The Nicarao are an Indigenous Nahua people who live in western Nicaragua and northwestern Costa Rica . They are the southernmost Nahua group located at the southern frontier of Mesoamerica . They spoke the Nahuat language before it went extinct in both countries after Spanish conquest.
100-583: Nicarao may refer to: Nicarao people Nicarao (cacique) Nahuat language or Pipil language Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Nicarao . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nicarao&oldid=942836985 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description
200-461: A complex calendric system , a tradition of ball playing , and a distinct architectural style , were diffused through the area. Villages began to become socially stratified and develop into chiefdoms , and large ceremonial centers were built, interconnected by a network of trade routes for the exchange of luxury goods, such as obsidian , jade , cacao , cinnabar , Spondylus shells, hematite , and ceramics. While Mesoamerican civilization knew of
300-686: A cave in Oaxaca. Earlier maize samples have been documented at the Los Ladrones cave site in Panama , c. 5500 BCE. Slightly thereafter, semi- agrarian communities began to cultivate other crops throughout Mesoamerica. Maize was the most common domesticate, but the common bean, tepary bean, scarlet runner bean, jicama , tomato and squash all became common cultivates by 3500 BCE. At the same time, these communities exploited cotton , yucca , and agave for fibers and textile materials. By 2000 BCE, corn
400-431: A cultural area based on a suite of interrelated cultural similarities brought about by millennia of inter- and intra-regional interaction (i.e., diffusion ). Mesoamerica is recognized as a near-prototypical cultural area. This term is now fully integrated into the standard terminology of precolumbian anthropological studies. Conversely, the sister terms Aridoamerica and Oasisamerica , which refer to northern Mexico and
500-779: A low plateau that breaks up the Sierra Madre chain between the Sierra Madre del Sur to the north and the Sierra Madre de Chiapas to the south. At its highest point, the Isthmus is 224 m (735 ft) above mean sea level. This area also represents the shortest distance between the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean in Mexico. The distance between the two coasts is roughly 200 km (120 mi). The northern side of
600-518: A military alliance against the Chorotegas. The name Kakawatan is a combination of the Nawat words kakaw (Cacao), at (water), and -tan (locative suffix meaning near/place of/with). Therefore Kakawatan translates to "place with abundant cacao water", referring to chocolate drinks, one the most important aspects of Nicarao culture. This tradition is still practiced in the communities of Rivas among
700-554: A number of cultural traits in common with North American tribes as well as the Toltecs of central Mexico, including an identical calendar , the use of screenfold books , worship of the Great Spirit and a Toltec pantheon of deities such as sky spirits , animal spirits and Tonal mythology , Nagual mysticism, and treaties. They also, in common with their Mexican cousins from Aztec culture, practiced ritual confession, and
800-717: A period commonly known as the Tikal Hiatus . The Late Classic period (beginning c. 600 CE until 909 CE) is characterized as a period of interregional competition and factionalization among the numerous regional polities in the Maya area. This largely resulted from the decrease in Tikal's socio-political and economic power at the beginning of the period. It was therefore during this time that other sites rose to regional prominence and were able to exert greater interregional influence, including Caracol, Copán , Palenque , and Calakmul (which
900-772: A regionally important center during the Postclassic. The latter portion of the Postclassic is generally associated with the rise of the Mexica and the Aztec Empire . One of the more commonly known cultural groups in Mesoamerica, the Aztec politically dominated nearly all of central Mexico, the Gulf Coast, Mexico's southern Pacific Coast (Chiapas and into Guatemala), Oaxaca, and Guerrero . The Tarascans (also known as
1000-484: A technological departure from previous construction techniques. Major Puuc sites include Uxmal , Sayil , Labna , Kabah , and Oxkintok . While generally concentrated within the area in and around the Puuc hills , the style has been documented as far away as at Chichen Itza to the east and Edzna to the south. Chichén Itzá was originally thought to have been a Postclassic site in the northern Maya lowlands. Research over
1100-505: Is Pico de Orizaba , a dormant volcano located on the border of Puebla and Veracruz . Its peak elevation is 5,636 m (18,490 ft). The Sierra Madre mountains, which consist of several smaller ranges, run from northern Mesoamerica south through Costa Rica . The chain is historically volcanic . In central and southern Mexico, a portion of the Sierra Madre chain is known as the Eje Volcánico Transversal , or
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#17327654353881200-477: Is a combination of the words Nican (here), and Ānāhuac , which in turn is a combination of the words atl (water) and nahuac , a locative meaning "surrounded". Therefore the literal translation of Nicanahuac is "here surrounded by water". It is a geographical name that refers to the large bodies of water surrounding the land they inhabited, the Pacific Ocean , lakes Nicaragua and Xolotlan , and
1300-475: Is a list of some of the specialized resources traded from the various Mesoamerican sub-regions and environmental contexts: Mesoamerican architecture is the collective name given to urban, ceremonial and public structures built by pre-Columbian civilizations in Mesoamerica. Although very different in styles, all kinds of Mesoamerican architecture show some kind of interrelation, due to very significant cultural exchanges that occurred during thousands of years. Among
1400-631: Is another Classic-period polity that expanded and flourished during this period, but the Zapotec capital exerted less interregional influence than the other two sites. During the Early Classic, Teotihuacan participated in and perhaps dominated a far-reaching macro-regional interaction network. Architectural and artifact styles (talud-tablero, tripod slab-footed ceramic vessels) epitomized at Teotihuacan were mimicked and adopted at many distant settlements. Pachuca obsidian, whose trade and distribution
1500-453: Is argued to have been economically controlled by Teotihuacan, is found throughout Mesoamerica. Tikal came to dominate much of the southern Maya lowlands politically, economically, and militarily during the Early Classic. An exchange network centered at Tikal distributed a variety of goods and commodities throughout southeast Mesoamerica, such as obsidian imported from central Mexico (e.g., Pachuca) and highland Guatemala (e.g., El Chayal , which
1600-619: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Nicarao people The Nicarao are descended from Toltecs who migrated from North America and central and southern Mexico over the course of several centuries from approximately 700 CE onwards. This branch of the Nahua originated in Chiapas , which was inhabited by Nahuat -speaking Toltecs for hundreds of years before they migrated further into Central America . Around 1200 CE,
1700-409: Is likely named after this chiefdom. Masatepet was located in what is now Masaya in central west Nicaragua, and coexisted with the Chorotegas who also inhabited the area. The name Masatepet is a combination of the Nawat words Masat (deer), and -tepet (hill). The literal translation of Masatepet is "deer hill". The Nahuas of Masatepet inhabited Nindiri , Niquinohomo, Monimbó, and Masatepe which
1800-718: Is located 70 km (43 mi) southeast of Mexico City. Other volcanoes of note include Tacana on the Mexico–Guatemala border, Tajumulco and Santamaría in Guatemala, Izalco in El Salvador, Arenal in Costa Rica, and Concepción and Maderas on Ometepe , which is an island formed by both volcanoes rising out of Lake Cocibolca in Nicaragua. One important topographic feature is the Isthmus of Tehuantepec ,
1900-453: Is marked by the rise and dominance of several polities. The traditional distinction between the Early and Late Classic is marked by their changing fortune and their ability to maintain regional primacy. Of paramount importance are Teotihuacán in central Mexico and Tikal in Guatemala; the Early Classic's temporal limits generally correlate to the main periods of these sites. Monte Albán in Oaxaca
2000-469: Is named after this chiefdom. Xinotepet was located in what is now Carazo of central west Nicaragua, close to both Masatepet and Kwawkapolkan. Xinotepet coexisted with the Chorotegas who also inhabited much of the land now part of the Carazo department. The etymology of the first half of the name is unknown, however the second half of the name comes from the Nawat word -tepet (hill), The city of Jinotepe
2100-478: Is named after this chiefdom. Teswatlan was located in northwestern Nicaragua, specifically Chinandega . Teswatlan means "Place of Tezhuate ". Fernandez de Oviedo described Teswatlan as a chiefdom filled with maize , in addition to Akatekwtli's son ascending to the throne after his death during Spanish conquest. Chinantlan was the northernmost Nicarao chiefdom that bordered the Lencas of southwestern Honduras,
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#17327654353882200-409: Is not rigid. The Maya area, for example, can be divided into two general groups: the lowlands and highlands. The lowlands are further divided into the southern and northern Maya lowlands. The southern Maya lowlands are generally regarded as encompassing northern Guatemala , southern Campeche and Quintana Roo in Mexico, and Belize . The northern lowlands cover the remainder of the northern portion of
2300-644: Is now Nicaragua has also been linked to the Classic Maya collapse , with the cessation of Maya influence in the region, and the rise of cultural traits originating in the Valley of Mexico . The Nicarao had a sizeable population concentrated in nucleated villages all over western Nicaragua and what is now northwestern Costa Rica . They displaced both the Chorotega and the Cacaopera that had previously settled
2400-705: Is one notable difference between Mesoamerica and the cultures of the South American Andes. Other animals, including the duck , dogs , and turkey , were domesticated . Turkey was the first to be domesticated locally, around 3500 BCE. Dogs were the primary source of animal protein in ancient Mesoamerica, and dog bones are common in midden deposits throughout the region. Societies of this region did hunt certain wild species for food. These animals included deer, rabbit , birds, and various types of insects. They also hunted for luxury items, such as feline fur and bird plumage. Mesoamerican cultures that lived in
2500-522: Is one of the six areas in the world where ancient civilization arose independently (see cradle of civilization ), and the second in the Americas, alongside the Caral–Supe in present-day Peru . Mesoamerica is also one of only five regions of the world where writing is known to have independently developed (the others being ancient Egypt , India , Sumer , and China ). Beginning as early as 7000 BCE,
2600-651: Is the largest lake in Mesoamerica. Lake Chapala is Mexico's largest freshwater lake, but Lake Texcoco is perhaps most well known as the location upon which Tenochtitlan , capital of the Aztec Empire, was founded. Lake Petén Itzá , in northern Guatemala, is notable as where the last independent Maya city, Tayasal (or Noh Petén), held out against the Spanish until 1697. Other large lakes include Lake Atitlán , Lake Izabal , Lake Güija , Lemoa and Lake Xolotlan . Almost all ecosystems are present in Mesoamerica;
2700-513: The volador (flying men) ritual. Despite their massive decrease in population and the loss of their native language in the aftermath of Spanish conquest, the Nicarao, and their culture, are still an integral part of Nicaraguan identity as they formed the ethnic foundation of the country. Most western Nicaraguans have Nahua ancestry, as proven through DNA analysis. Towns, lakes, islands, and volcanoes bear their place names. The etymology of
2800-460: The Aztec macahuitl . Spanish chronicler Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés , writing soon after the conquest, recorded that the Nicarao practised cranial modification , by binding the heads of young children between two pieces of wood. Archaeologists have unearthed pre-Columbian burials in the former Nicarao region with evidence of both cranial and dental modification. The Nicarao possessed
2900-713: The Cacaoperas , the Chorotegas , and the Huetares . In addition the Nicarao enslaved and captured Cacaoperas for human sacrifice and further displaced them from Jinotega , Esteli , Boaco , and parts of Matagalpa , particularly the Sebaco valley , one of the most fertile areas in Nicaragua which the Nicarao still inhabit today. Although the Nicarao displaced rival tribes through warfare, they also developed trade relations with smaller tribes, maintaining hegemony over
3000-630: The Cora and Huichol , the Chontales, the Huaves, and the Pipil, Xincan and Lencan peoples of Central America. Central American Area: Los Naranjos By roughly 6000 BCE, hunter-gatherers living in the highlands and lowlands of Mesoamerica began to develop agricultural practices with early cultivation of squash and chili. The earliest example of maize dates to c. 4000 BCE and comes from Guilá Naquitz ,
3100-675: The Itza at Tayasal and the Kowoj at Zacpeten , remained independent until 1697. Some Mesoamerican cultures never achieved dominant status or left impressive archaeological remains but are nevertheless noteworthy. These include the Otomi , Mixe–Zoque groups (which may or may not have been related to the Olmecs), the northern Uto-Aztecan groups, often referred to as the Chichimeca , that include
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3200-915: The Kaqchikel at Iximche in the Guatemalan highlands. The Pipil resided in El Salvador , the Nicarao were in western Nicaragua and northwestern Costa Rica , and the Ch'orti' were in eastern Guatemala and northwestern Honduras . In central Mexico, the early portion of the Postclassic correlates with the rise of the Toltec and an empire based at their capital, Tula (also known as Tollan ). Cholula , initially an important Early Classic center contemporaneous with Teotihuacan, maintained its political structure (it did not collapse) and continued to function as
3300-666: The Kingdom of Nicoya , a powerful civilization in Guanacaste and the Nicoya Peninsula , and the Huetares and Voto people of northern Costa Rica. Kakawatan was a Nahua chiefdom located in what is now the Rivas department of southwestern Nicaragua. The Nahuas of Kakawatan were known as "kakawatecos", meaning "people of Kakawatan". Kakawatan had close relations with Kwawkapolkan as before spanish arrival, both chiefdoms had
3400-945: The Monte Alto Culture may have preceded the Olmec. Radiocarbon samples associated with various sculptures found at the Late Preclassic site of Izapa suggest a date of between 1800 and 1500 BCE. During the Middle and Late Preclassic period, the Maya civilization developed in the southern Maya highlands and lowlands, and at a few sites in the northern Maya lowlands. The earliest Maya sites coalesced after 1000 BCE, and include Nakbe , El Mirador , and Cerros . Middle to Late Preclassic Maya sites include Kaminaljuyú , Cival , Edzná , Cobá , Lamanai , Komchen , Dzibilchaltun , and San Bartolo , among others. The Preclassic in
3500-483: The Postclassic are differentiated by the cyclical crystallization and fragmentation of the various political entities throughout Mesoamerica. The Mesoamerican Paleo-Indian period precedes the advent of agriculture and is characterized by a nomadic hunting and gathering subsistence strategy. Big-game hunting, similar to that seen in contemporaneous North America, was a large component of the subsistence strategy of
3600-701: The Purépecha ) were located in Michoacán and Guerrero. With their capital at Tzintzuntzan , the Tarascan state was one of the few to actively and continuously resist Aztec domination during the Late Postclassic. Other important Postclassic cultures in Mesoamerica include the Totonac along the eastern coast (in the modern-day states of Veracruz , Puebla , and Hidalgo ). The Huastec resided north of
3700-517: The Spanish colonization of the Americas began on Hispaniola in 1493. In world history, Mesoamerica was the site of two historical transformations: (i) primary urban generation, and (ii) the formation of New World cultures from the mixtures of the indigenous Mesoamerican peoples with the European, African, and Asian peoples who were introduced by the Spanish colonization of the Americas. Mesoamerica
3800-663: The Ulúa River , and the Hondo River . The northern Maya lowlands, especially the northern portion of the Yucatán peninsula, are notable for their nearly complete lack of rivers (largely due to the absolute lack of topographic variation). Additionally, no lakes exist in the northern peninsula. The main source of water in this area is aquifers that are accessed through natural surface openings called cenotes . With an area of 8,264 km (3,191 sq mi), Lake Nicaragua
3900-680: The Yucatán Peninsula . Other areas include Central Mexico, West Mexico, the Gulf Coast Lowlands, Oaxaca , the Southern Pacific Lowlands, and Southeast Mesoamerica (including northern Honduras ). There is extensive topographic variation in Mesoamerica, ranging from the high peaks circumscribing the Valley of Mexico and within the central Sierra Madre mountains to the low flatlands of the northern Yucatán Peninsula. The tallest mountain in Mesoamerica
4000-520: The wheel and basic metallurgy , neither of these became technologically relevant. Among the earliest complex civilizations was the Olmec culture, which inhabited the Gulf Coast of Mexico and extended inland and southwards across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec . Frequent contact and cultural interchange between the early Olmec and other cultures in Chiapas , Oaxaca , and Guatemala laid the basis for
4100-470: The 16 volumes of The Handbook of Middle American Indians . "Mesoamerica" is broadly defined as the area that is home to the Mesoamerican civilization, which comprises a group of peoples with close cultural and historical ties. The exact geographic extent of Mesoamerica has varied through time, as the civilization extended North and South from its heartland in southern Mexico. The term was first used by
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4200-432: The 16th century. Eurasian diseases such as smallpox and measles , which were endemic among the colonists but new to North America, caused the deaths of upwards of 90% of the indigenous people, resulting in great losses to their societies and cultures. Over the next centuries, Mesoamerican indigenous cultures were gradually subjected to Spanish colonial rule. Aspects of the Mesoamerican cultural heritage still survive among
4300-722: The Chiapas highlands, and Kaminaljuyú in the central Guatemala highlands, were important southern highland Maya centers. The latter site, Kaminaljuyú, is one of the longest occupied sites in Mesoamerica and was continuously inhabited from c. 800 BCE to around 1200 CE. Other important highland Maya groups include the Kʼicheʼ of Utatlán , the Mam in Zaculeu , the Poqomam in Mixco Viejo , and
4400-553: The German ethnologist Paul Kirchhoff , who noted that similarities existed among the various pre-Columbian cultures within the region that included southern Mexico, Guatemala , Belize , El Salvador , western Honduras , and the Pacific lowlands of Nicaragua and northwestern Costa Rica . In the tradition of cultural history , the prevalent archaeological theory of the early to middle 20th century, Kirchhoff defined this zone as
4500-404: The Isthmus is swampy and covered in dense jungle—but the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, as the lowest and most level point within the Sierra Madre mountain chain, was nonetheless a main transportation, communication, and economic route within Mesoamerica. Outside of the northern Maya lowlands, rivers are common throughout Mesoamerica. Some of the more important ones served as loci of human occupation in
4600-401: The Mesoamerican Paleo-Indian. These sites had obsidian blades and Clovis -style fluted projectile points . The Archaic period (8000–2000 BCE) is characterized by the rise of incipient agriculture in Mesoamerica. The initial phases of the Archaic involved the cultivation of wild plants, transitioning into informal domestication and culminating with sedentism and agricultural production by
4700-429: The Mesoamerican cultural area. All this was facilitated by considerable regional communications in ancient Mesoamerica , especially along the Pacific coast. In the subsequent Preclassic period , complex urban polities began to develop among the Maya , with the rise of centers such as Aguada Fénix and Calakmul in Mexico; El Mirador , and Tikal in Guatemala, and the Zapotec at Monte Albán . During this period,
4800-593: The Nahua communities of Nicaragua and Costa Rica. At the time of contact with the Spanish, the Nicarao were governed from their capital at Quauhcapolca , near the modern town of Rivas . Other principal settlements included Ometepe , Asososca Lagoon (Managua), Mistega, Ochomogo , Oxmorio, Papagayo, Tecoatega, Teoca, Totoaca, and Xoxoyota. Like most other Nahua groups, the Nicarao were agriculturalists, and cultivated maize , cacao , tomatoes , avocados , squash , beans , and chili . Modern Nicaraos continue to be mainly farmers and agriculturalists and contribute to
4900-434: The Nicarao controlled Tiger Lagoon , Lake Xolotlan , Lake Nicaragua , and the islands of Ometepe and Zapatera . The Nicarao also settled in Bagaces , Costa Rica after displacing the Huetar people who were already there, resulting in tribal warfare between the Nahuas and the Huetares which lasted until Spanish arrival. The Nicarao called their land Nicānāhuac which means "here lies Anahuac" in Nahuatl and
5000-425: The Nicarao had completely fallen, and suffered a devastating demographic and societal collapse from a combination of disease, war against the Spanish and their Tlaxcallan allies, and being sold into slavery . According to Spanish conquistador and historian Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés, the Nicarao had multiple chiefdoms that were independent from one another. In addition, although these chiefdoms shared
5100-555: The Nicarao split from the Pipil people , moved into what is now Nicaragua , seized most of the fertile lands in the area, and eventually separated and formed their own chiefdoms. The migration of the Nicarao has been linked to the collapse of the important central-Mexican cities of Teotihuacan and Tula , as well as the Classic Maya collapse . The Nicarao settled throughout western Nicaragua, inhabiting Rivas , Jinotega , Chinandega , Nueva Segovia , Masaya , Madriz , Matagalpa , Esteli , Leon , Granada and Managua . In addition
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#17327654353885200-405: The Olmec include San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán , La Venta , and Tres Zapotes . Specific dates vary, but these sites were occupied from roughly 1200 to 400 BCE. Remains of other early cultures interacting with the Olmec have been found at Takalik Abaj , Izapa , and Teopantecuanitlan , and as far south as in Honduras . Research in the Pacific Lowlands of Chiapas and Guatemala suggest that Izapa and
5300-437: The Spanish and their Tlaxcallan translators. However, Dávila and his army used the opportunity to gather gold and baptize some of the Nahuas along the way. Realizing the threat that the Spanish imposed, Macuilmiquiztli waged war against the invaders, and Nicarao warriors forced Dávila and his men to retreat to Panama. The Nicarao civilization came to an end during the Spanish conquest of Nicaragua in 1524 CE , when Nicaragua
5400-421: The Totonac, mainly in the modern-day states of Tamaulipas and northern Veracruz. The Mixtec and Zapotec cultures, centered at Mitla and Zaachila respectively, inhabited Oaxaca. The Postclassic ends with the arrival of the Spanish and their subsequent conquest of the Aztecs between 1519 and 1521. Many other cultural groups did not acquiesce until later. For example, Maya groups in the Petén area, including
5500-427: The Trans-Mexican volcanic belt. There are 83 inactive and active volcanoes within the Sierra Madre range, including 11 in Mexico, 37 in Guatemala, 23 in El Salvador, 25 in Nicaragua, and 3 in northwestern Costa Rica. According to the Michigan Technological University, 16 of these are still active. The tallest active volcano is Popocatépetl at 5,452 m (17,887 ft). This volcano, which retains its Nahuatl name,
5600-401: The area. The longest river in Mesoamerica is the Usumacinta , which forms in Guatemala at the convergence of the Salinas or Chixoy and La Pasión River and runs north for 970 km (600 mi)—480 km (300 mi) of which are navigable—eventually draining into the Gulf of Mexico . Other rivers of note include the Río Grande de Santiago , the Grijalva River , the Motagua River ,
5700-440: The central Mexican highlands is represented by such sites as Tlapacoya , Tlatilco , and Cuicuilco . These sites were eventually superseded by Teotihuacán , an important Classic-era site that eventually dominated economic and interaction spheres throughout Mesoamerica. The settlement of Teotihuacan is dated to the later portion of the Late Preclassic, or roughly 50 CE. In the Valley of Oaxaca , San José Mogote represents one of
5800-424: The close of the period. Transformations of natural environments have been a common feature at least since the mid Holocene. Archaic sites include Sipacate in Escuintla , Guatemala, where maize pollen samples date to c. 3500 BCE. The first complex civilization to develop in Mesoamerica was that of the Olmec , who inhabited the Gulf Coast region of Veracruz throughout the Preclassic period. The main sites of
5900-408: The collapse of Teotihuacán around 600 CE, competition between several important political centers in central Mexico, such as Xochicalco and Cholula , ensued. At this time during the Epi-Classic period, the Nahua peoples began moving south into Mesoamerica from the North, and became politically and culturally dominant in central Mexico, as they displaced speakers of Oto-Manguean languages . During
6000-478: The control of a Toltec empire. Chronological data refutes this early interpretation, and it is now known that Chichén Itzá predated the Toltec; Mexican architectural styles are now used as an indicator of strong economic and ideological ties between the two regions. The Postclassic (beginning 900–1000 CE, depending on area) is, like the Late Classic, characterized by the cyclical crystallization and fragmentation of various polities. The main Maya centers were located in
6100-412: The country's name derives from their native language. Nicaraguan Spanish has been heavily influenced by their native language. Nicaraguan cuisine such as the nacatamal and indio viejo both of which originated from the Nicarao has also cemented itself in the legacy of Nicaraguan gastronomy. Mesoamerica Mesoamerica is a historical region and cultural area that begins in
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#17327654353886200-405: The course of several centuries from approximately 700 CE onwards. Around 1200 CE, the Nicarao split from the Pipil people and moved into what is now Nicaragua . The beginning of this series of migrations was likely to have been linked to the collapse of the great central-Mexican city of Teotihuacan , and later with the collapse of the Toltec city of Tula . The dating of Nicarao arrival in what
6300-402: The cultivation of countless fruits and crops. In the Masaya department, cocoa production continues to be dominated by the Nicaraos. Chocolate was fundamental to pre-Columbian Nicarao culture as it was drunk during special ceremonies in addition to cocoa beans being used as their currency. The Nicarao also dined on various meats such as turkey , deer , iguana , mute dogs , and fish from
6400-411: The descendants of the Nahuas both indigenous and mestizos alike. Tekwantepet was a small but militarily strong chiefdom located in present-day Managua , and was one of the last chiefdoms to fall to the conquistadors . The etymology is a combination of the Nawat words tēkwani ( jaguar ), and tepet (hill), which translates to "jaguar hill" or "hill of jaguars". The city of Ticuantepe in Managua
6500-426: The domestication of cacao , maize , beans , tomato , avocado , vanilla , squash and chili , as well as the turkey and dog , resulted in a transition from paleo-Indian hunter-gatherer tribal groupings to the organization of sedentary agricultural villages. In the subsequent Formative period, agriculture and cultural traits such as a complex mythological and religious tradition , a vigesimal numeric system,
6600-417: The dominant climate is temperate with warm temperatures and moderate rainfall. The rainfall varies from the dry Oaxaca and north Yucatán to the humid southern Pacific and Caribbean lowlands. Several distinct sub-regions within Mesoamerica are defined by a convergence of geographic and cultural attributes. These sub-regions are more conceptual than culturally meaningful, and the demarcation of their limits
6700-414: The early post-Classic period, Central Mexico was dominated by the Toltec culture, and Oaxaca by the Mixtec . The lowland Maya area had important centers at Chichén Itzá and Mayapán . Towards the end of the post-Classic period, the Aztecs of Central Mexico built a tributary empire covering most of central Mesoamerica. The distinct Mesoamerican cultural tradition ended with the Spanish conquest in
6800-419: The first true Mesoamerican writing systems were developed in the Epi-Olmec and the Zapotec cultures. The Mesoamerican writing tradition reached its height in the Classic Maya logosyllabic script . In Central Mexico, the city of Teotihuacan ascended at the height of the Classic period; it formed a military and commercial empire whose political influence stretched south into the Maya area and northward. Upon
6900-405: The indigenous peoples who inhabit Mesoamerica. Many continue to speak their ancestral languages and maintain many practices hearkening back to their Mesoamerican roots. The term Mesoamerica literally means "middle America" in Greek. Middle America often refers to a larger area in the Americas, but it has also previously been used more narrowly to refer to Mesoamerica. An example is the title of
7000-448: The lowlands (those areas between sea level and 1000 meters) and the altiplanos , or highlands (situated between 1,000 and 2,000 meters above sea level). In the low-lying regions, sub-tropical and tropical climates are most common, as is true for most of the coastline along the Pacific and Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea . The highlands show much more climatic diversity, ranging from dry tropical to cold mountainous climates ;
7100-421: The lowlands and coastal plains settled down in agrarian communities somewhat later than did highland cultures because there was a greater abundance of fruits and animals in these areas, which made a hunter-gatherer lifestyle more attractive. Fishing also was a major provider of food to lowland and coastal Mesoamericans creating a further disincentive to settle down in permanent communities. Ceremonial centers were
7200-520: The mid-19th century, but the Nicarao as a tribal Confederation are now extinct. Today Nicaragua is estimated to have around 20,000 Nicarao people, though displaced by Spanish conquest. In Costa Rica the Nicarao population ranges from several hundred to 1000 and are primarily located in the Bagaces Canton, with smaller pockets inhabiting other parts of Guanacaste . Some of their practices and beliefs continue to survive among their descendants within
7300-633: The more well known are the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System , the second largest in the world, and La Mosquitia (consisting of the Río Plátano Biosphere Reserve , Tawahka Asangni, Patuca National Park , and Bosawás Biosphere Reserve ) a rainforest second in size in the Americas only to the Amazonas . The highlands present mixed and coniferous forest. The biodiversity is among the richest in
7400-504: The northern lowlands. Generally applied to the Maya area, the Terminal Classic roughly spans the time between c. 800/850 and c. 1000 CE. Overall, it generally correlates with the rise to prominence of Puuc settlements in the northern Maya lowlands , so named after the hills where they are mainly found. Puuc settlements are specifically associated with a unique architectural style (the "Puuc architectural style") that represents
7500-574: The northern lowlands. Following Chichén Itzá, whose political structure collapsed during the Early Postclassic, Mayapán rose to prominence during the Middle Postclassic and dominated the north for c. 200 years. After Mayapán's fragmentation, the political structure in the northern lowlands revolved around large towns or city-states, such as Oxkutzcab and Ti’ho ( Mérida, Yucatán ), that competed with one another. Toniná , in
7600-415: The nuclei of Mesoamerican settlements. The temples provided spatial orientation, which was imparted to the surrounding town. The cities with their commercial and religious centers were always political entities, somewhat similar to the European city-state , and each person could identify with the city where they lived. Ceremonial centers were always built to be visible. Pyramids were meant to stand out from
7700-449: The oldest permanent agricultural villages in the area, and one of the first to use pottery. During the Early and Middle Preclassic, the site developed some of the earliest examples of defensive palisades , ceremonial structures, the use of adobe , and hieroglyphic writing . Also of importance, the site was one of the first to demonstrate inherited status , signifying a radical shift in socio-cultural and political structure. San José Mogote
7800-687: The past few decades has established that it was first settled during the Early/Late Classic transition but rose to prominence during the Terminal Classic and Early Postclassic. During its apogee, this widely known site economically and politically dominated the northern lowlands. Its participation in the circum-peninsular exchange route, possible through its port site of Isla Cerritos , allowed Chichén Itzá to remain highly connected to areas such as central Mexico and Central America. The apparent "Mexicanization" of architecture at Chichén Itzá led past researchers to believe that Chichén Itzá existed under
7900-573: The pre-Columbian relations between the Lencas and the Chinantecs are unknown. Chinantlan was located in Chinandega and had close relations with Teswatlan. Chinantlan means "place surrounded by reeds" in Nahuatl. A Nicarao from Chinantlan was called a Chinantecatl meaning "person from Chinantlán". The Nicarao people migrated south from North America and central and southern Mexico over
8000-522: The region through military superiority and commerce . In 1501 CE , after the Tlahtoani of Tenochtitlan Ahuizotl sent groups of pochtecas to explore and establish relations with the indigenous peoples of Central America , commercial relations developed between the Mexica and the Nicarao. Commercial exchange between the Mexica and the Nicarao continued to flourish after Moctezuma II ascended to
8100-418: The region. Although not much is known about the military forces of Nicanahuac, the Nicarao did have a warrior tradition. Nicarao warriors wore long and thick padded cotton armor that extended down to their thighs and knees, fought with spears, atlatls , bow and arrows , clubs edged with stone blades, knives and daggers with obsidian blades, and macanas , a wooden sword edged with obsidian blades similar to
8200-427: The region; evidence shows some of their culture was integrated into their own. The Nicarao appear to have seized control of the most productive land around the western portions of Lake Nicaragua , Ometepe , and the Gulf of Fonseca . The area now covered by Rivas Department appears to have been conquered by the Nicarao shortly before the Spanish conquest. A remnant Nahuat -speaking population existed as late as
8300-416: The rest of the city, to represent the gods and their powers. Another characteristic feature of the ceremonial centers is historic layers. All the ceremonial edifices were built in various phases, one on top of the other, to the point that what we now see is usually the last stage of construction. Ultimately, the ceremonial centers were the architectural translation of the identity of each city, as represented by
8400-600: The rivers and lagoons. In addition the term "Nicarao" was not what the Nahuas of Nicaragua called themselves, in fact the term is considered an insult to their community. Nicarao was a derogatory term imposed on them by the conquistadors as a form of mockery. As a Mesoamerican group, the Nicarao shared many blended cultural traits with both indigenous North American and Mexican belief systems as well as their Toltec parent tribe, including an identical Toltec calendar , similar pottery and effigies, similar organizational treaties,
8500-618: The same language, culture, and ethnicity, they were never unified under a single political entity as Kuskatan was in present-day El Salvador . The most powerful Nicarao chiefdom was Kwawkapolkan, which means "place of capulín trees" in Nawat . It's a combination of the Nawat words Kwawit (tree), kapol ( capulín ), and -kan (a locative meaning "place of"). Kwawkapolkan was also the southernmost Nicarao chiefdom that extended from Rivas down to Bagaces in central Guanacaste in Costa Rica. Kwawkapolkan bordered it's ally Kakawatan in Rivas,
8600-466: The sea, rivers, lakes and lagoons. The Nicarao had elaborate markets and permanent temples indicating some level of expertise in architecture, which have since been completely destroyed by the Spanish. Many of the Nicarao were artisans with expertise in crafts such as pottery and goldsmithing. Tattoo artistry across the face and body was prized among the Nicarao, as observed by the Spanish and reflected in effigies and clay artwork they created; this trait
8700-493: The southern part of North America and extends to the Pacific coast of Central America, thus comprising the lands of central and southern Mexico, all of Belize , Guatemala , El Salvador , and parts of Honduras , Nicaragua and Costa Rica . As a cultural area, Mesoamerica is defined by a mosaic of cultural traits developed and shared by its indigenous cultures. In the pre-Columbian era , many indigenous societies flourished in Mesoamerica for more than 3,000 years before
8800-439: The throne of Tenochtitlan as Mexica merchants traded and thrived within Nicarao territory. At the time of Spanish contact, a Nicarao chief named Macuilmiquiztli , meaning "Five Deaths" in the Nahuatl language, conversed with Spanish conquistador Gil González Dávila through Tlaxcallan translators. Macuilmiquiztli governed the Nicarao chiefdom of Kwawkapolkan, not far from the modern town of Rivas , and initially welcomed
8900-633: The time following the arrival of the Spanish in the 16th century is classified as the Colonial period. The differentiation of early periods (i.e., up through the end of the Late Preclassic ) generally reflects different configurations of socio-cultural organization that are characterized by increasing socio-political complexity , the adoption of new and different subsistence strategies , and changes in economic organization (including increased interregional interaction). The Classic period through
9000-457: The use of screenfold books , the worship of the Great Spirit and closely related sky deities , Nagual mysticism, the practice of animal and Tonal spirituality , and expertise in medical practice. After the Nicarao split from the Pipils and migrated further south into what is now western Nicaragua and northwestern Costa Rica, they waged war and displaced many neighboring tribes including
9100-411: The veneration of their gods and masters. Stelae were common public monuments throughout Mesoamerica and served to commemorate notable successes, events, and dates associated with the rulers and nobility of the various sites. Given that Mesoamerica was broken into numerous and diverse ecological niches, none of the societies that inhabited the area were self-sufficient, although very long-distance trade
9200-542: The western United States, respectively, have not entered into widespread usage. Some of the significant cultural traits defining the Mesoamerican cultural tradition are: Located on the Middle American isthmus joining North and South America between ca. 10° and 22° northern latitude , Mesoamerica possesses a complex combination of ecological systems, topographic zones, and environmental contexts. These different niches are classified into two broad categories:
9300-759: The world, though the number of species in the red list of the IUCN grows every year. The history of human occupation in Mesoamerica is divided into stages or periods. These are known, with slight variation depending on region, as the Paleo-Indian , the Archaic , the Preclassic (or Formative), the Classic , and the Postclassic . The last three periods, representing the core of Mesoamerican cultural fluorescence, are further divided into two or three sub-phases. Most of
9400-575: Was allied with Caracol and may have assisted in the defeat of Tikal), and Dos Pilas Aguateca and Cancuén in the Petexbatún region of Guatemala. Around 710, Tikal arose again and started to build strong alliances and defeat its worst enemies. In the Maya area, the Late Classic ended with the so-called " Maya collapse ", a transitional period coupling the general depopulation of the southern lowlands and development and florescence of centers in
9500-400: Was common only for very rare goods, or luxury materials. For this reason, from the last centuries of the Archaic period (8000 BCE– 1000 BCE) onward, regions compensated for the environmental inadequacies by specializing in the extraction of certain abundant natural resources and then trading them for necessary unavailable resources through established commercial trade networks. The following
9600-531: Was eventually overtaken by Monte Albán , the subsequent capital of the Zapotec empire , during the Late Preclassic. The Preclassic in western Mexico, in the states of Nayarit , Jalisco , Colima , and Michoacán also known as the Occidente, is poorly understood. This period is best represented by the thousands of figurines recovered by looters and ascribed to the " shaft tomb tradition ". The Classic period
9700-467: Was invaded on all sides by several Spanish forces, each led by a conquistador . González Dávila was authorized by royal decree and came in from the Caribbean coast of Honduras. Francisco Hernández de Córdoba at the command of the governor of Panama approached from Costa Rica . Pedro de Alvarado at the command of Hernán Cortés , came from Guatemala through San Salvador and Honduras . By 1529,
9800-589: Was predominantly used by the Maya during the Early Classic), and jade from the Motagua valley in Guatemala. Tikal was often in conflict with other polities in the Petén Basin , as well as with others outside of it, including Uaxactun , Caracol , Dos Pilas , Naranjo , and Calakmul . Towards the end of the Early Classic, this conflict lead to Tikal's military defeat at the hands of Caracol in 562, and
9900-544: Was shared by neighboring Nicoyan tribes to the south as well as the Maya people to the north. Among the Nicarao, highly specialized tattoo artists were expert and lived by their skills. The Nicarao also practiced stonecraft, as evidenced by elaborate petroglyphs of spirals, murals and spiritual figures carved and painted onto stones in Ometepe ; this was shared by the Chorotega and other pre-Columbian civilizations in
10000-506: Was the staple crop in the region, and remained so through modern times. The Ramón or Breadnut tree ( Brosimum alicastrum ) was an occasional substitute for maize in producing flour. Fruit was also important in the daily diet of Mesoamerican cultures. Some of the main ones consumed include avocado , papaya , guava , mamey , zapote , and annona . Mesoamerica lacked animals suitable for domestication, most notably domesticated large ungulates . The lack of draft animals for transportation
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