Misplaced Pages

#419580

83-664: Neo-Attic or Atticizing is a sculptural style, beginning in Hellenistic sculpture and vase-painting of the 2nd century BC and climaxing in Roman art of the 2nd century AD, copying, adapting or closely following the style shown in reliefs and statues of the Classical (5th–4th centuries BC) and Archaic (6th century BC) periods. It was first produced by a number of Neo-Attic workshops at Athens , which began to specialize in it, producing works for purchase by Roman connoisseurs, and

166-675: A battlefield victory against the Galatians of Asia Minor (called Gauls by Pausanias ) at the Battle of the Caecus River . This victory was a key to the legitimacy of Hellenistic kings, who styled themselves after Alexander the Great's legacy of military glories, and improved the standing and prestige of the kingdom. Attalus took the name Soter , "Savior", afterward, and explicitly took the title of basileus , king. Several years later,

249-437: A classic model, is distinguished by the twist of her hips. The multi-figure group of statues was a Hellenistic innovation, probably of the 3rd century, taking the epic battles of earlier temple pediment reliefs off their walls, and placing them as life-size groups of statues. Their style is often called " baroque ", with extravagantly contorted body poses, and intense expressions in the faces. The Laocoön Group , detailed below,

332-554: A disordered yet conventional manner, mirroring a late Greek style. In addition, "Cubiculum" paintings found in Villa Boscoreale include vegetation and a rocky setting in the background of detailed paintings of grand architecture. Wall paintings began appearing more prominently in the Pompeian period. These wall paintings were not just displayed in places of worship or in tombs. Often, wall paintings were used to decorate

415-528: A distinctive architectural form language that is often referred to as baroque due to its liberal use of ornamentation and its repurposing of structural elements as ornamental elements. Perhaps partly inspired by traditional Egyptian architecture , Alexandrian architects developed new shapes such as segmental, broken, hollow and volute pediments and curved arched, concave and broken entablatures. These baroque shapes seem to have existed in Alexandria at least by

498-415: A lieutenant of Lysimachus , one of Alexander the Great 's generals ( diadochi ), who ruled a large state centered around Byzantium . Philetaerus was trusted to manage the fortress of Pergamon and guard much of Lysimachus's treasury, and had 9,000 talents under his purview. At some point prior to 281 BC, Philetaerus deserted Lysimachus and rebelled, allegedly over fears of Arsinoe, Lysimachus's wife, who

581-531: A mark of civilization that was extremely prominent in Greek culture during the Hellenistic period and beyond. Living a civilized life involved maintaining a sturdy living space, thus many brick-like materials were used in the construction of the homes. Stone, wood, mudbrick, and other materials were commonly used to build these dwellings. Another element that was increasingly popular during the Hellenistic period

664-661: A political force. Not that much has survived in ancient sources of the reign of the last Attalid king, Attalus III ; they tend to focus on his personal character rather than describe events during his reign. He seems to have continued to defend his kingdom militarily and to have funded various cults and religious works. He did not have any children, and bequeathed his realm to the Roman Republic in his will with his death in 133 BC. The Romans were reluctant to take on territory in Asia Minor and did not take charge of

747-503: A royal patronage which differed from those of the city-states. In Alexander's entourage were three artists: Lysippus the sculptor, Apelles the painter, and Pyrgoteles the gem cutter and engraver. The period after his death was one of great prosperity and considerable extravagance for much of the Greek world, at least for the wealthy. Royalty became important patrons of art. Sculpture, painting and architecture thrived, but vase-painting ceased to be of great significance. Metalwork and

830-704: A second battle in the east. He then fought Antiochus alone in a battle near Sardis and in the Battle of the Harpasus in Caria in 229 BC. After this Antiochus left to start a campaign in Mesopotamia , and then pivoted toward Thrace in 227 BC. He was killed in battle against the Gauls and the Kingdom of Tylis . With Antiochus Hierax's death, Attalus gained control over all Seleucid territories in Asia Minor north of

913-510: A second force defeated Eumenes III in 129 BC. They annexed the former kingdom of Pergamon, which became the Roman province of Asia . Two notable cults in early Pergamon were the cult of the Cabiri , a pantheon likely of original Phrygian or Thracian origin that became syncretized with Greek beliefs and mythology, and the Corybantes, worshippers of the mother goddess Cybele (possibly

SECTION 10

#1732772361420

996-407: A symposium and banquet or a military escort, and possibly retell historical events. Attalid dynasty The kingdom was a rump state that was created from the territory ruled by Lysimachus , a general of Alexander the Great . Philetaerus , one of Lysimachus' lieutenants, rebelled and took the city of Pergamon and its environs with him; Lysimachus died soon after in 281 BC. The new kingdom

1079-488: A way to add décor to the home and make it more visually appealing. This artistic touch to homes at Olynthus introduces another element of civilized living to this Hellenistic society. Pergamon in particular is a characteristic example of Hellenistic architecture. Starting from a simple fortress located on the Acropolis , the various Attalid kings set up a colossal architectural complex. The buildings are fanned out around

1162-509: A well-done face and clasped hands. Another phenomenon of the Hellenistic age appears in its sculpture: privatization, seen in the recapture of older public patterns in decorative sculpture. Portraiture is tinged with naturalism, under the influence of Roman art . New Hellenistic cities were springing up all over Egypt , Syria , and Anatolia , which required statues depicting the gods and heroes of Greece for their temples and public places. This made sculpture, like pottery, an industry, with

1245-519: A wide variety of luxury arts produced much fine art. Some types of popular art were increasingly sophisticated. There has been a trend in writing history to depict Hellenistic art as a decadent style, following the Golden Age of Classical Greece . The 18th century terms Baroque and Rococo have sometimes been applied to the art of this complex and individual period. A renewed interest in historiography as well as some recent discoveries, such as

1328-432: Is considered one of the prototypical examples of the Hellenistic baroque style. Pergamon did not distinguish itself with its architecture alone: it was also the seat of a brilliant school of sculpture known as Pergamene Baroque . The sculptors, imitating the preceding centuries, portray painful moments rendered expressive with three-dimensional compositions, often V-shaped, and anatomical hyper-realism. The Barberini Faun

1411-718: Is often put under the heading of "Hellenistic Art" for convenience. One of the defining characteristics of the Hellenistic period was the division of Alexander's empire into smaller dynastic empires founded by the diadochi (Alexander's generals who became regents of different regions): the Ptolemies in Egypt , the Seleucids in Mesopotamia , Persia , and Syria , the Attalids in Pergamon , etc. Each of these dynasties practiced

1494-640: Is one example. Attalus I (269–197 BC), to commemorate his victory at Caicus against the Gauls ;— called Galatians by the Greeks ;– had two series of votive groups sculpted: the first, consecrated on the Acropolis of Pergamon, includes the famous Gaul killing himself and his wife , of which the original is lost; the second group, offered to Athens, is composed of small bronzes of Greeks, Amazons, gods and giants, Persians and Gauls. Artemis Rospigliosi in

1577-578: Is one of very few non-architectural ancient sculptures that can be identified with those mentioned by ancient writers. It is attributed by Pliny the Elder to the Rhodian sculptors Agesander , Athenodoros , and Polydorus . Johann Joachim Winckelmann , who first articulated the difference between Greek, Greco-Roman and Roman art, drew inspiration from the Laocoön . Gotthold Ephraim Lessing based many of

1660-599: Is therefore notable for its portraits : One such is the Barberini Faun of Munich , which represents a sleeping satyr with relaxed posture and anxious face, perhaps the prey of nightmares. The Belvedere Torso , the Resting Satyr , the Furietti Centaurs and Sleeping Hermaphroditus reflect similar ideas. Another famous Hellenistic portrait is that of Demosthenes by Polyeuktos, featuring

1743-700: The Louvre is probably a copy of one of them; as for copies of the Dying Gaul , they were very numerous in the Roman period. The expression of sentiments, the forcefulness of details – bushy hair and moustaches here – and the violence of the movements are characteristic of the Pergamene style. These characteristics are pushed to their peak in the friezes of the Great Altar of Pergamon , decorated under

SECTION 20

#1732772361420

1826-600: The Second Macedonian War (200–197 BC). King Antiochus III of the Seleucids seem to have conquered or at least cowed into neutrality much of Pergamese territory in 198 BC; by 196 BC, at least, it seems that Antiochus III was able to march his armies through the area without opposition, and important putatively Attalid cities such as Phocaea and Thyatira were in Seleucid possession. The authority of

1909-540: The Taurus Mountains . He repulsed several attempts by Seleucus III Ceraunus , who had succeeded Seleucus II, to recover the lost territory. The newly expanded kingdom stretched over 143,000 square kilometres (55,000 sq mi). The expansion was not to last long. In 223 BC, Seleucus III crossed the Taurus, but was assassinated, and the general Achaeus assumed control of the Seleucid army. Antiochus III

1992-576: The giants in the Gigantomachy was likely allegorical to the modern Attalids defeating the Galatians and Gauls in a similar battle of good vs. evil, to burnish the legitimacy of the dynasty. Similarly, the Attalids implausibly claimed a link to Alexander the Great via Pergamus , a very marginal figure who was a son of Andromache and Neoptolemus . According to the Attalids, Pergamus had founded

2075-584: The "War of the Brothers" broke out in the Seleucid Empire between Seleucus II Callinicus and Antiochus Hierax . Antiochus Hierax made alliances with other kings in Asia Minor, his base of power, including both the Galatians and the Cappadocians. Around 230 BC, Hireax attacked Pergamon with the help of the Galatians. Attalus defeated the Gauls and Antiochus in the Battle of Aphrodisium and in

2158-593: The 121st Olympiad (296–293 BC). A period of stagnation followed, with a brief revival after the 156th (156–153 BC), but with nothing to the standard of the times preceding it. During this period sculpture became more naturalistic, and also expressive; there is an interest in depicting extremes of emotion. On top of anatomical realism, the Hellenistic artist seeks to represent the character of his subject, including themes such as suffering, sleep or old age. Genre subjects of common people, women, children, animals and domestic scenes became acceptable subjects for sculpture, which

2241-548: The 2nd century BC. Many of them were later adopted across the Roman Empire and also significantly influenced the rock-cut tombs of Petra . Alexandrian architecture also made heavy use of Corinthian capitals , both on exteriors and interiors. (The earliest known example of a Corinthian exterior in Alexandria is Ptolemy III 's temple of Sarapis in the Sarapeion which was constructed sometime between 246-221 BC, though

2324-408: The Acropolis to take into account the nature of the terrain. The agora , located to the south on the lowest terrace, is bordered by galleries with colonnades (columns) or stoai . It is the beginning of a street which crosses the entire Acropolis: it separates the administrative, political and military buildings on the east and top of the rock from the sanctuaries to the west, at mid-height, among which

2407-532: The Americas Art of Oceania Hellenistic art is the art of the Hellenistic period generally taken to begin with the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and end with the conquest of the Greek world by the Romans , a process well underway by 146 BC, when the Greek mainland was taken, and essentially ending in 30 BC with the conquest of Ptolemaic Egypt following the Battle of Actium . A number of

2490-660: The Asia Minor equivalent of the Greek goddess Rhea ). Various art and statues were built to them. The worship of Cybele would later intersect with Roman history. According to Livy , during the Second Punic War between Rome and Carthage (205 BC), the Sibylline Oracle told the Senate that Carthage would be defeated if the cult of the Mater Deum Magna Idaea ( Magna Mater = "Great Mother")

2573-475: The Galatian War. He was the lead commander in the war with Pontus, as well. After becoming king in his own right, he made war against Prusias II of Bithynia in 156–154 BC with the help of the Romans. He also made an alliance and received troops from Ariarathes V of Cappadocia , led by his son Demetrius. Attalus expanded his kingdom and founded the cities of Philadelphia and Attalea-in-Pamphylia. In 152 BC

Neo-Attic - Misplaced Pages Continue

2656-415: The Great made Achaeus governor of the Seleucid territories north of the Taurus. Achaeus embarked upon a remarkably successful military campaign. Within two years, he had recovered the lost territories, taken parts of the traditional Pergamese heartland, and forced Attalus to retreat within the walls of Pergamon. However, Achaeus himself turned on Antiochus III and proclaimed himself a king, perhaps because he

2739-503: The Greeks to create large works. Many of the large bronze statues were lost – with the majority being melted to recover the material. Discovered in Rome in 1506 and seen immediately by Michelangelo , beginning its huge influence on Renaissance and Baroque art. Laocoön , strangled by snakes, tries desperately to loosen their grip without affording a glance at his dying sons. The group

2822-572: The Hellenistic influences in Roman frescoes , for example those of Pompeii or Herculaneum . In addition, some of the paintings in Villa Boscoreale clearly echo lost Hellenistic, Macedonian royal paintings. Recent excavations from the Mediterranean have revealed the technology used in Hellenistic painting. Wall art of this period utilized two techniques: secco technique and fresco technique. Fresco technique required layers of lime-rich plaster to then decorate walls and stone supports. On

2905-474: The Hellenistic world, was to the goddess Athena . A temple to Athena seems to have been built around the beginning of the third century BC, while Lysimachus still acknowledged Seleucid suzerainty, and portraits of Athena appeared on coinage. A festival was also held called Panathenaia , but nothing is known of it. By 220 BC, Attalus I is recorded as holding important games in Athena's honor, and likely expanding

2988-494: The Laocoön group, or possibly their relations. The "Baroque" traits in Hellenistic art, predominately sculpture, have been contrasted with a contemporary trend that has been described as "Rococo". The concept of a Hellenistic "Rococo" was coined by Wilhelm Klein in the early 20th century. Unlike the dramatic "Baroque" sculptures, the "Rococo" trend emphasized playfull motifs, such as satyrs and nymphs . Wilhelm Klein considered

3071-457: The Olynthus city site. Interestingly, the homes and other architecture were incredibly well preserved. This allows us to better understand the activities that took place in the homes and how space inside the homes was organized and utilized. Homes in Olynthus were typically squarer in shape. The desired home was not necessarily large or extravagant, but rather comfortable and practical. This was

3154-634: The Pergamese state was hanging by a thread when Eumenes II ( r.  197–159 BC ) came to the throne in 197 BC. Eumenes II sought alliances with the Achaean League , rejected an offer of marriage and alliance with the Seleucids, and supported Rome in the Roman–Seleucid War of 192–188 BC. In 188 BC, after the war's end by the Treaty of Apamea , the Romans seized the possessions of

3237-560: The Pergamese would also fight the Galatian War , Prusias I of Bithynia (around 188–184 BC?), Pharnaces I of Pontus (around 183-179 BC?), and would aid the Romans again in the Third Macedonian War (171–168 BC). Eumenes II also successfully intervened in Seleucid politics, aiding Antiochus IV Epiphanes in his quest to take the throne from Heliodorus . Eumenes II was ill for the last decade of his life, and

3320-400: The Roman market, which preferred copies of Classical rather than Hellenistic pieces. Paintings and mosaics were important mediums in art, but no examples of paintings on panels have survived the fall to the Romans. It is possible to get some idea of what they were like from related media, and what seem to be copies of or loose derivations from paintings in a wider range of materials. Perhaps

3403-551: The Roman mosaic " Nile Mosaic of Palestrina " which demonstrates fantastical narratives with a color scheme and commonplace components that illustrate the Nile in its passage from Ethiopia to the Mediterranean. The inclusion of Hellenistic backgrounds can also be seen in works throughout Pompeii, Cyrene, Alexandria. Moreover, specifically in Southern Russia, floral features and branches can be found on walls and ceilings strewn in

Neo-Attic - Misplaced Pages Continue

3486-589: The Western World through their art. Three main qualities unique to Hellenistic painting style were three-dimensional perspective, the use of light and shade to render form, and trompe-l'œil realism. Very few forms of Hellenistic Greek painting survive except for wooden pinakes panels and those painted on stone. The most famously known stone paintings are found on the Macedonian Tomb at Agios Athanasios . Researchers have been limited to studying

3569-427: The avoiding of petty royal squabbles between siblings that consumed their neighbors in civil wars and assassinations. Perhaps spurred by the precariousness of their royal claim, the Attalids displayed remarkable cooperation between each other. Polybius has Philip V of Macedon praise the Attalids, his enemies, for their unity as instrumental to their success as he mourns the hatred between his own sons that brought down

3652-474: The best-known works of Greek sculpture belong to this period, including Laocoön and His Sons , Venus de Milo , and the Winged Victory of Samothrace . It follows the period of Classical Greek art , while the succeeding Greco-Roman art was very largely a continuation of Hellenistic trends. The term Hellenistic refers to the expansion of Greek influence and dissemination of its ideas following

3735-679: The blows of the gods. One of the few city states who managed to maintain full independence from the control of any Hellenistic kingdom was Rhodes . After holding out for one year under siege by Demetrius Poliorcetes (305–304 BC), the Rhodians built the Colossus of Rhodes to commemorate their victory. With a height of 32 meters, it was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World . Progress in bronze casting made it possible for

3818-558: The city and put Achaeus to death in the next year. Attalus regained control over his territories. The Attalids became allies of the Roman Republic during the First Macedonian War (214–205 BC), although their participation was rather ineffective and insignificant. They would go on to support Rome in many subsequent wars. Attalus I, who had helped the Romans in the first war, also provided them with assistance in

3901-462: The city of Pergamon and named it after himself, while they claimed Andromache was a distant ancestor of Olympias , Alexander's mother. Knowledge of the dates of the reigns of the Attalid kings are largely based on Strabo 's Geography , with a few minor corrections by modern historians for apparent slips of the pen. A notable aspect of Attalid dynastic propaganda was the unity of the family and

3984-467: The city of Pergamon, making allies with neighboring city states. He contributed troops, money, and food to the city of Cyzicus , in Mysia , for its defense against the invading Gauls , thus gaining prestige and goodwill for him and his family. He built the sanctuary of Demeter on the acropolis of Pergamon, the temple of Athena (Pergamon's patron deity), and Pergamon's first palace. He added considerably to

4067-469: The city's fortifications. Philetaerus' nephew and adopted son, Eumenes I , succeeded him upon his death in 263 BC. He rebelled and defeated the Seleucid king Antiochus I Soter near the Lydian capital of Sardis in 261 BC. He created an outright independent Pergamese state, and greatly increased its territories. He established garrisons, such as Philetaireia, in the north at the foot of Mount Ida , which

4150-523: The consequent standardization and some lowering of quality. For these reasons many more Hellenistic statues have survived than is the case with the Classical period. Hellenistic sculpture repeats the innovations of the so-called "second classicism": nude sculpture- in-the-round , allowing the statue to be admired from all angles; study of draping and effects of transparency of clothing, and the suppleness of poses. Thus, Venus de Milo , even while echoing

4233-643: The death of Alexander – the "Hellenizing" of the world, with Koine Greek as a common language. The term is a modern invention; the Hellenistic World not only included a huge area covering the whole of the Aegean Sea , rather than the Classical Greece focused on the Poleis of Athens and Sparta , but also a huge time range. In artistic terms this means that there is huge variety which

SECTION 50

#1732772361420

4316-412: The defeated Antiochus III in Asia Minor and gave Mysia, Lydia , Phrygia , and Pamphylia to the kingdom of Pergamon and Caria , Lycia and Pisidia , in the southwestern corner of Asia Minor, to Rhodes , another Roman ally. Later the Romans gave these possessions of Rhodes to Pergamon. These acquisitions were an enormous increase in the size and influence of Pergamon. During the reign of Eumenes II,

4399-460: The former kingdom of Macedonia , where many friezes have been unearthed. For example, in Tomb II archaeologists found a Hellenistic-style frieze depicting a lion hunt. This frieze found in the tomb supposedly that of Philip II is remarkable by its composition, the arrangement of the figures in space and its realistic representation of nature. Other friezes maintain a realistic narrative, such as

4482-517: The great Pergamon Altar in the late 180s BC. In its interior there is a frieze depicting the life of Telephus , son of the demigod Herakles . The ruling dynasty associated Telephus with its city and claimed him as its legendary forefather and the ancestor of the Attalids. Pergamon, having entered the Greek world much later than its counterparts to the west, could not boast the same divine heritage as older city-states and so had to cultivate its place in Greek mythology retroactively. Telephus defeating

4565-523: The home. Wall paintings were common in private homes in Delos, Priene, Thera, Pantikapaion, Olbia, and Alexandria. Few examples of Greek wall paintings have survived the centuries. The most impressive, in terms of showing what high-quality Greek painting was like, are those at the Macedonian royal tombs at Vergina . Though Greek painters are given tribute to bringing fundamental ways of representation to

4648-486: The ideas in his 'Laocoon' (1766) on Winckelmann's views on harmony and expression in the visual arts. The fragmentary Sperlonga sculptures are another series of "baroque" sculptures in the Hellenistic style, perhaps made for the Emperor Tiberius , who was certainly present at the collapse of the seaside grotto in southern Italy that they decorated. The inscriptions suggest the same sculptors made it who made

4731-431: The kingdom. A man named Aristonicus, claiming to be the illegitimate son of Eumenes II, assumed the dynastic name of Eumenes III, attempted to overturn Attalus III's will, and apparently acquired authority at least in the core Pergamese cities. In 131 or 130 BC Rome sent an army against him which was defeated. Scandalously for the time, Eumenes III was apparently willing to recruit slaves for his army and arm them. However,

4814-502: The later Hellenistic period, and in such collections there seems to have been a preference for the kinds of motifs characterized as "Rococo". From the 2nd century the Neo-Attic or Neo-Classical style is seen by different scholars as either a reaction to baroque excesses, returning to a version of Classical style, or as a continuation of the traditional style for cult statues. Workshops in the style became mainly producers of copies for

4897-670: The most important religious celebration in Pergamum in the 2nd century BC. After the Pergamese expansion in size and prestige after the Treaty of Apamea, King Eumenes II embarked upon a vast building program in Pergamon to suit the capital's new prominence. He expanded the Library of Pergamon that had probably been started by his father Attalus I, which adjoined the newly created Temple to Athena noted above. He also began construction of

4980-505: The most prominent is that which shelters the monumental Pergamon Altar , known as "of the twelve gods" or "of the gods and of the giants", one of the masterpieces of Greek sculpture. A colossal theatre, able to contain nearly 10,000 spectators, has benches embedded in the flanks of the hill. Pliny the Elder , after having described the sculpture of the classical period notes: Cessavit deinde ars ("then art disappeared"). According to Pliny's assessment, sculpture declined significantly after

5063-411: The most striking element of Hellenistic paintings and mosaics is the increased use of landscape. Landscapes in these works of art are representative of familiar naturalistic figures while also displaying mythological and sacro-idyllic elements. Landscape friezes and mosaics were commonly used to display scenes from Hellenistic poetry such as that by Herondas and Theocritos. These landscapes that expressed

SECTION 60

#1732772361420

5146-477: The natural setting. One notes the appearance of many places of amusement and leisure, notably the multiplication of theatres and parks. The Hellenistic monarchies were advantaged in this regard in that they often had vast spaces where they could build large cities: such as Antioch , Pergamon , and Seleucia on the Tigris . It was the time of gigantism: thus it was for the second temple of Apollo at Didyma , situated twenty kilometers from Miletus in Ionia . It

5229-414: The order of Eumenes II (197–159 BC) with a gigantomachy stretching 110 metres in length, illustrating in the stone a poem composed especially for the court. The Olympians triumph in it, each on his side, over Giants – most of which are transformed into savage beasts: serpents, birds of prey, lions or bulls. Their mother Gaia comes to their aid, but can do nothing and must watch them twist in pain under

5312-508: The other hand, no base was necessary for the secco technique, which used gum arabic and egg tempera to paint finalizing details on marble or other stone. This technique is exemplified in the Masonry friezes found in Delos. Both techniques used mediums that were locally accessible, such as terracotta aggregates in the base layers and natural inorganic pigments, synthetic inorganic pigments, and organic substances as colorants. Recent discoveries include those of chamber tombs in Vergina (1987) in

5395-434: The precincts of Athena's temple. At some point at either the end of Attalus I's rule or near the start of Eumenes II's rule, Athena was given the local title Nikephoros , "bestower of victory." Eumenes II would create a magnificent new two-story temple to Athena, refounded the festival in her honor as the festival of Nikephoria in 181 BC, and dedicated a site outside the city with the name Nikephorion. The Nikephoria would be

5478-443: The private sectors of the home were dark and closed off which complicated housework. Courtyards were typically the focus of the home as they provided a space for entertaining and a source of light from the very interior of the home. They were paved with cobblestones or pebbles most often, but there have been discoveries of mosaicked courtyards. Mosaics were a wonderful way for the family to express their interests and beliefs as well as

5561-613: The propylon of the Sanctuary of the Great Gods on Samothrace , which was sponsored by Ptolemy II sometime between 285-246 BC, also already featured Corinthian columns on one of its facades.) Corinthian capitals were sometimes paired with Doric entablatures, a combination that was rarely seen elsewhere in the Hellenistic world. Alexandrian Corinthian capitals exhibited a large variety of shapes and compositions which historians have divided into four distinct types. Other typical features of Hellenistic Alexandrian architecture were acanthus leaf column bases, which were sometimes inserted between

5644-469: The sculpture group "The Invitation to the Dance" to be a prime example of the trend. Also lighthearted depictions of Aphrodite , the goddess of love, and Eros , were seen as typical (as seen, for instance, in the so-called Slipper Slapper Group depicted below). It has later been argued that the preference for the "Rococo" motifs in Hellenistic sculpture can be tied to a changed use of sculpture in general. Private sculpture collecting became more common during

5727-454: The standard Attic column base and the column shaft of a Corinthian column, and cornices featuring the distinctive Alexandrian flat grooved and/or hollow square modillions. Roman Second Style frescoes are thought to be inspired by Alexandrian architecture. The ancient city of Olynthus was one of the architectural and artistic keystones in establishing a connection between the Classical and Hellenistic worlds. Over 100 homes were found at

5810-429: The stories of Hellenistic writers were utilized in the home to emphasize that family's education and knowledge about the literary world. Sacro-idyllic means that the most prominent elements of the artwork are those related to sacred and pastoral themes. This style that emerged most prevalently in Hellenistic art combines sacred and profane elements, creating a dreamlike setting. Sacro-idyllic influences are conveyed in

5893-439: The tombs of Vergina , may allow a better appreciation of the period. In the architectural field, the dynasties following Hector resulted in vast urban plans and large complexes which had mostly disappeared from city-states by the 5th century BC. The Doric Temple was virtually abandoned. This city planning was quite innovative for the Greek world; rather than manipulating space by correcting its faults, building plans conformed to

5976-529: The two kings and Rome helped and funded Alexander Balas in his successful bid to start a civil war in the Seleucid Empire and to seize the Seleucid throne from Demetrius I Soter . In 149 BC, Attalus helped Nicomedes II Epiphanes to seize the Bithynian throne from his father Prusias II. Attalus II also aided the Romans in the Fourth Macedonian War , the final war that destroyed Macedonia as

6059-490: Was accused of arranging the death of Agathocles, Lysimachus's son . In 281 BC, Seleucus I Nicator , another of Alexander's generals, defeated and killed Lysimachus at the Battle of Corupedium , while Seleucus himself was killed a few months later. Philetaerus offered his services to Seleucus and his successors of the Seleucid Empire , but enjoyed considerable autonomy. He extended his power and influence beyond just

6142-557: Was accused of intending to revolt anyway, or perhaps simply drunk with success. By 220/219 BC, Achaeus and Attalus seem to have made peace. In 218 BC, Achaeus undertook an expedition to Selge, south of the Taurus. Attalus recaptured his former territories with the help of some Thracian Gauls. Achaeus returned from his victorious campaign in 217 BC and hostilities between the two resumed. Attalus made an alliance with Antiochus III, who besieged Achaeus in Sardis in 214 BC. Antiochus captured

6225-672: Was commissioned by wealthy families for the adornment of their homes and gardens; the Boy with Thorn is an example. Realistic portraits of men and women of all ages were produced, and sculptors no longer felt obliged to depict people as ideals of beauty or physical perfection. The world of Dionysus , a pastoral idyll populated by satyrs , maenads , nymphs and sileni , had been often depicted in earlier vase painting and figurines, but rarely in full-size sculpture. The Old Drunkard at Munich portrays without reservation an old woman, thin, haggard, clutching against herself her jar of wine. The period

6308-491: Was designed by Daphnis of Miletus and Paionios of Ephesus at the end of the fourth century BC, but the construction, never completed, was carried out up until the 2nd century AD. The sanctuary is one of the largest ever constructed in the Mediterranean region: inside a vast court (21.7 metres by 53.6 metres), the cella is surrounded by a double colonnade of 108 Ionic columns nearly 20 metres tall, with richly sculpted bases and capitals . Hellenistic Alexandria originated

6391-572: Was imported into Rome. At the time, Pergamon was Rome's closest ally in the region of the Greek Eastern Mediterranean, and they sought out artifacts from the region that matched the request, where the closest equivalent goddess was Cybele. A sacred stone dedicated to Cybele under Pergamese stewardship was sent to Rome within a year (and possibly other relics), and the new cult in Rome took credit for Rome's eventual victory in 201 BC. Another cult of importance, if more common in

6474-419: Was initially in a vassal-like relationship of nominal fealty to the Seleucid Empire , but exercised considerable autonomy and soon became entirely independent. It was a monarchy ruled by Philetaerus's extended family and their descendants. It lasted around 150 years before being eventually absorbed by the Roman Republic during the period from 133–129 BC. Philetaerus rose from humble origins to become

6557-751: Was introduced by the German classical archaeologist and art historian Friedrich Hauser (1859-1917), in Die Neuattischen Reliefs (Stuttgart: Verlag von Konrad Wittwer, 1889). The corpus that Hauser called "Neo-Attic" consists of bas-reliefs molded on decorative vessels and plaques, employing a figural and drapery style that looked for its canon of "classic" models to late fifth and early fourth-century Athens and Attica. Hellenistic art Art of Central Asia Art of East Asia Art of South Asia Art of Southeast Asia Art of Europe Art of Africa Art of

6640-599: Was named after his adoptive father, and Attaleia, in the east, to the northeast of Thyatira near the sources of the river Lycus , which was named after his grandfather. He also extended his control to the south of the river Caïcus , reaching the Gulf of Cyme. Eumenes I minted coins with the portrait of Philetaerus, who during his reign had still been depicting the Seleucid king Seleucus I Nicator on his coins. Attalus I ( r.  241–197 BC ) succeeded Eumenes I after being adopted as his son. Early in his reign, he won

6723-415: Was succeeded by his brother Attalus II as king in 159 BC, although Attalus II had already assumed many key responsibilities by then. Before he became king, he was a military commander. In 190 BC he took part in the Battle of Magnesia , which was the final victory of the Romans in the war against the Seleucids. In 189 BC he led the Pergamene troops which flanked the Roman army under Gnaeus Manlius Vulso in

6806-476: Was taken up in Rome, probably by Greek artisans. The Neo-Attic mode, a reaction against the baroque extravagances of Hellenistic art, was an early manifestation of Neoclassicism , which demonstrates how self-conscious the later Hellenistic art world had become. Neo-Attic style emphasises grace and charm, serenity and animation, correctness of taste in adapting a reduced canon of prototypical figures and forms, in crisp and refined execution. This style designation

6889-449: Was the addition of a courtyard to the home. Courtyards served as a light source for the home as Greek houses were closed off from the outside to maintain a level of privacy. There have been windows found at some home sites, but they are typically high off the ground and small. Because of the issue of privacy, many individuals were forced to compromise on light in the home. Well-lit spaces were used for entertaining or more public activity while

#419580