136-652: Nichiren (16 February 1222 – 13 October 1282) was a Japanese Buddhist priest and philosopher of the Kamakura period . His teachings form the basis of Nichiren Buddhism , a branch of Mahayana Buddhism . Nichiren declared that the Lotus Sutra alone contains the highest truth of Buddhist teachings suited for the Third Age of Buddhism , insisting that the sovereign of Japan and its people should support only this form of Buddhism and eradicate all others. He advocated
272-506: A Korean immigrant family. Hakuhō (673 through 686) Buddhism (Hakuhō refers to Emperor Tenmu ) saw the official patronage of Buddhism being taken up by the Japanese imperial family, who replaced the Soga clan as the main patrons of Buddhism. Japanese Buddhism at this time was also influenced by Tang dynasty (618–907) Buddhism. It was also during this time that Buddhism began to spread from
408-518: A broad perspective of what was unfolding. More than half of the extant letters of Nichiren were written during his years at Minobu. Some consisted of moving letters to followers expressing appreciation for their assistance, counseling on personal matters, and explaining his teachings in more understandable terms. Two of his works from this period, the Senji Shō ( 撰時抄 , "The Selection of the Time") and
544-497: A calligraphic mandala depicting the assembly at Eagle Peak which was to be used as an object of devotion or worship. By increasingly associating himself with Visistacaritra he implied a direct link to the original and universal Buddha . He read in the 16th ( Life span ) chapter of the Lotus Sutra a three-fold "secret Dharma" of the daimoku , the object of worship ( honzon ), and the ordination platform ( kaidan ). These became
680-469: A date of 552 for when King Seong of Baekje (now western South Korea ) sent a mission to Emperor Kinmei that included an image of the Buddha Shakyamuni , ritual banners, and sutras . This event is usually considered the official introduction of Buddhism to Japan. Other sources, however, give the date of 538 and both dates are thought to be unreliable. However, it can still be said that in
816-506: A death-and-resurrection turning point. In the Nichiren tradition this is called his moment of Hosshaku kenpon ( 発迹顕本 ) , translated as "casting off the transient and revealing the true" or "outgrowing the provisional and revealing the essential." After the failed execution authorities carried out Nichiren's original sentence of exile to Sado Island in the Sea of Japan . Upon arriving, he
952-501: A fervent nationalist or a social reformer with a transnational religious vision. Critical scholars have used words such as intolerant, nationalistic, militaristic, and self-righteous to portray him. On the other hand, Nichiren has been presented as a revolutionary , a classic reformer, and as a prophet . Nichiren is often compared to other religious figures who shared similar rebellious and revolutionary drives to reform degeneration in their respective societies or schools. According to
1088-556: A fiery exchange of letters between the two, Nichiren was arrested by a band of soldiers and tried by Hei no Saemon ( 平の左衛門 , also called 平頼綱 Taira no Yoritsuna ) , the deputy chief of the Hojo clan's Board of Retainers . Nichiren considered this as his second remonstration to the government. According to Nichiren's own account, he was sentenced to exile but was brought to Tatsunukuchi beach in Shichirigahama for execution. At
1224-623: A foreign deity. The Nihon Shoki then states that the emperor allowed only the Soga clan to worship the Buddha, to test it out. Thus, the powerful Soga clan played a key role in the early spread of Buddhism in the country. Their support, along with that of immigrant groups like the Hata clan , gave Buddhism its initial impulse in Japan along with its first temple (Hōkō-ji, also known as Asukadera ). The Nakatomi and Mononobe, however, continued to oppose
1360-410: A key figure in the Lotus Sutra, who in the 20th chapter invited repeated persecution in his efforts to propagate the sutra. Such hardship, Nichiren argued, fulfilled and validated the Lotus Sutra. He also identified himself with the bodhisattva Visistacaritra to whom Shakyamuni entrusted the future propagation of the Lotus Sutra, seeing himself in the role of leading a vast outpouring of Bodhisattvas of
1496-449: A medical facility at Gokurakuji in 1287, which treated more than 88,000 people over a 34-year-period and collected Chinese medical knowledge. Another set of new Kamakura schools include the two major Zen schools of Japan (Rinzai and Sōtō ), promulgated by monks such as Eisai and Dōgen , which emphasize liberation through the insight of meditation (zazen). Dōgen (1200–1253) began a prominent meditation teacher and abbot. He introduced
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#17327722835831632-506: A more noble lineage, perhaps to attract more adherents. Some have claimed his father was a rōnin , a manorial functionary ( shokan ), or a political refugee. Nichiren's father was Mikuni-no-Tayu Shigetada, also known as Nukina Shigetada Jiro (died 1258); and his mother was Umegiku-nyo (died 1267). On his birth, his parents named him Zennichimaro ( 善日麿 ) which has variously been translated into English as "Splendid Sun" and "Virtuous Sun Boy" among others. The exact site of Nichiren's birth
1768-635: A new system of monastic regulations based on the bodhisattva precepts . This new system allowed Tendai to free itself from direct state control. Also during this period, the Shingon ( Ch. Zhenyan; "True Word", from Sanskrit: " Mantra ") school was established in the country under the leadership of Kūkai . This school also received state sponsorship and introduced esoteric Vajrayana (also referred to as mikkyō , "secret teaching") elements. The new Buddhist lineages of Shingon and Tendai also developed somewhat independently from state control, partly because
1904-446: A school that stressed salvation through nianfo (Japanese nembutsu ) or the invocation of Amitābha (Japanese Amida ), and then studied Zen which had been growing in popularity in both Kamakura and Kyoto . He next traveled to Mount Hiei , the center of Japanese Tendai Buddhism, where he scrutinized the school's original doctrines and its subsequent incorporation of the theories and practices of Pure Land and Esoteric Buddhism . In
2040-584: A set of Buddhist sutras and commentaries. In his future writings Nichiren continued to draw from the same sutras and commentaries, effectively forming Nichiren's canon of sources out of the Buddhist library which he deemed supportive of the Lotus Sutra including the Konkomyo , Daijuku , Ninno , Yakushi , and Nirvana sutras. They share in common apocalyptic or nation-protecting teachings and prophecies. The Risshō Ankoku Ron concludes with an urgent appeal to
2176-421: A severe backlash from the Buddhist priests of other schools. Nichiren was challenged to a religious debate with leading Kamakura prelates in which, by his account, they were swiftly dispatched. Their lay followers, however, attempted to kill him at his dwelling which forced him to flee Kamakura. His critics had influence with key governmental figures and spread slanderous rumors about him. One year after he submitted
2312-606: A solitary wayfarer. Five days later, however, on a visit to the residence of Lord Hakii Sanenaga of Mt. Minobu, he learned that followers in nearby regions had held steadfast during his exile. Despite severe weather and deprivation, Nichiren remained in Minobu for the rest of his career. During his self-imposed exile at Mount Minobu, a location 100 miles west of Kamakura , Nichiren led a widespread movement of followers in Kanto and Sado mainly through his prolific letter-writing. During
2448-518: A visitor who together lament the tragedies that have beleaguered the nation. The wise man answers the guest's questions and, after a heated exchange, gradually leads him to enthusiastically embrace the vision of a country grounded firmly on the ideals of the Lotus Sutra. In this writing Nichiren displays a skill in using analogy, anecdote, and detail to persuasively appeal to an individual's unique psychology, experiences, and level of understanding. The teacher builds his argument by quoting extensively from
2584-505: A vow to study all the Buddhist sutras, commentaries on them by disciples, and explanatory notes by others[.] At the age of 12 he began his Buddhist study at a temple of the Tendai school, Seichō-ji ( 清澄寺 , also called Kiyosumi-dera) . He was formally ordained at sixteen years old and took the Buddhist name Zeshō-bō Renchō ( 是生房蓮長 ) , Renchō meaning "Lotus Growth." He left Seichō-ji for Kamakura where he studied Pure Land Buddhism ,
2720-588: Is Princess Senshi's (964–1035) Hosshin waka shū (Collection of Waka of the Awakening Mind, 1012). The courtly practice of rōei (performing poetry to music) was also taken up in the Tendai and Shingon lineages. Both monks and laypersons met in poetry circles ( kadan ) like the Ninnaji circle which was patronized by Prince Shukaku (1150–1202). The Kamakura period (1185–1333) was a period of crisis in which
2856-477: Is also during this period that true lineages of "Shintō" kami worship begin to develop in Buddhist temples complexes, lineages which would become the basis for institutionalized Shintō of later periods. Buddhists continued to develop theories about the relationship between kami and the Buddhas and bodhisattvas. One such idea, gongen ("provisional manifestation") , promoted the worship of kami as manifest forms of
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#17327722835832992-510: Is an elaborately illustrated Lotus Sūtra installed at Itsukushima Shrine . The Buddhist liturgy of this era also became more elaborate and performative. Rites such as the Repentance Assembly ( keka'e ) at Hōjōji developed to include elaborate music, dance and other forms of performance. Major temples and monasteries such as the royal Hosshōji temple and Kōfukuji, also became home to the performance of Sarugaku theater (which
3128-513: Is believed to be currently submerged off the shore from present-day Kominato-zan Tanjō-ji ( 小湊山誕生寺 ) near a temple in Kominato that commemorates his birth. Between the years 1233 and 1253 Nichiren engaged in an intensive study of all of the ten schools of Buddhism prevalent in Japan at that time as well as the Chinese classics and secular literature. During these years, he became convinced of
3264-589: Is referred to as "new Kamakura" Buddhism, their beginning can actually be traced to the late Heian. This includes the practice of Japanese Pure Land Buddhism , which focuses on the contemplation and chanting of the nenbutsu , the name of the Buddha Amida (Skt. Amitābha) , in hopes of being reborn in the Buddha field of Sukhāvatī . This practice was initially popular in Tendai monasteries but then spread throughout Japan. Texts discussing miracles associated with
3400-565: Is strongly influenced by Chinese Buddhism and Korean Buddhism , which were influenced by Indian Mahayana Buddhism . Though most scholars date the introduction of Buddhism to the middle of the sixth century, Deal and Ruppert note that immigrants from the Korean Peninsula, as well as merchants and sailors who frequented the mainland, likely brought Buddhism with them independent of the transmission as recorded in court chronicles. Some Japanese sources mention this explicitly. For example,
3536-487: Is the origin of Nō Drama ) as well as ennen ("longevity-enhancing") arts which included dances and music. Doctrinally, these performative arts were seen as skillful means ( hōben , Skt. upaya ) of teaching Buddhism. Monks specializing in such arts were called yūsō ("artistic monks"). Another way of communicating the Buddhist message was through the medium of poetry, which included both Chinese poetry ( kanshi ) and Japanese poetry ( waka ). An example of Buddhist themed waka
3672-556: Is vain and illusory, and the Buddha's realm alone is true." Regardless of his actual historical role, however, it is beyond doubt that Shōtoku became an important figure in Japanese Buddhist lore beginning soon after his death if not earlier. Taoist traditions of immortality and becoming a xian made it to Japan in the times of early Buddhism, but Buddhism absorbed them. "[U]nder Buddhist influence," these stories were "associated with certain ascetic monks who were devoted to
3808-823: The Hōon Shō ( 報恩抄 , "On Repaying Debts of Gratitude") constitute, along with his Risshō Ankoku Ron ("On Establishing the Correct Teaching for the Peace of the Land"), Kaimoku Shō ("The Opening of the Eyes"), and Kanjin no Honzon Shō ("The Object of Devotion for Observing the Mind"), what is commonly regarded as his five major writings. During his years at Minobu Nichiren intensified his attacks on mystical and esoteric practices ( 密教 , mikkyō ) that had been incorporated into
3944-561: The Chan lineage of Caodong , which would grow into the Sōtō school. He criticized ideas like the final age of the Dharma ( mappō ), and the practice of apotropaic prayer. Additionally, it was during this period that monk Nichiren (1222–1282) began teaching his exclusively Lotus Sutra based Buddhism, which he saw as the only valid object of devotion in the age of mappō. Nichiren believed that
4080-567: The Ge'ez language are known as gadl (Saint's Life). There are some 200 hagiographies about indigenous saints. They are among the most important Medieval Ethiopian written sources, and some have accurate historical information. They are written by the disciples of the saints. Some were written a long time after the death of a saint, but others were written not long after the saint's demise. Fragments from an Old Nubian hagiography of Saint Michael are extant. Jewish hagiographic writings are common in
4216-579: The Heian Period Fusō ryakki (Abridged Annals of Japan), mentions a foreigner known in Japanese as Shiba no Tatsuto, who may have been Chinese-born, Baekje -born, or a descendant of an immigrant group in Japan. He is said to have built a thatched hut in Yamato and enshrined an object of worship there. Immigrants like this may have been a source for the Soga clan's later sponsorship of Buddhism. The Nihon Shoki ( Chronicles of Japan ) provides
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4352-524: The Lotus Sutra ." Asuka-period (538 to 710) Buddhism ( Asuka bukkyō ) refers to Buddhist practice and thought that mainly developed after 552 in the Nara Basin region . Buddhism grew here through the support and efforts of two main groups: immigrant kinship groups like the Hata clan (who were experts in Chinese technology as well as intellectual and material culture), and through aristocratic clans like
4488-526: The Martyrology of Tallaght and the Félire Óengusso . Such hagiographical calendars were important in establishing lists of native Irish saints, in imitation of continental calendars. In the 10th century, a Byzantine monk Simeon Metaphrastes was the first one to change the genre of lives of the saints into something different, giving it a moralizing and panegyrical character. His catalog of lives of
4624-524: The Middle Ages , can incorporate a record of institutional and local history , and evidence of popular cults , customs, and traditions . However, when referring to modern, non-ecclesiastical works, the term hagiography is often used today as a pejorative reference to biographies and histories whose authors are perceived to be uncritical or excessively reverential toward their subject. Hagiography constituted an important literary genre in
4760-529: The Rissho Ankoku Ron the authorities had him arrested and exiled to the Izu peninsula. Nichiren's Izu exile lasted two years. In his extant writings from this time period, Nichiren began to strongly draw from chapters 10–22 of the Lotus Sutra, what Tanabe calls its "third realm" (daisan hōmon) . Nichiren began to emphasize the purpose of human existence as being the practice of the bodhisattva ideal in
4896-812: The Roman Catholic church , the Eastern Orthodox Church , the Oriental Orthodox churches , and the Church of the East . Other religious traditions such as Buddhism , Hinduism , Taoism , Islam , Sikhism and Jainism also create and maintain hagiographical texts (such as the Sikh Janamsakhis ) concerning saints, gurus and other individuals believed to be imbued with sacred power. Hagiographic works, especially those of
5032-540: The Roman Empire as legends about Christian martyrs were recorded. The dates of their deaths formed the basis of martyrologies . In the 4th century, there were three main types of catalogs of lives of the saints: The earliest lives of saints focused on desert fathers who lived as ascetics from the 4th century onwards. The life of Anthony of Egypt is usually considered the first example of this new genre of Christian biography. In Western Europe , hagiography
5168-713: The Yamato Province to the other regions and islands of Japan. An important part of the centralizing reforms of this era (the Taika reforms ) was the use of Buddhist institutions and rituals (often performed at the palace or capital) in the service of the state. The imperial government also actively built and managed the Buddhist temples as well as the monastic community. The Nihon Shoki states that in 624 there were 46 Buddhist temples. Some of these temples include Kawaradera and Yakushiji . Archeological research has also revealed numerous local and regional temples outside of
5304-404: The early Christian church , providing some informational history along with the more inspirational stories and legends . A hagiographic account of an individual saint could consist of a biography ( vita ), a description of the saint's deeds or miracles, an account of the saint's martyrdom ( passio ), or be a combination of these. The genre of lives of the saints first came into being in
5440-745: The six old schools established in the Nara period (710－794). Originating in India, Buddhism arrived in Japan by first making its way to China and Korea through the Silk Road and then traveling by sea to the Japanese archipelago . Though often overlooked in Western academia, Buddhism was transmitted through trade routes across South East Asia in addition to the Sinophere. As such, early Japanese Buddhism
5576-420: The 16th and 17th centuries. Hagiography A hagiography ( / ˌ h æ ɡ i ˈ ɒ ɡ r ə f i / ; from Ancient Greek ἅγιος , hagios 'holy' and -γραφία , -graphia 'writing') is a biography of a saint or an ecclesiastical leader, as well as, by extension, an adulatory and idealized biography of a preacher, priest, founder, saint, monk, nun or icon in any of
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5712-437: The 16th. Production remained dynamic and kept pace with scholarly developments in historical biographical writing until 1925, when Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (d. 1938) placed an interdiction on Ṣūfī brotherhoods. As Turkey relaxed legal restrictions on Islamic practice in the 1950s and the 1980s, Ṣūfīs returned to publishing hagiography, a trend which continues in the 21st century. The pseudobiography of L. Ron Hubbard compiled by
5848-521: The Buddha, funerals, memorial rites for ancestral spirits, the feeding of hungry ghosts, feasts sponsored by donors, and tea services that served to highlight the bureaucratic and social hierarchy." Medieval Rinzai was also invigorated by a series of Chinese masters who came to Japan during the Song dynasty , such as Issan Ichinei (1247–1317). Issan influenced the Japanese interest in Chinese literature, calligraphy and painting. The Japanese literature of
5984-480: The Buddhas and bodhisattvas became popular in this period, along with texts which outlined death bed rites. During this period, some Buddhist temples established groups of warrior-monks called Sōhei . This phenomenon began in Tendai temples, as they vied for political influence with each other. The Genpei war saw various groups of warrior monks join the fray. There were also semi-independent clerics (who were called shōnin or hijiri, "holy ones") who lived away from
6120-455: The Buddhas. A group of Tendai monks at Mt. Hiei meanwhile incorporated hongaku thought into their worship of the kami Sannō, which eventually came to be seen as the source or "original ground" ( honji ) of all Buddhas (thereby reversing the old honji suijaku theory which saw the Buddha as the honji ). This idea can be found in the work of the Hiei monk Sonshun (1451–1514). Beginning with
6256-430: The Buddhist immigrant groups, Asuka Buddhism was mainly the purview of aristocratic groups like the Soga clan and other related clans, who patronized clan temples as a way to express their power and influence. These temples mainly focused on the performance of rituals which were believed to provide magical effects, such as protection. During this period, Buddhist art was dominated by the style of Tori Busshi , who came from
6392-686: The Earth who pledged to liberate the oppressed. The numerous letters and minor treatises he wrote in Sado include what is considered his two most significant works, the Kanjin no Honzon Shō ( 観心本尊抄 , "The Object of Devotion for Observing the Mind") and the Kaimoku Shō ( 開目抄 , "On the Opening of the Eyes") . In the latter he stated that facing adversity should be regarded as a matter of course and that
6528-492: The Five Mountains ( Gozan Bungaku ) reflects this influence. One of his students was Musō Soseki , a Zen master, calligraphist, poet and garden designer who was granted the title "national Zen teacher" by Emperor Go-Daigo . The Zen monk poets Sesson Yūbai and Kokan Shiren also studied under Issan. Shiren was also a historian who wrote the Buddhist history Genkō shakusho . The Royal court and elite families of
6664-710: The Japanese Tendai school. It becomes clear at this point that he understood that he was creating his own form of Lotus Buddhism. Nichiren and his disciples completed the Myō-hōkke-in Kuon-ji Temple ( 久遠寺 ) in 1281. In the 19th century this structure burned down to be replaced by a new structure completed in the second half of the Meiji era. While at Minobu Nichiren also inscribed numerous Mandala Gohonzon for bestowal upon specific disciples and lay believers. Nichiren Shoshu believers claim that after
6800-536: The Kamakura period, these new schools did not gain as much prominence as the older lineages, with the possible exception of the highly influential Rinzai Zen school. Among the founders of the forty-six sects in Japanese Zen, sixteen were Chinese masters, fifteen were Japanese masters who traveled to China during the reign of the Song dynasty , and another fifteen were Japanese masters who visited China during
6936-458: The Lotus Sutra as based on its original Tendai interpretations. His 1260 treatise Risshō Ankoku Ron ( 立正安国論 , On Establishing the Correct Teaching for the Peace of the Land) argued that a nation that embraces the Lotus Sutra will experience peace and prosperity whereas rulers who support inferior religious teachings invite disorder and disaster into their realms. In a 1264 essay, he stated that
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#17327722835837072-464: The Lotus Sutra. He accelerated his polemics against the non-Lotus teachings the government had been patronizing at the very time it was attempting to solidify national unity and resolve. In a series of letters to prominent leaders he directly provoked the major prelates of Kamakura temples that the Hojo family patronized, criticized the principles of Zen which was popular among the samurai class, critiqued
7208-554: The Mongols sent envoys to Japan demanding tribute and threatening invasion. Nichiren sent 11 letters to influential leaders reminding them about his predictions in the Rissho Ankoku Ron . The threat and execution of Mongol invasion was the worst crisis in pre-modern Japanese history. In 1269 Mongol envoys again arrived to demand Japanese submission to their hegemony and the bakufu responded by mobilizing military defenses. The role of Buddhism in "nation-protection" ( chingo kokka )
7344-556: The Soga, blaming their worship for disease and disorder. These opponents of Buddhism are even said to have thrown the image of the Buddha into the Naniwa canal. Eventually outright war erupted. The Soga side, led by Soga no Umako and a young Prince Shōtoku , emerged victorious and promoted Buddhism on the archipelago with support of the broader court. Based on traditional sources, Shōtoku has been seen as an ardent Buddhist who taught, wrote on, and promoted Buddhism widely, especially during
7480-596: The Soga. Immigrant groups like the Korean monks who supposedly instructed Shōtoku introduced Buddhist learning, administration, ritual practice and the skills to build Buddhist art and architecture. They included individuals like Ekan (dates unknown), a Koguryŏ priest of the Madhyamaka school, who (according to the Nihon Shoki ) was appointed to the highest rank of primary monastic prelate ( sōjō ). Aside from
7616-418: The animosity of the local steward, Tojo Kagenobu, who attempted to have Nichiren killed. Modern scholarship suggests that events unfolded not in a single day but over a longer period of time and had social, and political dimensions. Nichiren then developed a base of operation in Kamakura where he converted several Tendai priests, directly ordained others, and attracted lay disciples who were drawn mainly from
7752-531: The capital also studied the classic Chinese arts that were being taught in the five mountain Rinzai temples. The shogunal families even built Zen temples in their residential palaces. The five mountain temples also established their own printing program ( Gozan-ban ) to copy and disseminate a wide variety of literature that included records of Zen masters, the writings of Tang poets , Confucian classics , Chinese dictionaries, reference works, and medical texts. It
7888-548: The capital was shifted to Kyoto (then known as Heiankyō ) by emperor Kanmu , mainly for economic and strategic reasons. As before, Buddhist institutions continued to play a key role in the state, with Kanmu being a strong supporter of the new Tendai school of Saichō (767–822) in particular. Saichō, who had studied the Tiantai school in China, established the influential temple complex of Enryakuji at Mount Hiei , and developed
8024-513: The capital where great temples such as the Asuka-dera and Tōdai-ji were erected. The most influential of the temples are known as the " seven great temples of the southern capital " ( Nanto Shichi Daiji ). The temples were not exclusive and sectarian organizations. Instead, temples were apt to have scholars versed in several of schools of thought. It has been suggested that they can best be thought of as "study groups". State temples continued
8160-469: The capital. At the state temples, Buddhist rituals were performed in order to create merit for the royal family and the well-being of the nation. Particular attention was paid to rituals centered around Buddhist sutras (scriptures), such as the Golden Light Sutra . The monastic community was overseen by the complex and hierarchical imperial Monastic Office ( sōgō ), who managed everything from
8296-793: The case of Talmudic and Kabbalistic writings and later in the Hasidic movement. Hagiography in Islam began in the Arabic language with biographical writing about the Prophet Muhammad in the 8th century CE, a tradition known as sīra . From about the 10th century CE, a genre generally known as manāqib also emerged, which comprised biographies of the imams ( madhāhib ) who founded different schools of Islamic thought ( madhhab ) about shariʿa , and of Ṣūfī saints . Over time, hagiography about Ṣūfīs and their miracles came to predominate in
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#17327722835838432-465: The conflicts and disasters of this period were caused by the wrong views of Japanese Buddhists (such as the followers of Pure Land and esoteric Buddhism). Nichiren faced much opposition for his views and was also attacked and exiled twice by the Kamakura state. During this period, the new "Kamakura schools" continued to develop and began to consolidate themselves as unique and separate traditions. However, as Deal and Ruppert note, "most of them remained at
8568-453: The control of the country moved from the imperial aristocracy to the samurai . In 1185 the Kamakura shogunate was established at Kamakura . This period saw the development of new Buddhist lineages or schools which have been called "Kamakura Buddhism" and "New Buddhism". All of the major founders of these new lineages were ex-Tendai monks who had trained at Mt. Hiei and had studied the exoteric and esoteric systems of Tendai Buddhism. During
8704-464: The devastating Ōnin War (1467–1477) , the late Muromachi period saw the devolution of central government control and the rise of regional samurai warlords called daimyōs and the so called "warring states era" ( Sengokuki ). During this era of widespread warfare, many Buddhist temples and monasteries were destroyed, particularly in and around Kyoto. Many of these old temples would not be rebuilt until
8840-645: The development of the six great Nara schools, called Nanto Rokushū ( 南都六宗 , lit. the Six Sects of the Southern Capital ) , all were continuations of Chinese Buddhist schools. The temples of these schools became important places for the study of Buddhist doctrine. The six Nara schools were: Ritsu ( Vinaya ), Jōjitsu ( Tattvasiddhi ) , Kusha-shū ( Abhidharmakosha ), Sanronshū ( East Asian Mādhyamaka ), Hossō ( East Asian Yogācāra ) and Kegon ( Huayan ). These schools were centered around
8976-453: The domain. At this point Nichiren was transferred to much better accommodations. While on Sado island, Nichiren inscribed the first Mandala Gohonzon ( 御本尊 ) . Although there is evidence of a Gohonzon in embryonic form as far back as the days right before his exile, the first in full form is dated to 8 July 1273 and includes the inscription of "Nichiren inscribes this for the first time." His writings on Sado provide his rationale for
9112-514: The esoteric practices of Shingon just as the government was invoking them, and condemned the ideas underlying Risshū as it was enjoying a revival. His actions at that time have been described by modern scholars either as a high form of altruism or the ravings of a fanatic and madman. His claims drew the ire of the influential religious figures of the time and their followers, especially the Shingon priest Ryōkan ( 良観 ) . In September 1271, after
9248-446: The evolution of his beliefs has been gleaned primarily from his writings. He claimed the reincarnation of Jōgyō bodhisattva in a past life, and designated six senior disciples, of which the claims to successorship are contested. After his death, he was bestowed the title Nichiren Dai-Bosatsu ( 日蓮大菩薩 , Great Bodhisattva Nichiren) by the Emperor Go-Kōgon in 1358 and the title Risshō Daishi ( 立正大師 , Great Teacher of Correction)
9384-423: The execution of the three Atsuhara farmers he inscribed the Dai Gohonzon on 12 October 1279, a Gohonzon specifically addressed to all humanity. This assertion has been disputed by other schools as historically and textually incorrect. It is enshrined currently at the Tahō Fuji Dai-Nichirenge-Zan Taiseki-ji , informally known as the Head Temple Taiseki-ji of the Nichiren Shōshū Order of Buddhism , located at
9520-424: The eyes of Japan, the great ship of Japan." At the end of the 1271–1272 winter Nichiren's conditions had improved. He had attracted a small band of followers in Sado who provided him with support and disciples from the mainland began visiting him and providing supplies. In 1272 there was an attempted coup in Kamakura and Kyoto, seemingly fulfilling the prediction he had made in the Rissho Ankoku Ron of rebellion in
9656-424: The final moment an astronomical phenomenon, "a brilliant orb as bright as the moon," arced over the execution grounds, terrifying Nichiren's executioners into inaction. Some scholars have proposed alternative narratives for this story. Regardless of the account, Nichiren's life was spared and he was exiled to Sado Island . The incident has become known as the "Tatsunokuchi Persecution" and was regarded by Nichiren as
9792-453: The final stage of this twenty-year period he traveled to Mount Kōya , the center of Shingon esoteric Buddhism, and to Nara where he studied its six established schools , especially the Ritsu sect which emphasized strict monastic discipline . According to one of his letters, Nichiren returned to Seicho-ji Temple on 28 April 1253 to lecture on his twenty years of scholarship. What followed
9928-668: The foot of Mount Fuji in Fujinomiya, Shizuoka . Several of these Mandala Gohonzon are prominently retained by the Nichiren-shū in Yamanashi Prefecture . Others survive today in the repositories of Nichiren Shōshū temples such as Taiseki-ji ( 大石寺 ) in Fujinomiya, Shizuoka , which has a particularly large collection of scrolls that is publicly aired once a year. Buddhism in Japan Buddhism
10064-522: The genre of manāqib . Likewise influenced by early Islamic research into hadiths and other biographical information about the Prophet, Persian scholars began writing Persian hagiography , again mainly of Sūfī saints, in the eleventh century CE. The Islamicisation of the Turkish regions led to the development of Turkish biographies of saints, beginning in the 13th century CE and gaining pace around
10200-402: The important hagiographical texts composed in medieval England were written in the vernacular dialect Anglo-Norman . With the introduction of Latin literature into England in the 7th and 8th centuries the genre of the life of the saint grew increasingly popular. When one contrasts it to the popular heroic poem, such as Beowulf , one finds that they share certain common features. In Beowulf ,
10336-452: The kami in different ways. Some monks saw them as just worldly beings who could be prayed for. Other saw them as manifestations of Buddhas and bodhisattvas. For example, the Mt. Hiei monk Eryō saw the kami as "traces" (suijaku) of the Buddha. This idea, called essence-trace ( honji-suijaku ) , would have a strong influence throughout the medieval era. The copying and writing of Buddhist scripture
10472-535: The key Lotus Sutra characters Sadāparibhūta and Visistacaritra and saw himself in the role of leading a vast outpouring of Bodhisattvas of the Earth . In 1274, after his two predictions of foreign invasion and political strife were seemingly actualized by the first attempted Mongol invasion of Japan along with an unsuccessful coup within the Hōjō clan , Nichiren was pardoned by the Shogunate authorities and his advice
10608-443: The lives of St. Patrick , St. Columba (Latin)/Colum Cille (Irish) and St. Brigit/Brigid —Ireland's three patron saints. The earliest extant Life was written by Cogitosus . Additionally, several Irish calendars relating to the feastdays of Christian saints (sometimes called martyrologies or feastologies ) contained abbreviated synopses of saint's lives, which were compiled from many different sources. Notable examples include
10744-531: The lives of Saints Meriasek and Kea , respectively. Other examples of hagiographies from England include: Ireland is notable in its rich hagiographical tradition, and for the large amount of material which was produced during the Middle Ages. Irish hagiographers wrote primarily in Latin while some of the later saint's lives were written in the hagiographer's native vernacular Irish . Of particular note are
10880-463: The lowly people living on a rocky strand of the out-of-the-way sea," and "the son of a sea-diver." In contrast, Hōnen , Shinran , Dōgen , and Eisai , the other founders of religious schools who predated Nichiren, were all born in the Kyoto region and came from noble or samurai backgrounds. Although his writings reflect a fierce pride of his lowly birth, followers after his death began to ascribe to him
11016-484: The lunar Chinese calendar , Nichiren was born on 16th of the second month in 1222, which is 6 April in the Gregorian calendar . Nichiren was born in the village of Kominato (today part of the city of Kamogawa ), Nagase District, Awa Province (within present-day Chiba Prefecture ). Accounts of his lineage vary. Nichiren described himself as "the son of a Sendara ( Skt: chandala , despised outcast), "a son born of
11152-468: The major Buddhist monasteries and preached to the people. These figures had much more contact with the general populace than other monks. The most well known of these figures was Kūya (alt. Kōya; 903–972), who wandered throughout the provinces engaging in good works ( sazen ), preaching on nembutsu practice and working with local Buddhist cooperatives ( zenchishiki ) to create images of bodhisattvas like Kannon. Another important development during this era
11288-575: The mass adoption of the Pure Land teachings. The most renowned of these works, considered his first major treatise, was the Risshō Ankoku Ron ( 立正安国論 ) , "On Securing the Peace of the Land through the Propagation of True Buddhism." Nichiren submitted it to Hōjō Tokiyori , the de facto leader of the Kamakura shogunate , as a political move to effectuate radical reform. In it he argued
11424-462: The means for people to directly access the Buddha's enlightenment. At the bottom of each mandala he wrote: "This is the great mandala never before revealed in Jambudvipa during the more than 2,200 years since the Buddha's nirvana." He inscribed many Mandala Gohonzon during the rest of his life. More than a hundred Mandala Gohonzon preserved today are attributed to Nichiren's own hand. Nichiren
11560-698: The medieval era, political power was decentralized and shrine-temple complexes were often competing with each other for influence and power. These complexes often controlled land and multiple manors, and also maintained military forces of warrior monks which they used to battle with each other. In spite of the instability of this era, the culture of Buddhist study and learning continued to thrive and grow. Furthermore, though there were numerous independent Buddhist schools and lineages at this time, many monks did not exclusively belong to one lineage and instead traveled to study and learn in various temples and seminaries. This tendency of practicing in multiple schools or lineages
11696-455: The middle of the sixth century, Buddhism was introduced through official diplomatic channels. According to the Nihon Shoki , after receiving the Buddhist gifts, the Japanese emperor asked his officials if the Buddha should be worshipped in Japan. They were divided on the issue, with Soga no Iname (506–570) supporting the idea while Mononobe no Okoshi and Nakatomi no Kamako worried that the kami of Japan would become angry at this worship of
11832-407: The midst of day-to-day realities. At the same event, according to his own account and subsequent hagiography, he changed his name to Nichiren , an abbreviation of nichi ( 日 , "Sun") and ren ( 蓮 , "Lotus") . Nichi represents both the light of truth and the sun goddess Amaterasu , symbolizing Japan itself. Ren signifies the Lotus Sutra. Nichiren envisioned Japan as the country where
11968-430: The monastic code to the color of the robes. In 710, Empress Genme moved the state capital to Heijōkyō , (modern Nara ) thus inaugurating the Nara period . This period saw the establishment of the kokubunji system, which was a way to manage provincial temples through a network of national temples in each province. The head temple of the entire system was Tōdai-ji (completed in 752). Nara state sponsorship saw
12104-567: The nativity of Christ and ending with three texts to which no saints' days are attached. The text spans the entire year and describes the lives of many saints, both English and continental, and harks back to some of the earliest saints of the early church. There are two known instances where saint's lives were adapted into vernacular plays in Britain. These are the Cornish-language works Beunans Meriasek and Beunans Ke , about
12240-476: The necessity for "the Sovereign to recognize and accept the singly true and correct form of Buddhism (i.e., 立正 risshō ) as the only way to achieve peace and prosperity for the land and its people and end their suffering (i.e., 安国 ankoku )." Using a dialectic form well-established in China and Japan, the treatise is a 10-segment fictional dialogue between a Buddhist wise man, presumably Nichiren, and
12376-446: The old schools did not happen all at once. In fact, the new schools remained under the old schools' doctrinal and political influence for some time. For example, Ōhashi Toshio has stressed how during this period, the Jōdo sect was mainly seen as a subsidiary or temporary branch sect of Tendai. Furthermore, not all monks of the old sects were antagonistic to the new sects. During the height of
12512-423: The old system was becoming less important to Heian aristocrats. This period also saw an increase in the official separation between the different schools, due to a new system that specified the particular school which an imperial priest ( nenbundosha ) belonged to. During this period, there was a consolidation of a series of annual court ceremonies ( nenjū gyōji ). Tendai Buddhism was particularly influential, and
12648-464: The only Romanesque doors in Europe to feature the life of a saint. The life of Saint Adalbert of Prague , who is buried in the cathedral, is shown in 18 scenes, probably based on a lost illuminated copy of one of his Lives. The Bollandist Society continues the study, academic assembly, appraisal and publication of materials relating to the lives of Christian saints (see Acta Sanctorum ). Many of
12784-486: The original life stories of their first saints, e.g. Boris and Gleb , Theodosius Pechersky etc. In the 16th century, Metropolitan Macarius expanded the list of the Russian saints and supervised the compiling process of their life stories. They would all be compiled in the so-called Velikiye chet'yi-minei catalog (Великие Четьи-Минеи, or Great Menaion Reader ), consisting of 12 volumes in accordance with each month of
12920-501: The periphery of Buddhist institutional power and, in some ways, discourse during this era." They further add that it was only "from the late fifteenth century onward that these lineages came to increasingly occupy the center of Japanese Buddhist belief and practice." The only exception is Rinzai Zen, which attained prominence earlier (13th century). Meanwhile, the "old" schools and lineages continued to develop in their own ways and remained influential. The new schools' independence from
13056-569: The practice of conducting numerous rituals for the good of the nation and the imperial family. Rituals centered on scriptures like the Golden Light and the Lotus Sūtra . Another key function of the state temples was the transcription of Buddhist scriptures, which was seen as generating much merit. Buddhist monastics were firmly controlled by the state's monastic office through an extensive monastic code of law, and monastic ranks were matched to
13192-492: The preeminence of the Lotus Sutra and in 1253 returned to the temple where he first studied to present his findings. In a 1271 letter Nichiren outlined his rationale for deeply studying Buddhism: [D]etermined to plant a seed of Buddhahood and attain Buddhahood in this life, just as all other people, I relied on Amida Buddha and chanted the name of this Buddha since childhood. However, I began doubting this practice, making
13328-456: The ranks of government officials. It was also during this era that the Nihon Shoki was written, a text which shows significant Buddhist influence. The monk Dōji (?–744) may have been involved in its compilation. The elite state sponsored Nara Buddhism was not the only type of Buddhism at this time. There were also groups of unofficial monastics or priests (or, self-ordained; shido sōni ) who were either not formally ordained and trained through
13464-514: The real world which entails undertaking struggle and manifesting endurance. He suggested that he is a model of this behavior, a "votary" ( gyōja ) of the Lotus Sutra. Upon being pardoned in 1263 Nichiren returned to Kamakura. In November 1264 he was ambushed and nearly killed at Komatsubara in Awa Province by a force led by Lord Tōjō Kagenobu. For the next few years he preached in provinces outside of Kamakura but returned in 1268. At this point
13600-708: The rebirth of Bodhisattva Visistacaritra to the Primordial or "True Buddha" ( 本仏 , Honbutsu ) of the Third Age of Buddhism. The main narrative of Nichiren's life has been constructed from extant letters and treatises he wrote, counted in one collection as 523 complete writings and 248 fragments. Aside from historical documents stored in the repositories of various Nichiren sects, the first extensive non-religious biographical account of Nichiren did not appear until more than 200 years after his death. He launched his teachings in 1253, advocating an exclusive return to
13736-425: The reign of Empress Suiko (554 – 15 April 628). He is also believed to have sent envoys to China and is even seen as a spiritually accomplished bodhisattva who is the true founder of Japanese Buddhism. Modern historians have questioned much of this, seeing most of it as a constructed hagiography . A popular quote attributed to Shōtoku that became foundational for Buddhist belief in Japan is translated as "The world
13872-490: The reign of the Yuan dynasty . The new schools include Pure Land lineages like Hōnen's (1133–1212) Jōdo shū and Shinran's (1173–1263) Jōdo Shinshū , both of which focused on the practice of chanting the name of Amida Buddha. These new Pure Land schools both believed that Japan had entered the era of the decline of the Dharma ( mappō ) and that therefore other Buddhist practices were not useful. The only means to liberation
14008-489: The repeated recitation of its title, Nam(u)-myoho-renge-kyo , as the only path to Buddhahood and held that Shakyamuni Buddha and all other Buddhist deities were extraordinary manifestations of a particular Buddha-nature termed Myoho-Renge that is equally accessible to all. He declared that believers of the Sutra must propagate it even under persecution. Nichiren was a prolific writer and his biography, temperament, and
14144-415: The resolve to carry on with the mission to propagate the sutra was for him more important than guarantees of protection: "Let Heaven forsake me. Let ordeals confront me. I will not begrudge bodily life... . No matter what trials we may encounter, so long as we do not have a mind of doubt, I and my disciples will naturally achieve the Buddha realm." He concluded this work with the vow to be the "pillar of Japan,
14280-689: The rhetorical tools necessary to present their faith through the example of the saints' lives. Of all the English hagiographers no one was more prolific nor so aware of the importance of the genre as Abbot Ælfric of Eynsham . His work Lives of the Saints contains set of sermons on saints' days, formerly observed by the English Church. The text comprises two prefaces, one in Latin and one in Old English , and 39 lives beginning on 25 December with
14416-404: The ruler to cease all financial support for Buddhist schools promoting inferior teachings. Otherwise, Nichiren warns, as predicted by the sutras, the continued influence of inferior teachings would invite even more natural disasters as well as the outbreak of civil strife and foreign invasion. Nichiren submitted his treatise on 16 July 1260 but it drew no official response. It did, however, prompt
14552-517: The saints became the standard for all of the Western and Eastern hagiographers, who would create relative biographies and images of the ideal saints by gradually departing from the real facts of their lives. Over the years, the genre of lives of the saints had absorbed a number of narrative plots and poetic images (often, of pre-Christian origin, such as dragon fighting etc.), mediaeval parables , short stories and anecdotes . The genre of lives of
14688-643: The saints was introduced in the Slavic world in the Bulgarian Empire in the late 9th and early 10th century, where the first original hagiographies were produced on Cyril and Methodius , Clement of Ohrid and Naum of Preslav . Eventually the Bulgarians brought this genre to Kievan Rus' together with writing and also in translations from the Greek language. In the 11th century, they began to compile
14824-431: The so-called "Atsuhara affair" of 1279 when governmental attacks were aimed at Nichiren's followers rather than himself, Nichiren's letters reveal an assertive and well-informed leader who provided detailed instructions through a sophisticated network of disciples serving as liaisons between Minobu and other affected areas in Japan. He also showed the ability to provide a compelling narrative of events that gave his followers
14960-461: The state channels, or who chose to preach and practice outside of the system. These "unofficial" monks were often subject to state punishment. Their practice could have also included Daoist and indigenous kami worship elements. Some of these figures became immensely popular and were a source of criticism for the sophisticated, academic and bureaucratic Buddhism of the capital. During the Heian period ,
15096-467: The strata of the lower and middle samurai class. Their households provided Nichiren with economic support and became the core of Nichiren communities in several locations in the Kanto region of Japan. Nichiren arrived in Kamakura in 1254. Between 1254 and 1260 half of the population had perished due to a tragic succession of calamities that included drought, earthquakes, epidemics, famine, fires, and storms. Nichiren sought scriptural references to explain
15232-486: The timing of the next Mongol invasion . Nichiren predicted that it would occur within the year. He used the audience as yet another opportunity to remonstrate with the government. Claiming that reliance on prayers based on esoteric rituals would invite further calamity, he urged the bakufu to ground itself exclusively on the Lotus Sutra. Deeply disappointed by the government's refusal to heed his advice, Nichiren left Kamakura one month later, on 12 May, determined to become
15368-500: The title of the Lotus Sutra, "Nam(u)-myoho-renge-kyo," encompasses all Buddhist teachings and its recitation leads to enlightenment. As a result of his adamant stance, he experienced severe persecution imposed by the Kamakura Shogunate and consequently began to see himself as "bodily reading the Lotus Sutra ( Jpn. Hokke shikidoku )." In some of his writings during a second exile (1271–1274) he began to identify himself with
15504-417: The titular character battles against Grendel and his mother , while the saint, such as Athanasius ' Anthony (one of the original sources for the hagiographic motif) or the character of Guthlac , battles against figures no less substantial in a spiritual sense. Both genres then focus on the hero-warrior figure, but with the distinction that the saint is of a spiritual sort. Imitation of the life of Christ
15640-551: The traditional foundations of the Buddhist path, ethical cultivation and meditation practice. Other monks attempted to minister to marginalized low class groups. The Kegon-Shingon monk Myō'e was known for opening his temple to lepers, beggars, and other marginal people, while precept masters such as Eison (1201–1290) and Ninshō (1217–1303) were also active in ministering and caring for ill and marginalized persons, particularly those outcast groups termed "non-persons" ( hinin ). Deal & Ruppert (2015) p. 122 Ninshō established
15776-487: The true teaching of Buddhism would be revived and the starting point for its worldwide spread. At his lecture, it is construed, Nichiren vehemently attacked Honen , the founder of Pure Land Buddhism , and its practice of chanting the Nembutsu , Nam(u) Amida Butsu . It is likely he also denounced the core teachings of Seicho-ji which had incorporated non-exclusive Lotus Sutra teachings and practices. In so doing he earned
15912-570: The unfolding of natural disasters and then wrote a series of works which, based on the Buddhist theory of the non-duality of the human mind and the environment, attributed the sufferings to the weakened spiritual condition of people, thereby causing the Kami (protective forces or traces of the Buddha) to abandon the nation. The root cause of this, he argued, was the widespread decline of the Dharma due to
16048-663: The veneration of the Lotus Sūtra grew in popularity, even among the low class and non-aristocratic population, which often formed religious groups such as the "Lotus holy ones" ( hokke hijiri or jikyōja ) and mountain ascetics ( shugenja ) . Shugendō is an example of the fusion of Shinto mountain worship and Buddhism. The aim of Shugendo practitioners is to save the masses by acquiring supernatural powers through rigorous training while walking through steep mountains. Furthermore, during this era, new Buddhist traditions began to develop. While some of these have been grouped into what
16184-436: The world's religions. Early Christian hagiographies might consist of a biography or vita (from Latin vita , life, which begins the title of most medieval biographies), a description of the saint's deeds or miracles, an account of the saint's martyrdom (called a passio ), or be a combination of these. Christian hagiographies focus on the lives, and notably the miracles , ascribed to men and women canonized by
16320-511: The year. They were revised and expanded by St. Dimitry of Rostov in 1684–1705. The Life of Alexander Nevsky was a particularly notable hagiographic work of the era. Today, the works in the genre of lives of the saints represent a valuable historical source and reflection of different social ideas, world outlook and aesthetic concepts of the past. The Oriental Orthodox Churches also have their own hagiographic traditions. For instance, Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church hagiographies in
16456-404: Was Enni Ben'en (1202–1280), a high-ranking and influential monk who was initiated into Tendai and Shingon. He then traveled to China to study Zen and later founded Tōfukuji . The Tendai and Shingon credentials of Rinzai figures such as Enni show that early Zen was not a lineage that was totally separate from the other "old" schools. Indeed, Zen monastic codes feature procedures for "worship of
16592-459: Was a widespread practice in this period. It was seen as producing merit (good karma). Artistic portraits depicting events from the scriptures were also quite popular during this era. They were used to generate merit as well as to preach and teach the doctrine. The "Enshrined Sutra of the Taira Family " ( Heikenōkyō ), is one of the greatest examples of Buddhist visual art from this period. It
16728-548: Was conferred posthumously through imperial edict by the Emperor Taisho in 1922. Nichiren Buddhism today includes traditional temple schools such as Nichiren-shu sects and Nichiren Shōshū , as well as lay movements such as Soka Gakkai , Risshō Kōsei Kai , Reiyūkai , Kenshōkai , Honmon Butsuryū-shū , Kempon Hokke , and Shōshinkai among many others. Each group has varying views of Nichiren's teachings with claims and interpretations of Nichiren's identity ranging from
16864-401: Was dispatched to a small dilapidated temple located in a graveyard. Nichiren was accompanied by a few disciples and in the first winter they endured terrible cold, food deprivation, and threats from local inhabitants. Nichiren scholars describe a clear shift in both tone and message in letters written before his Sado exile and those written during and after. Initially, Nichiren's urgent concern
17000-1006: Was first established in Japan in the 6th century CE. Most of the Japanese Buddhists belong to new schools of Buddhism which were established in the Kamakura period (1185－1333). During the Edo (Tokugawa)-period (1603–1868), Buddhism was controlled by the feudal Shogunate . The Meiji-period (1868–1912) saw a strong response against Buddhism, with persecution and a forced separation between Buddhism and Shinto ( Shinbutsu bunri ). As of 2022, around 70.8 million people, or about 67% of Japan's total population, identify as Buddhist. The largest sects of Japanese Buddhism are Pure Land Buddhism with 22 million believers, followed by Nichiren Buddhism with 10 million believers, Shingon Buddhism with 5.4 million, Zen Buddhism with 5.3 million, Tendai Buddhism with 2.8 million, and only about 700,000 for
17136-464: Was his first public declaration of Nam(u) Myoho Renge Kyo atop Mount Kiyosumi that same day. This marked the start of his campaign to return Tendai to the exclusive reliance of the Lotus Sutra and his efforts to convert the entire Japanese nation to this belief. This declaration also marks the start of his efforts to make profound Buddhist theory practical and actionable so an ordinary person could manifest Buddhahood within his or her own lifetime in
17272-431: Was long established in Japan at this time and the government galvanized prayers from Buddhist schools for this purpose. Nichiren and his followers, however, felt emboldened that the predictions he had made in 1260 of foreign invasion seemingly were being fulfilled and more people joined their movement. Daring a rash response from the bakufu , Nichiren vowed in letters to his followers that he was giving his life to actualize
17408-484: Was now the faithful chanting of the nembutsu. This view was critiqued by more traditional figures such as Myō'e (1173–1232). Another response to the social instability of the period was an attempt by certain monks to return to the proper practice of Buddhist precepts as well as meditation. These figures include figures like the Kōfukuji monk Jōkei (1155–1213) and the Tendai monk Shunjō (1166–1227), who sought to return to
17544-499: Was one of the more important vehicles for the study of inspirational history during the Middle Ages . The Golden Legend of Jacobus de Voragine compiled a great deal of medieval hagiographic material, with a strong emphasis on miracle tales. Lives were often written to promote the cult of local or national states, and in particular to develop pilgrimages to visit relics . The bronze Gniezno Doors of Gniezno Cathedral in Poland are
17680-421: Was pardoned on 14 February 1274 and returned to Kamakura one month later on 26 March. Nichiren wrote that his innocence and the accuracy of his predictions caused the regent Hōjō Tokimune to intercede on his behalf. Scholars have suggested that some of his well-connected followers might have had influence on the government's decision to release him. On 8 April he was summoned by Hei no Saemon, who inquired about
17816-534: Was popular in Kyūshū . Popular sites for pilgrimage and religious practice, like Kumano , included both kami worship and the worship of Buddhas and bodhisattvas, which were often associated with each other. Furthermore, temples like Tōdai-ji also included shrines for the worship of kami (in Tōdai-ji's case, it was the kami Shukongōjin that was enshrined in its rear entryway). Buddhist monks interpreted their relationship to
17952-426: Was sought but not heeded. The Risshō Ankoku Ron in which he first predicted foreign invasion and civil disorder is now considered by Japanese historians to be a literary classic illustrating the apprehensions of that period. Several hagiographies about Nichiren and are reflected in various pieces of artwork about incidents in his life. Nichiren remains a controversial figure among scholars who cast him as either
18088-722: Was termed shoshū kengaku . It became much more prominent in the medieval era due to the increased social mobility that many monks enjoyed . Both the Kamakura shogunate (1192–1333) and the Ashikaga shogunate (1336–1573) supported and patronized the " Five Mountains culture " ( Gozan Jissetsu Seido ) of Rinzai Zen. This Rinzai Zen tradition was centered on the ten "Five Mountain" temples (five in Kyoto and five in Kamakura). Besides teaching zazen meditation, they also pursued studies in esoteric Buddhism and in certain art forms like calligraphy and poetry. A pivotal early figure of Rinzai
18224-509: Was that Buddhist monks were now being widely encouraged by the state to pray for the salvation of Japanese kami (divine beings in Shinto). The merging of Shinto deities with Buddhist practice was not new at this time. Already in the eighth century, some major Shinto shrines ( jingūji ) included Buddhist monks which conducted rites for shinto divinities. One of the earliest such figures was "great Bodhisattva Hachiman " (Hachiman daibosatsu) who
18360-408: Was then the benchmark against which saints were measured, and imitation of the lives of saints was the benchmark against which the general population measured itself. In Anglo-Saxon and medieval England, hagiography became a literary genre par excellence for the teaching of a largely illiterate audience. Hagiography provided priests and theologians with classical handbooks in a form that allowed them
18496-469: Was to rally his followers in Kamakura. The tactics of the bakufu suppression of the Nichiren community included exile, imprisonment, land confiscation, or ousting from clan membership. Apparently a majority of his disciples abandoned their faith and others questioned why they and Nichiren were facing such adversity in light of the Lotus Sutra's promise of "peace and security in the present life." In response he began to identify himself with Sadāparibhūta ,
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