,
2119-400: A household in 2000 was $ 26,913, and the median income for a family was $ 30,781. Males had a median income of $ 29,748 versus $ 25,734 for females. The per capita income for the city was $ 13,009. 28.4% of the population and 25.5% of families were below the poverty line. 36.6% of those under the age of 18 and 24.1% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line. The city's unemployment rate
2282-470: A jump of 200,000 in three decades. As Newark's population approached a half million in the 1920s, the city's potential seemed limitless. It was said in 1927: "Great is Newark's vitality. It is the red blood in its veins – this basic strength that is going to carry it over whatever hurdles it may encounter, enable it to recover from whatever losses it may suffer and battle its way to still higher achievement industrially and financially, making it eventually perhaps
2445-553: A macroscopic piece of iron will have a nearly zero overall magnetic field. Application of an external magnetic field causes the domains that are magnetized in the same general direction to grow at the expense of adjacent ones that point in other directions, reinforcing the external field. This effect is exploited in devices that need to channel magnetic fields to fulfill design function, such as electrical transformers , magnetic recording heads, and electric motors . Impurities, lattice defects , or grain and particle boundaries can "pin"
2608-428: A major courthouse venue including federal, state, and county facilities, it is home to more than 1,000 law firms. The city also has a significant number of college students, with nearly 50,000 attending the city's universities and medical and law schools. Its airport, maritime port, rail facilities, and highway network make Newark the busiest transshipment hub on the U.S. East Coast in terms of volume. Though Newark
2771-424: A matter of concern, as much of it was older. A 1944 city-commissioned study showed that 31 percent of all Newark dwelling units were below standards of health, and only 17 percent of Newark's units were owner-occupied. Vast sections of Newark consisted of wooden tenements, and at least 5,000 units failed to meet thresholds of being a decent place to live. Bad housing was the cause of demands that government intervene in
2934-475: A mixture of O 2 /Ar. Iron(IV) is a common intermediate in many biochemical oxidation reactions. Numerous organoiron compounds contain formal oxidation states of +1, 0, −1, or even −2. The oxidation states and other bonding properties are often assessed using the technique of Mössbauer spectroscopy . Many mixed valence compounds contain both iron(II) and iron(III) centers, such as magnetite and Prussian blue ( Fe 4 (Fe[CN] 6 ) 3 ). The latter
3097-517: A more recent designation for the area that was the subject of the 1968 novel Howard Street by Nathan Heard , is still in common usage. The Central Ward extends at one point as far north as 2nd Avenue. In the 19th century, the Central Ward was inhabited by Germans and other white Catholic and Protestant groups. The German inhabitants were later replaced by Jews , who were then replaced by African Americans. The increased academic footprint in
3260-585: A population of 304,960 for 2023, making it the 66th-most populous municipality in the nation. Settled in 1666 by Puritans from New Haven Colony , Newark is one of the oldest cities in the United States. Its location at the mouth of the Passaic River , where it flows into Newark Bay , has made the city's waterfront an integral part of the Port of New York and New Jersey . Port Newark–Elizabeth
3423-573: A reduced 3.3125% sales tax rate (half of the 6 + 5 ⁄ 8 % rate charged statewide) at eligible merchants. Established in January 1986, the city's Urban Enterprise Zone status expires in December 2023. The UEZ program in Newark and four other original UEZ cities had been allowed to lapse as of January 1, 2017, after Governor Chris Christie , who called the program an "abject failure", vetoed
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#17327718653203586-471: A result, mercury is traded in standardized 76 pound flasks (34 kg) made of iron. Iron is by far the most reactive element in its group; it is pyrophoric when finely divided and dissolves easily in dilute acids, giving Fe . However, it does not react with concentrated nitric acid and other oxidizing acids due to the formation of an impervious oxide layer, which can nevertheless react with hydrochloric acid . High-purity iron, called electrolytic iron ,
3749-789: A result, that year the United States Census Bureau declared Newark "the nation's unhealthiest city". Newark was bustling in the early-to-mid-20th century. Market and Broad Streets served as a center of retail commerce for the region, anchored by four flourishing department stores: Hahne & Company , Bambergers and Company, S. Klein and Kresge-Newark . "Broad Street today is the Mecca of visitors as it has been through all its long history," Newark merchants boasted, "they come in hundreds of thousands now when once they came in hundreds." In 1922, Newark had 63 live theaters, 46 movie theaters, and an active nightlife. Dutch Schultz
3912-407: A strategic location for data transfer between Manhattan and the rest of the country during the dot-com boom . At the same time, the city encouraged those companies to install more than they needed. A vacant department store was converted into a telecommunication center called 165 Halsey Street . It became one of the world's largest carrier hotels . As a result, after the dot-com bust, there were
4075-533: A substantial portion of the middle class. Sunni , Shia and Ahmadiyya Muslims are the largest Islamic denominational demographic, though some Muslims in the area may be Quranists . Most Sunni mosques are members of the Islamic Society of North America . The Nation of Islam had a former mosque in Newark presided by Louis Farrakhan . A little over 1.2% practiced an eastern religion including Sikhism , Hinduism , and Buddhism . The remainder of Newark
4238-423: A surplus of dark fiber (unused fiber optic cables). Twenty years later, the city and other private companies began utilizing the dark fiber to create high performance networks within the city. Iron Iron is a chemical element ; it has the symbol Fe (from Latin ferrum 'iron') and atomic number 26. It is a metal that belongs to the first transition series and group 8 of
4401-461: A taxi driver named John Smith was violently injured while respectfully accepting arrest. A crowd gathered outside the police station where Smith was detained. Due to miscommunication, the crowd believed Smith had died in custody, although he had been transported to a hospital via a back entrance to the station. This sparked scuffles between African Americans and police in the Fourth Ward, although
4564-408: A train station are eligible for pro-rated tax credit . The technology industry in Newark has grown significantly after Audible , an online audiobook and podcast company, moved its headquarters to Newark in 2007. The company was later acquired by Amazon . Panasonic moved its North America headquarters to the city in 2013. Other technology-focus companies followed suit. In 2015, AeroFarms ,
4727-455: A type of rock consisting of repeated thin layers of iron oxides alternating with bands of iron-poor shale and chert . The banded iron formations were laid down in the time between 3,700 million years ago and 1,800 million years ago . Materials containing finely ground iron(III) oxides or oxide-hydroxides, such as ochre , have been used as yellow, red, and brown pigments since pre-historical times. They contribute as well to
4890-435: A very large coordination and organometallic chemistry : indeed, it was the discovery of an iron compound, ferrocene , that revolutionalized the latter field in the 1950s. Iron is sometimes considered as a prototype for the entire block of transition metals, due to its abundance and the immense role it has played in the technological progress of humanity. Its 26 electrons are arranged in the configuration [Ar]3d 4s , of which
5053-623: A way to produce malleable iron . Newark also prospered by the construction of the Morris Canal in 1831. The canal connected Newark with the New Jersey hinterland, at that time a major iron and farm area. Railroads arrived in 1834 and 1835. A flourishing shipping business resulted, and Newark became the area's industrial center. By 1826, Newark's population stood at 8,017, ten times the 1776 number. The middle 19th century saw continued growth and diversification of Newark's industrial base. The first commercially successful plastic — Celluloid —
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5216-427: A whole remains ethnically diverse. The West Ward comprises the neighborhoods of Vailsburg , Ivy Hill , West Side , Fairmount and Lower Roseville . It is home to the historic Fairmount Cemetery . The West Ward, once a predominantly Irish-American, Polish, and Ukrainian neighborhood, is now home to neighborhoods composed primarily of Latinos, African Americans, and Caribbean Americans . Relative to other parts of
5379-449: Is 31.5 inches (80 cm), though variations in weather patterns may bring sparse snowfall in some years and several major nor'easters in others, with the heaviest 24-hour fall of 25.9 inches (66 cm) occurring on December 26, 1947. Spring and autumn in the area are generally unstable yet mild. The July daily mean is 78.2 °F (25.7 °C), and highs exceed 90 °F (32 °C) on an average 28.3 days per year, not factoring in
5542-739: Is a destination for shopping, dining, and nightlife. A historically immigrant-dominated section of the city, the Ironbound in recent decades has been termed "Little Portugal" and "Little Brazil" due to its heavily Portuguese and Brazilian population, Newark being home to one of the largest Portuguese speaking communities in the United States. In addition, the East Ward has become home to various Latin Americans , especially Ecuadorians, Peruvians, and Colombians, alongside Puerto Ricans, African Americans, and commuters to Manhattan . Public education in
5705-646: Is also rarely found in basalts that have formed from magmas that have come into contact with carbon-rich sedimentary rocks, which have reduced the oxygen fugacity sufficiently for iron to crystallize. This is known as telluric iron and is described from a few localities, such as Disko Island in West Greenland, Yakutia in Russia and Bühl in Germany. Ferropericlase (Mg,Fe)O , a solid solution of periclase (MgO) and wüstite (FeO), makes up about 20% of
5868-407: Is considered to be resistant to rust, due to its oxide layer. Iron forms various oxide and hydroxide compounds ; the most common are iron(II,III) oxide (Fe 3 O 4 ), and iron(III) oxide (Fe 2 O 3 ). Iron(II) oxide also exists, though it is unstable at room temperature. Despite their names, they are actually all non-stoichiometric compounds whose compositions may vary. These oxides are
6031-498: Is divided into five political wards , which are often used by residents to identify their place of habitation. In recent years, residents have begun to identify with specific neighborhood names instead of the larger ward appellations. Nevertheless, the wards remain relatively distinct. Industrial uses, coupled with the airport and seaport lands, are concentrated in the East and South wards, while residential neighborhoods exist primarily in
6194-836: Is dominated by the Church of God in Christ and Assemblies of God USA . 0.9% of Christians in the city and nearby suburbs identify as Anglican or Episcopalian . Most are served by the Newark Diocese of the Episcopal Church in the United States . The remainder identified with Continuing Anglican or Evangelical Episcopal bodies including the Reformed Episcopal Church and Anglican Church in North America . ACNA and REC-affiliated churches form
6357-499: Is due to its abundant production during the runaway fusion and explosion of type Ia supernovae , which scatters the iron into space. Metallic or native iron is rarely found on the surface of the Earth because it tends to oxidize. However, both the Earth's inner and outer core , which together account for 35% of the mass of the whole Earth, are believed to consist largely of an iron alloy, possibly with nickel . Electric currents in
6520-474: Is experimentally well defined for pressures less than 50 GPa. For greater pressures, published data (as of 2007) still varies by tens of gigapascals and over a thousand kelvin. Below its Curie point of 770 °C (1,420 °F; 1,040 K), α-iron changes from paramagnetic to ferromagnetic : the spins of the two unpaired electrons in each atom generally align with the spins of its neighbors, creating an overall magnetic field . This happens because
6683-909: Is headquartered in the city. Its episcopal seat is the Cathedral Basilica of the Sacred Heart . Eastern Catholics in the area are served by the Syriac Catholic Eparchy of Our Lady of Deliverance of Newark , an eparchy of the Syriac Catholic Church , and by the Ukrainian Catholic Archeparchy of Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . Baptist churches in Newark are affiliated with the American Baptist Churches USA , Progressive National Baptist Convention ,
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6846-494: Is in Earth's crust only amounts to about 5% of the overall mass of the crust and is thus only the fourth most abundant element in that layer (after oxygen , silicon , and aluminium ). Most of the iron in the crust is combined with various other elements to form many iron minerals . An important class is the iron oxide minerals such as hematite (Fe 2 O 3 ), magnetite (Fe 3 O 4 ), and siderite (FeCO 3 ), which are
7009-516: Is in the South Ward, as are seventeen public schools, five daycare centers, three branch libraries, one police precinct, a mini-precinct, and three fire houses. The East Ward consists of much of Newark's Downtown commercial district, as well as the Ironbound neighborhood, where much of Newark's industry was in the 19th century. Today, the Ironbound (also known as "Down Neck" and "The Neck")
7172-401: Is not like that of Mn with its weak, spin-forbidden d–d bands, because Fe has higher positive charge and is more polarizing, lowering the energy of its ligand-to-metal charge transfer absorptions. Thus, all the above complexes are rather strongly colored, with the single exception of the hexaquo ion – and even that has a spectrum dominated by charge transfer in the near ultraviolet region. On
7335-475: Is not the industrial colossus of the past, the city does have a considerable amount of industry and light manufacturing. The southern portion of the Ironbound , also known as the Industrial Meadowlands, has seen many factories built since World War II , including a large Anheuser-Busch brewery that opened in 1951 and distributed 7.5 million barrels of beer in 2007. Grain comes into
7498-543: Is now the intersection of Broad Street and Market Street, also known as "Four Corners." The total control of the community by the Puritan Church continued until 1733 when Josiah Ogden harvested wheat on a Sunday following a lengthy rainstorm and was disciplined by the Church for Sabbath breaking . He left the church and corresponded with Episcopalian missionaries, who arrived to build a church in 1746 and broke up
7661-407: Is possible, but nonetheless the sequence does effectively end at Ni because conditions in stellar interiors cause the competition between photodisintegration and the alpha process to favor photodisintegration around Ni. This Ni, which has a half-life of about 6 days, is created in quantity in these stars, but soon decays by two successive positron emissions within supernova decay products in
7824-548: Is somewhat different). Pieces of magnetite with natural permanent magnetization ( lodestones ) provided the earliest compasses for navigation. Particles of magnetite were extensively used in magnetic recording media such as core memories , magnetic tapes , floppies , and disks , until they were replaced by cobalt -based materials. Iron has four stable isotopes : Fe (5.845% of natural iron), Fe (91.754%), Fe (2.119%) and Fe (0.282%). Twenty-four artificial isotopes have also been created. Of these stable isotopes, only Fe has
7987-442: Is such a strong oxidizing agent that it oxidizes ammonia to nitrogen (N 2 ) and water to oxygen: The pale-violet hex aquo complex [Fe(H 2 O) 6 ] is an acid such that above pH 0 it is fully hydrolyzed: As pH rises above 0 the above yellow hydrolyzed species form and as it rises above 2–3, reddish-brown hydrous iron(III) oxide precipitates out of solution. Although Fe has a d configuration, its absorption spectrum
8150-502: Is supposed to have an orthorhombic or a double hcp structure. (Confusingly, the term "β-iron" is sometimes also used to refer to α-iron above its Curie point, when it changes from being ferromagnetic to paramagnetic, even though its crystal structure has not changed. ) The inner core of the Earth is generally presumed to consist of an iron- nickel alloy with ε (or β) structure. The melting and boiling points of iron, along with its enthalpy of atomization , are lower than those of
8313-457: Is the primary container shipping terminal of the busiest seaport on the U.S. East Coast . Newark Liberty International Airport was the first municipal commercial airport in the United States and has become one of the busiest. Several companies are headquartered in Newark, including Prudential , PSEG , Panasonic Corporation of North America , Audible.com , IDT Corporation , Manischewitz , and AeroFarms . Higher education institutions in
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#17327718653208476-418: Is thus very important economically, and iron is the cheapest metal, with a price of a few dollars per kilogram or pound. Pristine and smooth pure iron surfaces are a mirror-like silvery-gray. Iron reacts readily with oxygen and water to produce brown-to-black hydrated iron oxides , commonly known as rust . Unlike the oxides of some other metals that form passivating layers, rust occupies more volume than
8639-451: Is used as the traditional "blue" in blueprints . Iron is the first of the transition metals that cannot reach its group oxidation state of +8, although its heavier congeners ruthenium and osmium can, with ruthenium having more difficulty than osmium. Ruthenium exhibits an aqueous cationic chemistry in its low oxidation states similar to that of iron, but osmium does not, favoring high oxidation states in which it forms anionic complexes. In
8802-437: Is used in chemical actinometry and along with its sodium salt undergoes photoreduction applied in old-style photographic processes. The dihydrate of iron(II) oxalate has a polymeric structure with co-planar oxalate ions bridging between iron centres with the water of crystallisation located forming the caps of each octahedron, as illustrated below. Iron(III) complexes are quite similar to those of chromium (III) with
8965-568: The 2nd millennium BC and the use of iron tools and weapons began to displace copper alloys – in some regions, only around 1200 BC. That event is considered the transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age . In the modern world , iron alloys, such as steel , stainless steel , cast iron and special steels , are by far the most common industrial metals, due to their mechanical properties and low cost. The iron and steel industry
9128-579: The Alvin Ailey American Dance Theater . Newark, New Jersey Newark ( / ˈ nj uː ər k / NEW -ərk , locally: [nʊɹk] ) is the most populous city in the U.S. state of New Jersey , the county seat of Essex County , and a principal city of the New York metropolitan area . As of the 2020 census , the city's population was 311,549. The Population Estimates Program calculated
9291-667: The American Community Survey 's 2018 estimates, non-Hispanic whites made up 8.9% of the population. Black or African Americans were 47.0% of the population, Asian Americans were 2.1%, some other race 1.6%, and multiracial Americans 1.1%. Hispanics or Latinos of any race made up 39.2% of the city's population in 2018. In 2010, 35.74% of the population was white, 58.86% African American, 3.99% Native American or Alaska Native, 2.19% Asian, .01% Pacific Islander, 10.4% from other races, and 10.95% from two or more races. Hispanics or Latinos of any race made up 33.39% of
9454-827: The Diocese of the Northeast and Mid-Atlantic . 0.6% of Christians are members of the Latter Day Saint movement , followed by Lutherans (0.2%). 3.0% of the city's Christian populace were of other Christian denominations including the Eastern and Oriental Orthodox churches, Independent sacramental churches , the Jehovah's Witnesses , non-denominational Protestants , and the United Church of Christ . The largest Eastern Orthodox jurisdictions in Newark include
9617-485: The Dominican Republic . There is a significant Portuguese-speaking community concentrated in the Ironbound district. 2000 census data showed that Newark had 15,801 residents of Portuguese ancestry (5.8% of the population), while an additional 5,805 (2.1% of the total) were of Brazilian ancestry. In advance of the 2000 census , city officials made a push to encourage residents to respond and participate in
9780-553: The Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America ( Ecumenical Patriarchate ) and the Diocese of New York and New Jersey ( Orthodox Church in America ). The largest Oriental Orthodox bodies include the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria and Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church . Judaism and Islam were tied as the second-largest religious community (3.0%). Up to 1967, Jewish Americans formed
9943-682: The National Baptist Convention of America , and National Baptist Convention, USA, Inc . Following, 2.4% identified with Methodism and the United Methodist Church and African Methodist Episcopal and AME Zion churches. 1.6% of Christian Newarkers are Presbyterian and 1.3% identified as Pentecostal . The Presbyterian community is dominated by the Presbyterian Church (USA) and Presbyterian Church in America . The Pentecostal community
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#173277186532010106-691: The New Jersey Performing Arts Center , Newark Symphony Hall , the Prudential Center , The Newark Museum of Art , and the New Jersey Historical Society . Branch Brook Park is the oldest county park in the United States and is home to the nation's largest collection of cherry blossom trees, numbering over 5,000. Newark is divided into five political wards (East, West, South, North and Central). The majority of Black residents reside in
10269-622: The New Jersey Register of Historic Places on September 13, 1994, and the National Register of Historic Places on October 28, 1994 as part of a Multiple Property Submission , "The Public Sculpture of John de la Mothe Gutzon Borglum, 1911–1926". Washington makes his headquarters at Eagle Tavern on Broad Street (November 22 to 28, 1776). Newark's rapid growth began in the early 19th century, much of it due to
10432-690: The New Jersey Turnpike , and Interstate 78 harmed Newark. They directly hurt the city by dividing the fabric of neighborhoods and displacing many residents. The highways indirectly hurt the city because the new infrastructure made it easier for middle-class workers to live in the suburbs and commute into the city. Despite its problems, Newark tried to remain vital in the postwar era. The city successfully persuaded Prudential and Mutual Benefit to stay and build new offices. Rutgers University-Newark , New Jersey Institute of Technology , and Seton Hall University expanded their Newark presences, with
10595-400: The United States Census Bureau , the city had a total area of 25.89 square miles (67.1 km ), including 24.14 square miles (62.5 km ) of land and 1.74 square miles (4.5 km ) of water (6.72%). It has the third-smallest land area among the 100 most populous cities in the U.S., behind neighboring Jersey City and Hialeah, Florida . The city's altitude ranges from 0 (sea level) in
10758-478: The city's neighborhoods . Poverty remains a consistent problem in Newark. As of 2010, roughly one-third of the city's population was impoverished. Portions of Newark are part of an Urban Enterprise Zone . The city was selected in 1983 as one of the initial group of 10 zones chosen to participate in the program. In addition to other benefits to encourage employment within the Zone, shoppers can take advantage of
10921-568: The periodic table . It is, by mass, the most common element on Earth , forming much of Earth's outer and inner core . It is the fourth most abundant element in the Earth's crust , being mainly deposited by meteorites in its metallic state. Extracting usable metal from iron ores requires kilns or furnaces capable of reaching 1,500 °C (2,730 °F), about 500 °C (932 °F) higher than that required to smelt copper . Humans started to master that process in Eurasia during
11084-432: The supernova remnant gas cloud, first to radioactive Co, and then to stable Fe. As such, iron is the most abundant element in the core of red giants , and is the most abundant metal in iron meteorites and in the dense metal cores of planets such as Earth . It is also very common in the universe, relative to other stable metals of approximately the same atomic weight . Iron is the sixth most abundant element in
11247-491: The trans - chlorohydridobis(bis-1,2-(diphenylphosphino)ethane)iron(II) complex is used as a starting material for compounds with the Fe( dppe ) 2 moiety . The ferrioxalate ion with three oxalate ligands displays helical chirality with its two non-superposable geometries labelled Λ (lambda) for the left-handed screw axis and Δ (delta) for the right-handed screw axis, in line with IUPAC conventions. Potassium ferrioxalate
11410-466: The universe , and the most common refractory element. Although a further tiny energy gain could be extracted by synthesizing Ni , which has a marginally higher binding energy than Fe, conditions in stars are unsuitable for this process. Element production in supernovas greatly favor iron over nickel, and in any case, Fe still has a lower mass per nucleon than Ni due to its higher fraction of lighter protons. Hence, elements heavier than iron require
11573-596: The "Gateway City". The city borders the municipalities of Belleville , Bloomfield , East Orange , Irvington , Maplewood and South Orange in Essex County; Bayonne , East Newark , Harrison , Jersey City and Kearny in Hudson County ; and Elizabeth and Hillside in Union County . Newark is the second-most racially diverse municipality in the state, behind neighboring Jersey City . It
11736-667: The "native stock" and the newer groups. In the middle 19th century, Newark added insurance to its repertoire of businesses; Mutual Benefit was founded in the city in 1845 and Prudential in 1873. Prudential, or "the Pru" as generations knew it, was founded by another transplanted New Englander, John Fairfield Dryden. He found a niche catering to the middle and lower classes. In the late 1880s, companies based in Newark sold more insurance than those in any city except Hartford, Connecticut . In 1880, Newark's population stood at 136,500 in 1890 at 181,830; in 1900 at 246,070; and in 1910 at 347,000,
11899-454: The 19th century and early 20th century, and experienced racial tension and urban decline in the second half of the 20th century, culminating in the 1967 Newark riots , which led to an increase in white flight , with 100,000 white residents leaving the city in the 1960s, though the exodus of white residents from the city had started after World War II as housing availability was limited in the city, while white residents were able to buy homes in
12062-617: The 2010 and 2020 censuses. Newark was founded in 1666 by Connecticut Puritans led by Robert Treat from the New Haven Colony to avoid losing political power to others not of their own church after the union of the Connecticut and New Haven colonies. It was the third settlement founded in New Jersey, after Bergen, New Netherland (later dissolved into Hudson County , then incorporated into Jersey City ) and Elizabethtown (modern-day Elizabeth ). They sought to establish
12225-570: The 3d and 4s electrons are relatively close in energy, and thus a number of electrons can be ionized. Iron forms compounds mainly in the oxidation states +2 ( iron(II) , "ferrous") and +3 ( iron(III) , "ferric"). Iron also occurs in higher oxidation states , e.g., the purple potassium ferrate (K 2 FeO 4 ), which contains iron in its +6 oxidation state. The anion [FeO 4 ] with iron in its +7 oxidation state, along with an iron(V)-peroxo isomer, has been detected by infrared spectroscopy at 4 K after cocondensation of laser-ablated Fe atoms with
12388-603: The Earth's surface. Items made of cold-worked meteoritic iron have been found in various archaeological sites dating from a time when iron smelting had not yet been developed; and the Inuit in Greenland have been reported to use iron from the Cape York meteorite for tools and hunting weapons. About 1 in 20 meteorites consist of the unique iron-nickel minerals taenite (35–80% iron) and kamacite (90–95% iron). Native iron
12551-644: The East Ward consists of East Side High School and six elementary schools. The ward is densely packed, with well-maintained housing and streets, primarily large apartment buildings and rowhouses . Newark lies in the transition between a humid subtropical and humid continental climate ( Köppen Cfa/Dfa ), with cold winters and hot humid summers. The January daily mean is 32.8 °F (0.4 °C), and although temperatures below 10 °F (−12 °C) are to be expected in most years, sub-0 °F (−18 °C) readings are rare; conversely, some days may warm up to 50 °F (10 °C). The average seasonal snowfall
12714-637: The East and Central wards. The boundaries of the wards are altered for various political and demographic reasons and sometimes gerrymandered . Newark's Central Ward, formerly known as the old Third Ward, contains much of the city's history including the original squares Lincoln Park , Military Park and Harriet Tubman Square . The ward contains the University Heights , The Coast , historic Grace Episcopal Church , Government Center , Springfield/Belmont and Seventh Avenue neighborhoods. Of these neighborhood designations only University Heights,
12877-460: The Forest Hill neighborhood. The North Ward has lost geographic area in recent times; its southern boundary is now significantly further north than the traditional boundary near Interstate 280 . The North Ward had its own Little Italy, centered on heavily Italian Seventh Avenue and the area of St. Lucy's Church ; demographics have transitioned to Latino in recent decades, though the ward as
13040-553: The Four Corners counted 2,644 trolleys, 4,098 buses, 2657 taxis, 3474 commercial vehicles, and 23,571 automobiles. Traffic in Newark was so heavy that the city converted the old bed of the Morris Canal into the Newark City Subway , making Newark one of the few cities in the country to have an underground system. Essex County was the first county park system in the country. New skyscrapers were being built every year,
13203-460: The NJ Turnpike. Newark had a population of 311,549 in 2020. The Population Estimates Program calculated a population of 305,344 for 2022, making Newark the 66th-most populous municipality in the nation. The city was ranked 67th in population in 2010 and 63rd in 2000. From 2000 to 2010, the increase of 3,594 inhabitants (+1.3%) from the 273,546 counted in the 2000 U.S. census marked
13366-567: The North, Central, and West Wards. State law requires that wards be compact and contiguous and that the largest ward may not exceed the population of the smallest by more than 10% of the average ward size. Ward boundaries are redrawn, as needed, by a board of ward commissioners consisting of two Democrats and two Republicans appointed at the county level and the municipal clerk. Redrawing of ward lines in previous decades have shifted traditional boundaries, so that downtown currently occupies portions of
13529-524: The Puritan theocracy . It took 70 years to eliminate the last vestiges of theocracy from Newark, when the right to hold office was finally granted to non-Protestants. First Landing Party of the Founders of Newark (1916) and Indian and the Puritan (1916) are two of four public art works created by Gutzon Borglum that are located in Newark commemorating the city's founding. They were added to
13692-492: The South, Central, and West Wards of the city, while the North and East Wards are mostly populated by Latinos. Ras Baraka has served as mayor of Newark since 2014. Newark was settled in 1666 by Connecticut Puritans led by Robert Treat from the New Haven Colony . It was conceived as a theocratic assembly of the faithful, though this did not last for long as new settlers came with different ideas. On October 31, 1693, it
13855-470: The University Heights neighborhood has produced gentrification , with landmark buildings undergoing renovation. Located in the Central Ward is the nation's largest health sciences university, UMDNJ-New Jersey Medical School . It is also home to three other universities – New Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT), Rutgers University – Newark , and Essex County College . The Central Ward forms
14018-450: The brown deposits present in a sizeable number of streams. Due to its electronic structure, iron has a very large coordination and organometallic chemistry. Many coordination compounds of iron are known. A typical six-coordinate anion is hexachloroferrate(III), [FeCl 6 ] , found in the mixed salt tetrakis(methylammonium) hexachloroferrate(III) chloride . Complexes with multiple bidentate ligands have geometric isomers . For example,
14181-416: The city from decade to decade without unnecessarily taxing the property within our limits, which has already paid the cost of public improvements." Only Vailsburg would ever be added. Although numerous problems predated World War II , Newark was more hamstrung by a number of trends in the post-WWII era. The Federal Housing Administration redlined virtually all of Newark, preferring to back up mortgages in
14344-640: The city include the Newark campus of Rutgers University , which includes law and medical schools and the Rutgers Institute of Jazz Studies ; University Hospital ; the New Jersey Institute of Technology ; and Seton Hall University's law school . Newark is a home to numerous governmental offices, largely concentrated at Government Center and the Essex County Government Complex . Cultural venues include
14507-463: The city is thought to derive from Newark-on-Trent , England, because of the influence of the original pastor, Abraham Pierson , who came from Yorkshire but may have ministered in Newark, Nottinghamshire . But Pierson is also supposed to have said that the community reflecting the new task at hand should be named "New Ark" for "New Ark of the Covenant" and some of the colonists saw it as "New-Work",
14670-655: The city lost about 130,000 residents between 1960 and 1990. At the 2010 census, there were 91,414 households, and 62,239 families in Newark. There were 108,907 housing units at an average density of 4,552.5 per square mile (1,757.7/km ). In 2000, there were 273,546 people, 91,382 households, and 61,956 families residing in the city. The population density was 11,495.0 inhabitants per square mile (4,438.2/km ). There were 100,141 housing units at an average density of 4,208.1 per square mile (1,624.6//km ). The U.S. Census Bureau's 2006–2010 American Community Survey showed that (in 2010 inflation-adjusted dollars) median household income
14833-475: The city streets. Gateway also set the tone for other office buildings in the area, which also lack a real connection with their surroundings. Today, Gateway houses thousands of white-collar workers, though few live in Newark. Before the riots, the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey was considering building in the suburbs. The riots and Newark's undeniable desperation kept the medical school in
14996-460: The city's inadequate, poorly designed and haphazardly constructed sewage system, and the unreliability and dubious quality of its water supply. By 1890, Newark had the highest rate of death for cities of over one thousand people, led the nation in deaths by scarlet fever and had the highest rate of infant mortality in the United States. Newark also ranked in the top ten of cities for diseases such as diphtheria, malaria, tuberculosis and typhoid fever. As
15159-664: The city's road to revival, and brought in people to Newark who otherwise might never have visited. NJPAC is known for its acoustics, and features the New Jersey Symphony Orchestra as its resident orchestra. NJPAC also presents a diverse group of visiting artists such as Itzhak Perlman , Sarah Brightman , Sting , 'N Sync , Lauryn Hill , the Vienna Boys' Choir , Yo Yo Ma , the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra of Amsterdam , and
15322-469: The city, and many owners cut back on maintenance of buildings, contributing to a cycle of deterioration in housing stock. Without consulting any residents of the neighborhood to be affected, Mayor Addonizio offered to condemn and raze 150 acres (61 hectares) of a densely populated black neighborhood in the central ward for the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey (UMDNJ). UMDNJ had wanted to settle in suburban Madison , NJ. On July 12, 1967,
15485-566: The city, the West Ward has for many decades struggled with elevated rates of crime, particularly violent crime. The South Ward comprises the Weequahic , Clinton Hill , Dayton , and South Broad Valley neighborhoods. The South Ward, once home to residents of predominantly Jewish descent, now has ethnic neighborhoods made up primarily of African Americans and Hispanics . The city's second-largest hospital, Newark Beth Israel Medical Center ,
15648-563: The city, while Prudential still has its home office in Newark. Many other companies are headquartered in the city, including IDT Corporation , NJ Transit , Public Service Enterprise Group (PSEG), Manischewitz , Horizon Blue Cross and Blue Shield of New Jersey , and Edison Properties . After the election of Cory Booker as mayor, millions of dollars of public-private partnership investment were made in Downtown development, but persistent underemployment continue to characterize many of
15811-456: The city. In 2018, Newark was selected as one of 20 finalists for the location of Amazon HQ2 , a new headquarters of Amazon. The advantages of Newark included proximity to New York City , lower land costs, tech labor force and higher education institutions, a major airport, and fiber optic networks. The extensive fiber optic networks in Newark started in the 1990s when telecommunication companies installed fiber optic network to put Newark as
15974-403: The city. However, instead of being built on 167 acres (676,000 m²), the medical school was built on just 60 acres (240,000 m), part of which was already city owned. Students at the medical school soon started the "Student Family Health Clinic" to provide free health care for the underserved population, along with other community service projects. It continues to operate today as one of
16137-709: The color of various rocks and clays , including entire geological formations like the Painted Hills in Oregon and the Buntsandstein ("colored sandstone", British Bunter ). Through Eisensandstein (a jurassic 'iron sandstone', e.g. from Donzdorf in Germany) and Bath stone in the UK, iron compounds are responsible for the yellowish color of many historical buildings and sculptures. The proverbial red color of
16300-463: The commercial heart of the neighborhood. Fifteen small-scale blocks were combined into three "superblocks". The Columbus Homes, never in harmony with the rest of the neighborhood, were vacated in the 1980s. They were finally torn down in 1994. The Pavilion and Colonnade Apartments , built for middle-class families remain. From 1950 to 1960, while Newark's overall population dropped from 438,000 to 408,000, it gained 65,000 non-whites. By 1966, Newark had
16463-464: The cores of the Earth and other planets. Above approximately 10 GPa and temperatures of a few hundred kelvin or less, α-iron changes into another hexagonal close-packed (hcp) structure, which is also known as ε-iron . The higher-temperature γ-phase also changes into ε-iron, but does so at higher pressure. Some controversial experimental evidence exists for a stable β phase at pressures above 50 GPa and temperatures of at least 1500 K. It
16626-399: The damage toll was only $ 2,500. Subsequent to television news broadcasts on July 13 however, new and larger riots took place. Twenty-six people were killed; 1,500 wounded; 1,600 arrested; and $ 10 million in property was destroyed. More than a thousand businesses were torched or looted, including 167 groceries (most of which would never reopen). Newark's reputation suffered dramatically. It
16789-598: The demographics of Newark, the racial composition of city workers did not change as rapidly. In addition, the political and economic power in the city remained based in the white population. In 1967, out of a police force of 1,400, only 150 members were black, mostly in subordinate positions. Racial tensions arose because of the disproportion between residents and police demographics. Since Newark's blacks lived in neighborhoods that had been white only two decades earlier, nearly all of their apartments and stores were white-owned as well. The loss of jobs affected overall income in
16952-401: The domains in the new positions, so that the effect persists even after the external field is removed – thus turning the iron object into a (permanent) magnet . Similar behavior is exhibited by some iron compounds, such as the ferrites including the mineral magnetite , a crystalline form of the mixed iron(II,III) oxide Fe 3 O 4 (although the atomic-scale mechanism, ferrimagnetism ,
17115-479: The earlier 3d elements from scandium to chromium , showing the lessened contribution of the 3d electrons to metallic bonding as they are attracted more and more into the inert core by the nucleus; however, they are higher than the values for the previous element manganese because that element has a half-filled 3d sub-shell and consequently its d-electrons are not easily delocalized. This same trend appears for ruthenium but not osmium . The melting point of iron
17278-548: The early 1870s. He invented the stock ticker in the Brick City. In the late 19th century, Newark's industry was further developed, especially through the efforts of such men as J. W. Hyatt. From the mid-century on, numerous Irish and German immigrants moved to the city. The Germans were primarily refugees from the revolutions of 1848 , and, as other groups later did, established their own ethnic enterprises, such as newspapers and breweries. However, tensions existed between
17441-418: The east to approximately 230 feet (70 m) above sea level in the western section of the city for an average elevation of 115 feet (35 m). Newark is essentially a large basin sloping towards the Passaic River , with a few valleys formed by meandering streams. Historically, Newark's high places have been its wealthier neighborhoods. In the 19th century and early 20th century, the wealthy congregated on
17604-530: The election of former mayor Cory Booker in 2006, Newark did not have a formal city planning department. As a result, Julia Vitullo-Martin, an urban planner and a fellow at the Manhattan Institute for Policy Research , concluded: “Newark is a living laboratory for nearly every bad planning idea of the 20th century. Urban renewal destroyed whole neighborhoods, replacing low-rise, vernacular residences with public housing projects. Built on superblocks,
17767-549: The enumeration, citing calculations by city officials that as many as 30,000 people were not reflected in estimates by the Census Bureau , which resulted in the loss of government aid and political representation. It is believed that heavily immigrant areas of Newark were significantly undercounted in the 2010 census, especially in the East Ward. Many households refused to participate in the census, with immigrants often reluctant to submit census forms because they believed that
17930-406: The exception of iron(III)'s preference for O -donor instead of N -donor ligands. The latter tend to be rather more unstable than iron(II) complexes and often dissociate in water. Many Fe–O complexes show intense colors and are used as tests for phenols or enols . For example, in the ferric chloride test , used to determine the presence of phenols, iron(III) chloride reacts with a phenol to form
18093-511: The facility by rail. The service industry is also growing rapidly, replacing those in the manufacturing industry, which was once Newark's primary economy. In addition, transportation has become a large business in Newark, accounting for more than 17,000 jobs in 2011. Newark is the third-largest insurance center in the United States, behind New York City and Hartford, Connecticut . Prudential Financial , Mutual Benefit Life , Fireman's Insurance , and American Insurance Company all originated in
18256-467: The five worst in 19 out of 24 categories, and the very worst in nine. According to the article, only 70 percent of residents owned a telephone. St. Louis , the city ranked second worst, was much farther from Newark than the cities in the top five were from each other. The article concluded: The city of Newark stands without serious challenge as the worst city of all. It ranked among the worst cities in no fewer than nineteen of twenty-four categories, and it
18419-458: The former building a brand-new campus on a 23-acre (9 hectare) urban renewal site. The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey made Port Newark the first container port in the nation. South of the city, during the postwar era, it took over operations at Newark Liberty International Airport , now the thirteenth busiest airport in the United States. The city made serious mistakes with public housing and urban renewal , although these were not
18582-462: The global stock of iron in use in society is 2,200 kg per capita. More-developed countries differ in this respect from less-developed countries (7,000–14,000 vs 2,000 kg per capita). Ocean science demonstrated the role of the iron in the ancient seas in both marine biota and climate. Iron shows the characteristic chemical properties of the transition metals , namely the ability to form variable oxidation states differing by steps of one and
18745-452: The greatest industrial center in the world". Sanitary conditions were bad throughout urban America in the 19th century, but Newark had an especially bad reputation. City leaders allowed the business elite to formulate civic policy and run public agencies. This lead to multiple issues such as a lack of any urban planning, the accumulation of human and horse waste built up on the city streets, the over reliance on cesspools and wells followed by
18908-551: The growth of the port lands. Newark is surrounded by residential suburbs to the west (on the slope of the Watchung Mountains ), the Passaic River and Newark Bay to the east, dense urban areas to the south and southwest, and middle-class residential suburbs and industrial areas to the north. The city is the largest in New Jersey's Gateway Region , which is said to have received its name from Newark's nickname as
19071-562: The housing market to improve conditions. Historian Kenneth T. Jackson and others theorized that Newark, with a poor center surrounded by middle-class outlying areas, only did well when it was able to annex middle-class suburbs. When municipal annexation broke down, urban problems were exacerbated as the middle-class ring became divorced from the poor center. In 1900, Newark's mayor had confidently speculated, " East Orange , Vailsburg , Harrison , Kearny , and Belleville would be desirable acquisitions. By an exercise of discretion we can enlarge
19234-482: The industrial hum. In 1930, a city commissioner told the Optimists, a local booster club: Newark is not like the city of old. The old, quiet residential community is a thing of the past, and in its place has come a city teeming with activity. With the change has come something unfortunate—the large number of outstanding citizens who used to live within the community's boundaries has dwindled. Many of them have moved to
19397-499: The industrial jobs were decreasing sharply. Many suffered the culture shock of leaving a rural area for an urban industrial job base and environment. The latest migrants to Newark left poverty in the South to find poverty in the North. During the 1950s alone, Newark's white population decreased by more than 25 percent from 363,000 to 266,000. From 1960 to 1967, its white population fell further to 46,000. Although in-migration of new ethnic groups combined with white flight markedly affected
19560-719: The information could be used to justify their deportation. At one time, there was an Italian American community in the Seventh Avenue neighborhood. Roughly 60% of Newarkers identified with a religion as of 2020. The largest Christian group in Newark is the Catholic Church (34.3%), followed by Baptists (5.2%). The city's Catholic population are divided into Latin and Eastern Catholics . The Latin Church-based Archdiocese of Newark , serving Bergen , Essex , Hudson and Union counties,
19723-453: The liquid outer core are believed to be the origin of the Earth's magnetic field . The other terrestrial planets ( Mercury , Venus , and Mars ) as well as the Moon are believed to have a metallic core consisting mostly of iron. The M-type asteroids are also believed to be partly or mostly made of metallic iron alloy. The rare iron meteorites are the main form of natural metallic iron on
19886-446: The literature, this mineral phase of the lower mantle is also often called magnesiowüstite. Silicate perovskite may form up to 93% of the lower mantle, and the magnesium iron form, (Mg,Fe)SiO 3 , is considered to be the most abundant mineral in the Earth, making up 38% of its volume. While iron is the most abundant element on Earth, most of this iron is concentrated in the inner and outer cores. The fraction of iron that
20049-407: The major ores of iron . Many igneous rocks also contain the sulfide minerals pyrrhotite and pentlandite . During weathering , iron tends to leach from sulfide deposits as the sulfate and from silicate deposits as the bicarbonate. Both of these are oxidized in aqueous solution and precipitate in even mildly elevated pH as iron(III) oxide . Large deposits of iron are banded iron formations ,
20212-414: The media of New York needed to find some example of urban despair, they traveled to Newark. The documentary Newark: It's My Home , profiling three families living in the city, was released in 1980. In American Pastoral , the 1997 novel by Newark-born author Philip Roth , the protagonist Swede Levov says: Newark used to be the city where they manufactured everything, now it's the car theft capital of
20375-775: The metal and thus flakes off, exposing more fresh surfaces for corrosion. Chemically, the most common oxidation states of iron are iron(II) and iron(III) . Iron shares many properties of other transition metals, including the other group 8 elements , ruthenium and osmium . Iron forms compounds in a wide range of oxidation states , −4 to +7. Iron also forms many coordination compounds ; some of them, such as ferrocene , ferrioxalate , and Prussian blue have substantial industrial, medical, or research applications. The body of an adult human contains about 4 grams (0.005% body weight) of iron, mostly in hemoglobin and myoglobin . These two proteins play essential roles in oxygen transport by blood and oxygen storage in muscles . To maintain
20538-612: The meteorites Semarkona and Chervony Kut, a correlation between the concentration of Ni, the granddaughter of Fe, and the abundance of the stable iron isotopes provided evidence for the existence of Fe at the time of formation of the Solar System . Possibly the energy released by the decay of Fe, along with that released by Al , contributed to the remelting and differentiation of asteroids after their formation 4.6 billion years ago. The abundance of Ni present in extraterrestrial material may bring further insight into
20701-621: The nation's oldest student-run free health clinics. In 1970, Kenneth A. Gibson was the first African-American to be elected mayor of Newark, as well as to be elected mayor of a major northeastern city. The 1970s were a time of battles between Gibson and the shrinking white population. Gibson admitted that "Newark may be the most decayed and financially crippled city in the nation." He and the city council raised taxes to try to improve services such as schools and sanitation, but they did nothing for Newark's economic base. The CEO of Ballantine's Brewery asserted that Newark's $ 1 million annual tax bill
20864-559: The necessary levels, human iron metabolism requires a minimum of iron in the diet. Iron is also the metal at the active site of many important redox enzymes dealing with cellular respiration and oxidation and reduction in plants and animals. At least four allotropes of iron (differing atom arrangements in the solid) are known, conventionally denoted α , γ , δ , and ε . The first three forms are observed at ordinary pressures. As molten iron cools past its freezing point of 1538 °C, it crystallizes into its δ allotrope, which has
21027-524: The often higher heat index . Precipitation is evenly distributed throughout the year with the summer months being the wettest and fall months being the driest. The city receives precipitation ranging from 2.9 to 4.6 inches (74 to 117 mm) per month, usually falling on 8 to 12 days per month. Extreme temperatures have ranged from −14 °F (−26 °C) on February 9, 1934, to 108 °F (42 °C) on July 22, 2011. The January freezing isotherm that separates Newark into Dfa and Cfa zones approximates
21190-436: The orbitals of those two electrons (d z and d x − y ) do not point toward neighboring atoms in the lattice, and therefore are not involved in metallic bonding. In the absence of an external source of magnetic field, the atoms get spontaneously partitioned into magnetic domains , about 10 micrometers across, such that the atoms in each domain have parallel spins, but some domains have other orientations. Thus
21353-539: The origin and early history of the Solar System . The most abundant iron isotope Fe is of particular interest to nuclear scientists because it represents the most common endpoint of nucleosynthesis . Since Ni (14 alpha particles ) is easily produced from lighter nuclei in the alpha process in nuclear reactions in supernovae (see silicon burning process ), it is the endpoint of fusion chains inside extremely massive stars . Although adding more alpha particles
21516-444: The other hand, the pale green iron(II) hexaquo ion [Fe(H 2 O) 6 ] does not undergo appreciable hydrolysis. Carbon dioxide is not evolved when carbonate anions are added, which instead results in white iron(II) carbonate being precipitated out. In excess carbon dioxide this forms the slightly soluble bicarbonate, which occurs commonly in groundwater, but it oxidises quickly in air to form iron(III) oxide that accounts for
21679-581: The oxidizing power of Fe and the high reducing power of I : Ferric iodide, a black solid, is not stable in ordinary conditions, but can be prepared through the reaction of iron pentacarbonyl with iodine and carbon monoxide in the presence of hexane and light at the temperature of −20 °C, with oxygen and water excluded. Complexes of ferric iodide with some soft bases are known to be stable compounds. The standard reduction potentials in acidic aqueous solution for some common iron ions are given below: The red-purple tetrahedral ferrate (VI) anion
21842-497: The past work on isotopic composition of iron has focused on the nucleosynthesis of Fe through studies of meteorites and ore formation. In the last decade, advances in mass spectrometry have allowed the detection and quantification of minute, naturally occurring variations in the ratios of the stable isotopes of iron. Much of this work is driven by the Earth and planetary science communities, although applications to biological and industrial systems are emerging. In phases of
22005-538: The population at the 2010 U.S. census. The racial makeup of the city in 2000 was 53.46% (146,250) black or African American, 26.52% (72,537) white, 1.19% (3,263) Asian, 0.37% (1,005) Native American, 0.05% (135) Pacific Islander, 14.05% (38,430) from other races, and 4.36% (11,926) from two or more races. 29.47% (80,622) of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 49.2% of the city's 80,622 residents who identified themselves as Hispanic or Latino were from Puerto Rico , while 9.4% were from Ecuador and 7.8% from
22168-447: The post-riot decades. Less than two weeks after the riots, Prudential announced plans to underwrite a $ 24 million office complex near Penn Station , dubbed " Gateway ." While Gateway provided desperately needed tax revenue for Newark, it hurt the city by isolating office workers and their economic activity from the city. The complex's fortress like design allows workers to commute to their offices by car or rail without having to set foot on
22331-675: The present-day heart of Newark, and includes 26 public schools, two police precincts, including headquarters, four firehouses, and one branch library. The North Ward is surrounded by Branch Brook Park . Its neighborhoods include Broadway , Mount Pleasant , Upper Roseville and the affluent Forest Hill section. Forest Hill contains the Forest Hill Historic District, which is registered on state and national historic registers, and contains many older mansions and colonial homes . A row of residential towers with security guards and secure parking line Mt. Prospect Avenue in
22494-414: The principal ores for the production of iron (see bloomery and blast furnace). They are also used in the production of ferrites , useful magnetic storage media in computers, and pigments. The best known sulfide is iron pyrite (FeS 2 ), also known as fool's gold owing to its golden luster. It is not an iron(IV) compound, but is actually an iron(II) polysulfide containing Fe and S 2 ions in
22657-408: The projects wiped out the original grid as well as commercial and retail activity. Interstate highways cut the city into pieces, dividing and isolating neighborhoods. And crime, of course, made sport of the general civic unraveling. Corporations, most prominently Prudential Insurance, tried to help. But to protect employees from the deteriorating environment, they built fortress-like towers, connected to
22820-518: The ridges of Forest Hill, High Street, and Weequahic. Until the 20th century, the marshes on Newark Bay were difficult to develop, as the marshes were essentially wilderness, with a few dumps, warehouses, and cemeteries on their edges. During the 20th century, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey was able to reclaim 68 acres (28 ha) of the marshland for the further expansion of Newark Liberty International Airport , as well as
22983-422: The second census in 70 years in which the city's population had grown from the previous enumeration. This trend continued in 2020, where Newark had an increase of 34,409 (12.4%) from the 277,140 counted in the 2010 census , the largest percentage increase in 100 years. After reaching a peak of 442,337 residents counted in the 1930 census , and a post-war population of 438,776 in 1950, the city's population saw
23146-437: The second half of the 3d transition series, vertical similarities down the groups compete with the horizontal similarities of iron with its neighbors cobalt and nickel in the periodic table, which are also ferromagnetic at room temperature and share similar chemistry. As such, iron, cobalt, and nickel are sometimes grouped together as the iron triad . Unlike many other metals, iron does not form amalgams with mercury . As
23309-522: The settlers' new work with God. Whatever the origins, the name was shortened to Newark, although references to the name "New Ark" are found in preserved letters written by historical figures such as David A. Ogden in his claim for compensation, and James McHenry , as late as 1787. During the American Revolutionary War , British troops made several raids into the town. The city saw tremendous industrial and population growth during
23472-530: The sole causes of Newark's tragedy. Across several administrations, the city leaders of Newark considered the federal government's offer to pay for 100% of the costs of housing projects as a blessing. The decline in industrial jobs meant that more poor people needed housing, whereas in prewar years, public housing was for working-class families. While other cities were skeptical about putting so many poor families together and were cautious in building housing projects, Newark pursued federal funds. Eventually, Newark had
23635-651: The suburbs and their home interests are there. While many observers attributed Newark's decline to post- World War II phenomena, others point to an earlier decline in the city budget as an indicator of problems. It fell from $ 58 million in 1938 to only $ 45 million in 1944. This was a slow recovery from the Great Depression. The buildup to World War II was causing an increase in the nation's economy. The city increased its tax rate from $ 4.61 to $ 5.30. Some attribute Newark's downfall to its propensity for building large housing projects. Newark's housing had long been
23798-564: The surface of Mars is derived from an iron oxide-rich regolith . Significant amounts of iron occur in the iron sulfide mineral pyrite (FeS 2 ), but it is difficult to extract iron from it and it is therefore not exploited. In fact, iron is so common that production generally focuses only on ores with very high quantities of it. According to the International Resource Panel 's Metal Stocks in Society report ,
23961-411: The train station and to one another by skywalks, bypassing the streets below and walling off the waterfront with parking garages and hostile architecture. Meanwhile, surface roads were widened to facilitate traffic, making escape to the suburbs more efficient.” The New Jersey Performing Arts Center , which opened in the downtown area in 1997 at a cost of $ 180 million, was seen by many as the first step in
24124-733: The two tallest in the city being the Art Deco National Newark Building and the Lefcourt-Newark Building . In 1948, just after World War II , Newark hit its peak population of just under 450,000. The population also grew as immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe settled there. Newark was the center of distinctive neighborhoods, including a large Eastern European Jewish community concentrated along Prince Street. In 1959 German architect Ludwig Mies van der Rohe designed an apartment complex across from Branchbrook Park. Problems existed underneath
24287-455: The volume of the lower mantle of the Earth, which makes it the second most abundant mineral phase in that region after silicate perovskite (Mg,Fe)SiO 3 ; it also is the major host for iron in the lower mantle. At the bottom of the transition zone of the mantle, the reaction γ- (Mg,Fe) 2 [SiO 4 ] ↔ (Mg,Fe)[SiO 3 ] + (Mg,Fe)O transforms γ-olivine into a mixture of silicate perovskite and ferropericlase and vice versa. In
24450-409: The western suburbs of Essex County, where the population grew rapidly. The city has experienced revitalization since the 1990s, with major office, arts and sports projects representing $ 2 billion in investment. The city's population, which had dropped by more than a third from 1950 to its post-war low in 2000, has since rebounded, with 38,000 new residents added from 2000 to 2020. According to
24613-462: The white suburbs. This made it impossible for people to get mortgages for purchase or loans for improvements. Manufacturers set up in lower wage environments outside the city and received larger tax deductions for building new factories in outlying areas than for rehabilitating old factories in the city. The federal tax structure essentially subsidized such inequities. Billed as transportation improvements, construction of new highways: Interstate 280 ,
24776-454: The world ... there was a factory where somebody was making something on every side street. Now there's a liquor store on every street — a liquor store, a pizza stand, and a seedy storefront church. Everything else is in ruins or boarded up. In January 1975, an article in Harper's Magazine ranked the 50 largest American cities in 24 categories, ranging from park space to crime. Newark was one of
24939-402: Was spiritual but not religious , agnostic , deistic , or atheist , though some Newarkers identified with neo-pagan religions including Wicca and other smaller new religious movements . More than 100,000 people commute to Newark each workday, making it the state's largest employment center with many white-collar jobs in insurance, finance, import-export, healthcare , and government. As
25102-436: Was $ 35,659 (with a margin of error of +/- $ 1,009) and the median family income was $ 41,684 (+/- $ 1,116). Males had a median income of $ 34,350 (+/- $ 1,015) versus $ 32,865 (+/- $ 973) for females. The per capita income for the township was $ 17,367 (+/- $ 364). About 22% of families and 25% of the population were below the poverty line , including 34.9% of those under age 18 and 22.4% of those age 65 or over. The median income for
25265-427: Was 8.5%. From the 1950s to 1967, Newark's non-Hispanic white population shrank from 363,000 to 158,000; its black population grew from 70,000 to 220,000. The percentage of non-Hispanic whites declined from 82.8% in 1950 to 11.6% by 2010. The percentage of Latinos and Hispanics in Newark grew between 1980 and 2010, from 18.6% to 33.8% while that of Blacks and African Americans decreased from 58.2% to 52.4%. At
25428-546: Was dead last in nine of them... Newark is a city that desperately needs help. Newark has had several achievements in the two and a half decades since the riots. In 1968, the New Community Corporation was founded. It has become one of the most successful community development corporations in the nation. By 1987, the NCC owned and managed 2,265 low-income housing units. Newark's downtown began to redevelop in
25591-484: Was killed in 1935 at the local Palace Bar. Billie Holiday frequently stayed at the Coleman Hotel. By some measures, the intersection of Broad and Market Streets — known as the " Four Corners " — was the busiest intersection in the United States. In 1915, Public Service counted over 280,000 pedestrian crossings in one 13-hour period. Eleven years later, on October 26, 1926, a State Motor Vehicle Department check at
25754-806: Was organized as a New Jersey township based on the Newark Tract, which was first purchased on July 11, 1667. Newark was granted a royal charter on April 27, 1713. It was incorporated on February 21, 1798, by the New Jersey Legislature 's Township Act of 1798 , as one of New Jersey's initial group of 104 townships. During its time as a township, portions were taken to form Springfield Township (April 14, 1794), Caldwell Township (February 16, 1798; now known as Fairfield Township ), Orange Township (November 27, 1806), Bloomfield Township (March 23, 1812) and Clinton Township (April 14, 1834, remainder reabsorbed by Newark on March 5, 1902). Newark
25917-440: Was produced in a factory on Mechanic Street by John Wesley Hyatt . Hyatt's Celluloid found its way into Newark-made carriages, billiard balls , and dentures . Dr. Edward Weston perfected a process for zinc electroplating , as well as a superior arc lamp in Newark. Newark's Military Park had the first public electric lamps anywhere in the United States. Before moving to Menlo Park , Thomas Edison himself made Newark home in
26080-403: Was reincorporated as a city on April 11, 1836, replacing Newark Township, based on the results of a referendum passed on March 18, 1836. The previously independent Vailsburg borough was annexed by Newark on January 1, 1905. In 1926, South Orange Township changed its name to Maplewood. As a result of this, a portion of Maplewood known as Ivy Hill was re-annexed to Newark's Vailsburg. The name of
26243-407: Was said, "wherever American cities are going, Newark will get there first." The long and short term causes of the riots are explored in depth in the documentary film Revolution '67 . The 1970s and 1980s brought continued decline. Middle class residents of all races continued to flee the city. Certain pockets of the city developed as domains of poverty and social isolation. Some say that whenever
26406-522: Was shortened to Newark. References to the name "New Ark" are found in preserved letters written by historical figures such as James McHenry dated as late as 1787. Treat and the party bought the property on the Passaic River from the Hackensack Indians by exchanging gunpowder , 100 bars of lead, 20 axes, 20 coats, guns, pistols, swords, kettles, blankets, knives, beer, and ten pairs of breeches. The first four settlers built houses at what
26569-454: Was the cause of the company's bankruptcy. In 1996, Money magazine ranked Newark "The Most Dangerous City in the Nation". The magazine cited that Newark had the nation's highest violent crime rate at six times the United States average with roughly 1 in 25 residents being a victim of violent crime. Additionally, the city's auto theft rate was also at six times the national average. Prior to
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