The way
137-733: The "goal" Background Chinese texts Classical Post-classical Contemporary Zen in Japan Seon in Korea Thiền in Vietnam Western Zen Japanese Zen refers to the Japanese forms of Zen Buddhism , an originally Chinese Mahāyāna school of Buddhism that strongly emphasizes dhyāna , the meditative training of awareness and equanimity . This practice, according to Zen proponents, gives insight into one's true nature , or
274-640: A de facto return to conditions before the Taika Reform . Within decades of Daigo's death, the Fujiwara had absolute control over the court. By the year 1000, Fujiwara no Michinaga was able to enthrone and dethrone emperors at will. Little authority was left for traditional institutions, and government affairs were handled through the Fujiwara clan's private administration. The Fujiwara had become what historian George B. Sansom has called "hereditary dictators". Despite their usurpation of imperial authority,
411-814: A Chinese monk. Ingen had been a member of the Linji school, the Chinese equivalent of Rinzai, which had developed separately from the Japanese branch for hundreds of years. Thus, when Ingen journeyed to Japan following the fall of the Ming dynasty to the Manchu people , his teachings were seen as a separate school. The Ōbaku school was named after Mount Huangbo ( 黄檗山 , Ōbaku-sān ) , which had been Ingen's home in China. Well-known Zen masters from this period are Bankei, Bashō and Hakuin. Bankei Yōtaku (盤珪永琢?, 1622–1693 C.E.) became
548-534: A Japanese identity. This Japanese identity was being articulated in the Nihonjinron philosophy, the "Japanese uniqueness" theory. A broad range of subjects was taken as typical of Japanese culture. D.T. Suzuki contributed to the Nihonjinron-philosophy by taking Zen as the distinctive token of Asian spirituality, showing its unique character in the Japanese culture This resulted in support for
685-631: A certain courtier tried to ask her advice about how to write a poem to the Empress Sadako , she had to politely rebuke him because his writing was so poor. The lyrics of the modern Japanese national anthem, Kimigayo , were written in the Heian period, as was The Tale of Genji by Murasaki Shikibu , which was extremely important to the Heian court, and one of the first novels ever written. Murasaki Shikibu's contemporary and rival Sei Shōnagon's revealing observations and musings as an attendant in
822-589: A classic example of a man driven by the "great doubt". Matsuo Bashō (松尾 芭蕉?, 1644 – November 28, 1694) became a great Zen poet. In the 18th century Hakuin Ekaku (白隠 慧鶴?, 1686–1768) revived the Rinzai school. His influence was so immense that almost all contemporary Rinzai lineages are traced back to him. The Meiji period (1868–1912 C.E.) saw the Emperor's power reinstated after a coup in 1868 C.E.. At that time Japan
959-689: A commentary on the Damoduoluo Chan Jing and used the Zuochan Sanmei Jing as a source in the writing of this commentary. Tōrei believed that the Damoduoluo Chan Jing had been authored by Bodhidharma . While dhyāna in a strict sense refers to the classic four dhyānas , in Chinese Buddhism , chán may refer to various kinds of meditation techniques and their preparatory practices, which are necessary to practice dhyāna . The five main types of meditation in
1096-700: A disciple of the second Chinese patriarch, Huike (慧可, 487–593 C.E.) . After returning home, Dōshō established the Hossō school, basing it on Yogācāra philosophy and built a Meditation Hall for the purpose of practising Zen in the Gangō-ji in Nara . In the Nara period (710 to 794 C.E.), the Chan master, Dao-xuan (道璿, 702-760 C.E.), arrived in Japan, he taught meditation techniques to the monk Gyōhyō (行表, 720–797 C.E.), who in turn
1233-682: A dozen dharma heirs. The FAS Society is a non-sectarian organization, founded by Shin'ichi Hisamatsu . Its aim is to modernize Zen and adapt it to the modern world. In Europe it is influential through such teachers as Jeff Shore and Ton Lathouwers . Zen The way The "goal" Background Chinese texts Classical Post-classical Contemporary Zen in Japan Seon in Korea Thiền in Vietnam Western Zen Zen (Japanese; from Chinese: Chán ; in Korean: Sŏn , and Vietnamese: Thiền )
1370-462: A formalized system of empty rituals in which very few Zen practitioners ever actually attained realization. They assert that almost all Japanese temples have become family businesses handed down from father to son, and the Zen priest's function has largely been reduced to officiating at funerals , a practice sardonically referred to in Japan as sōshiki bukkyō ( 葬式仏教 , funeral Buddhism) . For example,
1507-530: A greater "organizational dynamism". The iconography of the Heian period is widely known in Japan, and depicted in various media, from traditional festivals to anime . Various festivals feature Heian dress – most notably Hinamatsuri (doll festival), where the dolls wear Heian dress, but also numerous other festivals, such as Aoi Matsuri in Kyoto (May) and Saiō Matsuri in Meiwa, Mie (June), both of which feature
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#17327724432401644-568: A greater degree of freedom. It was founded by Nampo Jomyo, Shuho Myocho, and Kanzan Egen. A well-known teacher from Daitoku-ji was Ikkyū . Another Rinka lineage was the Hotto lineage, of which Bassui Tokushō is the best-known teacher. After a period of war Japan was re-united in the Azuchi–Momoyama period . This decreased the power of Buddhism, which had become a strong political and military force in Japan. Neo-Confucianism gained influence at
1781-623: A kōan, practitioners are also expected to demonstrate their spiritual understanding through their responses. The teacher may approve or disapprove of the answer based on their behavior, and guide the student in the right direction. According to Hori, the traditional Japanese Rinzai koan curriculum can take 15 years to complete for a full-time monk. The interaction with a teacher is often presented as central in Zen, but also makes Zen practice vulnerable to misunderstanding and exploitation. Kōan-inquiry may be practiced during zazen (sitting meditation) , kinhin (walking meditation), and throughout all
1918-406: A lack of a sense of Japan as a single nation. Under the early courts, when military conscription had been centrally controlled, military affairs had been taken out of the hands of the provincial aristocracy. But as the system broke down after 792, local power holders again became the primary source of military strength. The re-establishment of an efficient military system was made gradually through
2055-424: A layperson as a formal Buddhist. Heian period The Heian period ( 平安時代 , Heian jidai ) is the last division of classical Japanese history , running from 794 to 1185. It followed the Nara period , beginning when the 50th emperor, Emperor Kammu , moved the capital of Japan to Heian-kyō (modern Kyoto ). Heian ( 平安 ) means ' peace ' in Japanese. It is a period in Japanese history when
2192-610: A local branch of the Linji school , which is known in Japan as the Rinzai school . Decades later, Nampo Jōmyō ( 南浦紹明 ) (1235–1308 C.E.) also studied Linji teachings in China before founding the Japanese Ōtōkan lineage, the most influential branch of Rinzai. In 1215 C.E., Dōgen , a younger contemporary of Eisai's, journeyed to China himself, where he became a disciple of the Caodong master Rujing . After his return, Dōgen established
2329-434: A meditator to the buddha-mind within. Modern scholars like Robert Sharf argue that early Chan, while having unique teachings and myths, also made use of classic Buddhist meditation methods, and this is why it is hard to find many uniquely "Chan" meditation instructions in some of the earliest sources. However, Sharf also notes there was a unique kind of Chan meditation taught in some early sources which also tend to deprecate
2466-632: A process of trial-and-error. At that time the imperial court did not possess an army but rather relied on an organization of professional warriors composed mainly of oryoshi, which were appointed to an individual province and tsuibushi, which were appointed over imperial circuits or for specific tasks. This gave rise to the Japanese military class. Nonetheless, final authority rested with the imperial court. Shōen holders had access to manpower and, as they obtained improved military technology (such as new training methods, more powerful bows, armor, horses, and superior swords) and faced worsening local conditions in
2603-469: A sitting position such as the lotus position , half-lotus , Burmese , or seiza . Their hands often placed in a specific gesture or mudrā . Often, a square or round cushion placed on a padded mat is used to sit on; in some other cases, a chair may be used. To regulate the mind, Zen students are often directed towards counting breaths . Either both exhalations and inhalations are counted, or one of them only. The count can be up to ten, and then this process
2740-408: A solid medium of economic exchange is implicitly illustrated in novels of the time. For instance, messengers were rewarded with useful objects such as an old silk kimono , rather than being paid a monetary fee. The Fujiwara rulers failed to maintain adequate police forces, which left robbers free to prey on travelers. This is implicitly illustrated in novels by the terror that night travel inspired in
2877-459: A succession struggle among his sons, two new offices were established in an effort to adjust the Taika – Taihō administrative structure. Through the new Emperor's Private Office, the emperor could issue administrative edicts more directly and with more self-assurance than before. The new Metropolitan Police Board replaced the largely ceremonial imperial guard units. While these two offices strengthened
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#17327724432403014-656: A view called "mind-only Pure Land" (wei-hsin ching-t’u), which held that the Buddha and the Pure Land are just mind. The practice of nianfo, as well as its adaptation into the " nembutsu kōan " is a major practice in the Japanese Ōbaku school of Zen. The recitation of a Buddha's name was also practiced in the Soto school at different times throughout its history. During the Meiji period for example, both Shaka nembutsu (reciting
3151-512: Is walking meditation , kinhin , in which one walks with full attention. To facilitate insight, a Zen teacher can assign a kōan . This is a short anecdote, which seems irrational, but contains subtle references to the Buddhist teachings. An example of a kōan is Joshu's 'Mu': A monk asked: "Does a dog have buddha-nature?" Joshu responded: " Mu !" Zen-meditation aims at "non-thinking," in Japanese fu shiryō and hi shiryō . According to Zhu,
3288-500: Is "without steps or gradations. One concentrates, understands, and is enlightened, all in one undifferentiated practice." Zen sources also use the term " tracing back the radiance " or "turning one's light around" (Ch. fǎn zhào, 返照) to describe seeing the inherent radiant source of the mind itself, the "numinous awareness", luminosity , or buddha-nature. The Platform Sutra mentions this term and connects it with seeing one's "original face". The Record of Linji states that all that
3425-420: Is a non-dual "objectless" meditation, involving "withdrawal from exclusive focus on a particular sensory or mental object." This practice allows the meditator to be aware of "all phenomena as a unified totality," without any conceptualizing , grasping , goal seeking , or subject-object duality . According to Leighton , this method "rests on the faith, verified in experience, that the field of vast brightness
3562-902: Is a school of Mahayana Buddhism that originated in China during the Tang dynasty as the Chan School (禪宗, chánzōng , "meditation school") or the Buddha-mind school (佛心宗 , fóxīnzōng ), and later developed into various sub-schools and branches. Zen was influenced by Taoism , especially Neo-Daoist thought, and developed as a distinguished school of Chinese Buddhism . From China, Chán spread south to Vietnam and became Vietnamese Thiền , northeast to Korea to become Seon Buddhism , and east to Japan , becoming Japanese Zen . Zen emphasizes meditation practice , direct insight into one's own Buddha nature (見性, Ch. jiànxìng, Jp. kenshō ), and
3699-543: Is a butcher or not, if one sees one's true nature, then one will not be affected by karma . The Bloodstream Sermon also rejects worshiping of buddhas and bodhisattvas, stating that "Those who hold onto appearances are devils. They fall from the Path. Why worship illusions born of the mind? Those who worship don't know, and those who know don't worship." Similarly, in the Lidai Fabao Ji , Wuzhu states that "No-thought
3836-557: Is a central part of Zen Buddhism. The practice of Buddhist meditation originated in India and first entered China through the translations of An Shigao (fl. c. 148–180 CE), and Kumārajīva (334–413 CE). Both of these figures translated various Dhyāna sutras . These were influential meditation texts which were mostly based on the meditation teachings of the Kashmiri Sarvāstivāda school (circa 1st–4th centuries CE). Among
3973-642: Is also taught in Shenxiu's Kuan-hsin lun (觀心論). Likewise, the Ch’uan fa-pao chi (傳法寶紀, Taisho # 2838, ca. 713), one of the earliest Chan histories, shows this practice was widespread in the early Chan generation of Hung-jen , Fa-ju and Ta-tung who are said to have "invoked the name of the Buddha so as to purify the mind." Evidence for the practice of nianfo chan can also be found in Changlu Zongze 's (died c. 1107) Chanyuan qinggui (The Rules of Purity in
4110-468: Is based on Vajrayana Buddhism. It was brought to Japan by the monk Kūkai . Shingon Buddhism emphasizes the use of symbols, rituals, incantations and mandalas, which gave it a wide appeal. Kūkai greatly impressed the emperors who succeeded Emperor Kammu, and also generations of Japanese, not only with his holiness but also with his poetry, calligraphy, painting, and sculpture. Both Kūkai and Saichō aimed to connect state and religion and establish support from
4247-579: Is characterized by its stringent regiments of meditation through every second of life. Whether a practitioner is practicing seated meditation, walking meditation, working, or even out in public, meditation can be applied to each instance of a Rinzai student's life. The Ōbaku school was introduced from China by the Ingen in 1654. Often termed the third sect of Zen Buddhism in Japan, it had a strong influence on Japanese Rinzai, which partly adopted Ōbaku-practices, and partly reinstored older practices in response to
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4384-608: Is derived from the Japanese pronunciation of the Middle Chinese word 禪 ( chán ), an abbreviation of 禪那 ( chánnà ), which is a Chinese transliteration of the Sanskrit word of dhyāna (" meditation "). Buddhism was introduced from India to China in the first century AD. According to tradition, Chan was introduced around 500 C.E. by Bodhidharma , an Indian monk teaching dhyāna . He was the 28th Indian patriarch of Zen and
4521-465: Is discussed in the works of the Japanese Sōtō Zen thinker Dōgen , especially in his Shōbōgenzō and his Fukanzazengi . For Dōgen, shikantaza is characterized by hishiryō ("non-thinking", "without thinking", "beyond thinking"), which according to Kasulis is "a state of no-mind in which one is simply aware of things as they are, beyond thinking and not-thinking". While the Japanese and
4658-544: Is displaced and absorbed by hi shiryō . The traditional institutional traditions ( shū ) of Zen in Japan are Sōtō ( 曹洞 ), Rinzai ( 臨済 ), and Ōbaku ( 黃檗 ). Sōtō and Rinzai dominate, while Ōbaku is smaller. The Sōtō school was founded by Dōgen (1200–1253) and is a Japanese branch of the Chinese Caodong school . It emphasizes meditation and the inseparable nature of practice and insight. Its founder Dogen
4795-689: Is found in early Zen sources like the Treatise on No Mind ( Wuxin lun ) and the Platform Sutra . These sources tend to emphasize emptiness , negation, and absence (wusuo 無所) as the main theme of contemplation. These two contemplative themes (the buddha mind and no-mind, positive and the negative rhetoric) continued to shape the development of Zen theory and practice throughout its history. Later Chinese Chan Buddhists developed their own meditation ("chan") manuals which taught their unique method of direct and sudden contemplation. The earliest of these
4932-530: Is found in the Record of Linji which states: "Followers of the Way, as to buddhadharma, no effort is necessary. You have only to be ordinary, with nothing to do—defecating, urinating, wearing clothes, eating food, and lying down when tired." Similarly, some Zen sources also emphasize non-action or having no concerns (wu-shih 無事). For example, Chan master Huangbo states that nothing compares with non-seeking, describing
5069-461: Is needed to obtain the Dharma is to "turn your own light in upon yourselves and never seek elsewhere". The Japanese Zen master Dōgen describes it as follows: “You should stop the intellectual practice of pursuing words and learn the ‘stepping back’ of ‘turning the light around and shining back’ (Jp: ekō henshō); mind and body will naturally ‘drop off,’ and the ‘original face’ will appear.” Similarly,
5206-423: Is no essential 'I' or 'self', that our true nature is empty . Expression in daily life means that this is not only a contemplative insight, but that our lives are expressions of this selfless existence. Zen emphasizes zazen , meditation c.q. dhyana in a sitting position. In Soto, the emphasis is on shikantaza , 'just sitting', while Rinzai also uses koans to train the mind. In alternation with zazen, there
5343-465: Is none other than seeing the Buddha" and rejects the practice of worship and recitation. Most famously, the Record of Linji has the master state that "if you meet a buddha, kill the buddha" (as well as patriarchs, arhats, parents, and kinfolk), further claiming that through this "you will gain emancipation, will not be entangled with things." During sitting meditation (坐禅, Ch. zuòchán, Jp. zazen , Ko. jwaseon ), practitioners usually assume
5480-517: Is not produced, what need is there for cross-legged sitting dhyana?" Similarly, the Platform Sutra criticizes the practice of sitting samādhi: “One is enlightened to the Way through the mind. How could it depend on sitting?", while Shenhui's four pronouncements criticize the "freezing", "stopping", "activating", and "concentrating" of the mind. Zen sources which focus on the sudden teaching can sometimes be quite radical in their rejection of
5617-445: Is ours from the outset." This "vast luminous buddha field" is our immanent "inalienable endowment of wisdom" which cannot be cultivated or enhanced. Instead, one just has to recognize this radiant clarity without any interference. A similar practice is taught in the major schools of Japanese Zen , but is especially emphasized by Sōtō , where it is more widely known as Shikantaza (Ch. zhǐguǎn dǎzuò, "Just sitting") . This method
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5754-491: Is repeated until the mind is calmed. Zen teachers like Omori Sogen teach a series of long and deep exhalations and inhalations as a way to prepare for regular breath meditation. Attention is often placed on the energy center ( dantian ) below the navel. Zen teachers often promote diaphragmatic breathing , stating that the breath must come from the lower abdomen (known as hara or tanden in Japanese), and that this part of
5891-570: Is still highly revered. Soto is characterized by its flexibility and openness. No commitment to study is expected and practice can be resumed voluntarily. The Rinzai school was founded by Eisai (1141–1215) and is a Japanese branch of the Chinese Linji school . It emphasizes kōan study and kensho . The Rinzai organisation includes fifteen subschools based on temple affiliation. The best known of these main temples are Myoshin-ji , Nanzen-ji , Tenryū-ji , Daitoku-ji , and Tofuku-ji . Rinzai
6028-596: Is the Japanese version of the Tiantai school from China, which is based on the Lotus Sutra , one of the most important sutras in Mahayana Buddhism. It was brought to Japan by the monk Saichō . An important element of Tendai doctrine was the suggestion that enlightenment was accessible to "every creature". Saichō also sought independent ordination for Tendai monks. A close relationship developed between
6165-428: Is the formal and ceremonial taking of refuge in the three jewels , bodhisattva vows and precepts . Various sets of precepts are taken in Zen including the five precepts , "ten essential precepts" , and the sixteen bodhisattva precepts . This is commonly done in an initiation ritual ( Ch . shòu jiè , Jp . Jukai , Ko . sugye, "receiving the precepts" ) , which is also undertaken by lay followers and marks
6302-513: Is the widely imitated and influential Zuòchán Yí (c. turn of the 12th century), which recommends a simple contemplative practice which is said to lead to the discovery of inherent wisdom already present in the mind. This work also shows the influence of the earlier meditation manuals composed by Tiantai patriarch Zhiyi . However, other Zen sources de-emphasize traditional practices like sitting meditation, and instead focus on effortlessness and on ordinary daily activities. One example of this
6439-474: The Platform Sutra and the works of Shenhui criticize traditional meditation methods of concentration and mindfulness as not necessary and instead promote a more direct and sudden method. For example, the Bodhidharma Anthology states: "The man of sharp abilities hears of the path without producing a covetous mind. He does not even produce right mindfulness and right reflection" and "If mind
6576-674: The Ritsuryō Code , this system attempted to recreate the Tang legal system in Japan, despite the "tremendous differences in the levels of development between the two countries". Despite the decline of the Taika – Taihō reforms, the imperial government was vigorous during the early Heian period. Kammu's avoidance of drastic reform decreased the intensity of political struggles, and he became recognized as one of Japan's most forceful emperors. Although Kammu had abandoned universal conscription in 792, he still waged major military offensives to subjugate
6713-487: The Ryōmin (良民 "Good People") numbered about 5,000 in a land of perhaps five million. One reason the samurai were able to take power was that the ruling nobility proved incompetent at managing Japan and its provinces. By the year 1000, the government no longer knew how to issue currency and money was gradually disappearing. Instead of a fully realized system of money circulation, rice was the primary unit of exchange. The lack of
6850-511: The Caodong school of Chinese Chan and is associated with Hongzhi Zhengjue (1091—1157) who wrote various works on the practice. This method derives from the Indian Buddhist practice of the union ( Skt. yuganaddha ) of śamatha and vipaśyanā . Hongzhi's practice of silent illumination does not depend on concentration on particular objects, "such as visual images, sounds, breathing, concepts, stories, or deities." Instead, it
6987-530: The Chinese influences were in decline and the national culture matured. The Heian period is also considered the peak of the Japanese imperial court , noted for its art , especially poetry and literature . Two syllabaries unique to Japan, katakana and hiragana , emerged during this time. This gave rise to Japan's famous vernacular literature, with many of its texts written by court women who were not as educated in Chinese as their male counterparts. Although
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#17327724432407124-456: The Dhyāna sutras are ānāpānasmṛti (mindfulness of breathing); paṭikūlamanasikāra meditation (mindfulness of the impurities of the body); maitrī meditation (loving-kindness); the contemplation on the twelve links of pratītyasamutpāda ; and contemplation on the Buddha . According to the modern Chan master Sheng Yen , these practices are termed the "five methods for stilling or pacifying
7261-517: The Emishi , possible descendants of the displaced Jōmon , living in northern and eastern Japan. After making temporary gains in 794, in 797, Kammu appointed a new commander, Sakanoue no Tamuramaro , under the title Seii Taishōgun ("Barbarian-subduing generalissimo"). By 801, the shōgun had defeated the Emishi and had extended the imperial domains to the eastern end of Honshū . Imperial control over
7398-532: The Imperial House of Japan had power on the surface, the real power was in the hands of the Fujiwara clan , a powerful aristocratic family who had intermarried with the imperial family . Many emperors had mothers from the Fujiwara family. The economy mostly existed through barter and trade, while the shōen system enabled the accumulation of wealth by an aristocratic elite. Even though the Heian period
7535-548: The In-no-chō and of the rise of the military class throughout the country. Military might rather than civil authority dominated the government. A struggle for succession in the mid-twelfth century gave the Fujiwara an opportunity to regain their former power. Fujiwara no Yorinaga sided with the retired emperor in a violent battle in 1156 against the heir apparent, who was supported by the Taira and Minamoto ( Hōgen Rebellion ). In
7672-502: The Middle Chinese word 禪 ( Middle Chinese : [dʑian]; pinyin : Chán ), which in turn is derived from the Sanskrit word dhyāna (ध्यान), which can be approximately translated as "contemplation", "absorption", or " meditative state ". The actual Chinese term for the "Zen school" is 禪宗 ( pinyin : Chánzōng ), while "Chan" just refers to the practice of meditation itself ( Chinese : 習禪 ; pinyin : xíchán ) or
7809-509: The Muromachi period the Rinzai school was the most successful of the schools, since it was favoured by the shōgun . In the beginning of the Muromachi period the Gozan system was fully worked out. The final version contained five temples of both Kyoto and Kamakura. A second tier of the system consisted of Ten Temples. This system was extended throughout Japan, effectively giving control to
7946-475: The Soga clan had taken control of the throne in the sixth century, the Fujiwara by the ninth century had intermarried with the imperial family , and one of their members was the first head of the Emperor's Private Office. Another Fujiwara became regent, Sesshō for his grandson, then a minor emperor and yet another was appointed Kampaku . Toward the end of the 9th century, several emperors tried but failed, to check
8083-557: The Sōtō school, the Japanese branch of Caodong. Zen fit the way of life of the samurai : confronting death without fear, and acting in a spontaneous and intuitive way. During this period the Five Mountain System was established, which institutionalized an influential part of the Rinzai school. It consisted of the five most famous Zen temples of Kamakura: Kenchō-ji , Engaku-ji , Jufuku-ji , Jōmyō-ji and Jōchi-ji . During
8220-578: The Treatise on the Essentials of Cultivating the Mind , which depicts the teachings of the 7th-century East Mountain school , teaches a visualization of a sun disk, similar to that taught in the Contemplation Sutra . According to Charles Luk , there was no single fixed method in early Chan (Zen). All the various Buddhist meditation methods were simply skillful means which could lead
8357-401: The emptiness of inherent existence, which opens the way to a liberated way of living . According to tradition, Zen originated in ancient India , when Gautama Buddha held up a flower and Mahākāśyapa smiled. With this smile he showed that he had understood the wordless essence of the dharma . This way the dharma was transmitted to Mahākāśyapa, the second patriarch of Zen. The term Zen
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#17327724432408494-486: The "first explicit statement of the sudden and direct approach that was to become the hallmark of Ch'an religious practice" is associated with the East Mountain School . It is a method named "maintaining the one without wavering" (守一不移, shǒu yī bù yí), the one being the true nature of mind or Suchness , which is equated with buddha-nature. Sharf writes that in this practice, one turns the attention from
8631-411: The 6-year old Emperor. He perished, but his mother survived. Takakura's other son succeeded as Emperor Go-Toba . With Yoritomo firmly established, the bakufu system that governed Japan for the next seven centuries was in place. He appointed military governors, or shugo , to rule over the provinces, and stewards, or jito to supervise public and private estates. Yoritomo then turned his attention to
8768-563: The Buddha's name, in most cases the Buddha Amitabha . In Chinese Chan, the Pure Land practice of nianfo based on the phrase Nāmó Āmítuófó (Homage to Amitabha) is a widely practiced form of Zen meditation which came to be known as "Nianfo Chan" (念佛禪). Nianfo was practiced and taught by early Chan masters, like Daoxin (580-651), who taught that one should "bind the mind to one buddha and exclusively invoke his name". The practice
8905-636: The Buddha-body, "an embodiment of awakened activity." "Zen" is traditionally a proper noun as it usually describes a particular Buddhist sect. In more recent times, the lowercase "zen" is used when discussing a worldview or attitude that is "peaceful and calm". It was officially added to the Merriam-Webster dictionary in 2018. The practice of meditation (Ch: chán, Skt: dhyāna ), especially sitting meditation (坐禪, pinyin : zuòchán , Japanese : ざぜん , romanized : zazen )
9042-531: The Buddhist institutions there. Kyoto had good river access to the sea and could be reached by land routes from the eastern provinces. The early Heian period (784–967) continued Nara culture; the Heian capital was patterned on the Chinese Tang capital at Chang'an , as was Nara, but on a larger scale than Nara. Kammu endeavored to improve the Tang-style administrative system which was in use. Known as
9179-430: The Chan Monastery), perhaps the most influential Ch’an monastic code in East Asia. Nianfo continued to be taught as a form of Chan meditation by later Chinese figures such as Yongming Yanshou , Zhongfen Mingben , and Tianru Weize . During the late Ming , the tradition of Nianfo Chan meditation was continued by figures such as Yunqi Zhuhong and Hanshan Deqing . Chan figures like Yongming Yanshou generally advocated
9316-403: The Chinese forms of these simple methods are similar, they are considered distinct approaches. During the Song dynasty , gōng'àn ( Jp. kōan ) literature became popular. Literally meaning "public case", they were stories or dialogues describing teachings and interactions between Zen masters and their students. Kōans are meant to illustrate Zen's non-conceptual insight ( prajña ). During
9453-407: The Empress' court were recorded collectively as The Pillow Book in the 990s, which revealed the quotidian capital lifestyle. The Heian period produced a flowering of poetry including works of Ariwara no Narihira , Ono no Komachi , Izumi Shikibu , Murasaki Shikibu, Saigyō and Fujiwara no Teika . The famous Japanese poem known as the Iroha (いろは), of uncertain authorship, was also written during
9590-416: The Fujiwara after centuries of imitating Chinese forms. Vividly colored yamato-e , Japanese style paintings of court life and stories about temples and shrines became common in the mid-to-late Heian period, setting patterns for Japanese art to this day. As culture flourished, so did decentralization. Whereas the first phase of shōen development in the early Heian period had seen the opening of new lands and
9727-407: The Fujiwara presided over a period of cultural and artistic flowering at the imperial court and among the aristocracy. There was great interest in graceful poetry and vernacular literature . Two types of phonetic Japanese script: katakana , a simplified script that was developed by using parts of Chinese characters, was abbreviated to hiragana , a cursive syllabary with a distinct writing method that
9864-609: The Fujiwara, felt threatened with the loss of their lands. Go-Sanjo also established the In-no-chō [ ja ] ( 院庁 "Office of the Cloistered Emperor"), which was held by a succession of emperors who abdicated to devote themselves to behind-the-scenes governance, or insei . The In-no-chō filled the void left by the decline of Fujiwara power. Rather than being banished, the Fujiwara were mostly retained in their old positions of civil dictator and minister of
10001-425: The Fujiwara. For a time, however, during the reign of Emperor Daigo (897–930), the Fujiwara regency was suspended as he ruled directly. Nevertheless, the Fujiwara were not demoted by Daigo but actually became stronger during his reign. Central control of Japan had continued to decline, and the Fujiwara, along with other great families and religious foundations, acquired ever larger shōen and greater wealth during
10138-593: The Heian Period is considered a high point in Japanese culture that later generations have always admired. The period is also noted for the rise of the samurai class, which would eventually take power and start the feudal period of Japan. Nominally, sovereignty lay in the emperor but in fact, power was wielded by the Fujiwara nobility. However, to protect their interests in the provinces, the Fujiwara, and other noble families required guards, police and soldiers. The warrior class made steady political gains throughout
10275-433: The Heian period. During the Heian period, beauty was widely considered an important part of what made one a "good" person. In cosmetic terms, aristocratic men and women powdered their faces and blackened their teeth, the latter termed ohaguro . The male courtly ideal included a faint mustache and thin goatee , while women's mouths were painted small and red, and their eyebrows were plucked or shaved and redrawn higher on
10412-402: The Heian period. As early as 939 AD, Taira no Masakado threatened the authority of the central government, leading an uprising in the eastern province of Hitachi , and almost simultaneously, Fujiwara no Sumitomo rebelled in the west. Still, a true military takeover of the Japanese government was centuries away, when much of the strength of the government would lie within the private armies of
10549-514: The Japanese Misplaced Pages entries irome and kasane-no-irome ). While the Heian period was an unusually long period of peace, it can also be argued that the period weakened Japan economically and led to poverty for all but a tiny few of its inhabitants. The control of rice fields provided a key source of income for families such as the Fujiwara and was a fundamental base of their power. The aristocratic beneficiaries of Heian culture,
10686-645: The Korean Seon master Yŏndam Yuil states: "to use one's own mind to trace the radiance back to the numinous awareness of one's own mind...It is like seeing the radiance of the sun's rays and following it back until you see the orb of the sun itself." Sharf also notes that the early notion of contemplating a pure Buddha "Mind" was tempered and balanced by other Zen sources with terms like " no-mind " (wuxin), and "no-mindfulness" (wunien), to avoid any metaphysical reification of mind, and any clinging to mind or language. This kind of negative Madhyamaka style dialectic
10823-560: The Mahayana teachings on the bodhisattva , Yogachara and Tathāgatagarbha texts (like the Laṅkāvatāra ), and the Huayan school . The Prajñāpāramitā literature, as well as Madhyamaka thought, have also been influential in the shaping of the apophatic and sometimes iconoclastic nature of Zen rhetoric . The word Zen is derived from the Japanese pronunciation ( kana : ぜん) of
10960-678: The Song, a new meditation method was developed by Linji school figures such as Dahui (1089–1163) called kanhua chan ("observing the phrase" meditation) which referred to contemplation on a single word or phrase (called the huatou , "critical phrase") of a gōng'àn . Dahui famously criticised Caodong's "silent illumination." While the two methods of Caodong and Linji are sometimes seen as competing with each other, Schlütter writes that Dahui himself "did not completely condemn quiet-sitting; in fact, he seems to have recommended it, at least to his monastic disciples." In Chinese Chan and Korean Seon ,
11097-628: The Sōtō school published statistics stating that 80 percent of laity visited temples only for reasons having to do with funerals and death. Mahayana Buddhism teaches śūnyatā , "emptiness", which is also emphasized by Zen. But another important doctrine is the buddha-nature , the idea that all human beings have the possibility to awaken. All living creatures are supposed to have the Buddha-nature, but do not realize this as long as they are not awakened . The doctrine of an essential nature can easily lead to
11234-508: The Tendai monastery complex on Mount Hiei and the imperial court in its new capital at the foot of the mountain. As a result, Tendai emphasized great reverence for the emperor and the nation. Emperor Kammu himself was a notable patron of the otherworldly Tendai sect, which rose to great power over the ensuing centuries. Shingon is the Japanese version of the Zhenyen school from China, which
11371-550: The Tendai tradition. The early phase of Japanese Zen has been labeled "syncretic" because Chan teachings and practices were initially combined with familiar Tendai and Shingon forms. Zen found difficulties in establishing itself as a separate school in Japan until the 12th century, largely because of opposition, influence, power and criticism by the Tendai school. During the Kamakura period (1185–1333 C.E.), Nōnin established
11508-418: The Zen adept as follows: "the person of the Way is the one who has nothing to do [wu-shih], who has no mind at all and no doctrine to preach. Having nothing to do, such a person lives at ease." Likewise, John McRae notes that a major development in early Ch'an was the rejection of traditional meditation techniques in favor of a uniquely Zen direct approach. Early Chan sources like the Bodhidharma Anthology,
11645-427: The activities of daily life. The goal of the practice is often termed kensho (seeing one's true nature), and is to be followed by further practice to attain a natural, effortless, down-to-earth state of being, the "ultimate liberation", "knowing without any kind of defilement". This style of kōan practice is particularly emphasized in modern Rinzai , but it also occurs in other schools or branches of Zen depending on
11782-416: The aristocracy, leading to the notion of "aristocratic Buddhism". Although written Chinese ( kanbun ) remained the official language of the Heian period imperial court, the introduction and widespread use of kana saw a boom in Japanese literature . Despite the establishment of several new literary genres such as the novel and narrative monogatari (物語) and essays, literacy was only common among
11919-423: The body should expand forward slightly as one breathes. Over time the breathing should become smoother, deeper and slower. When the counting becomes an encumbrance, the practice of simply following the natural rhythm of breathing with concentrated attention is recommended. A common form of sitting meditation is called "Silent illumination" (Ch. mòzhào, Jp . mokushō ). This practice was traditionally promoted by
12056-403: The center while being bypassed in decision making. In time, many of the Fujiwara were replaced, mostly by members of the rising Minamoto clan . While the Fujiwara fell into disputes among themselves and formed northern and southern factions, the insei system allowed the paternal line of the imperial family to gain influence over the throne. The period from 1086 to 1156 was the age of supremacy of
12193-426: The central government, which administered this system. The monks, often well educated and skilled, were employed by the shōgun for the governing of state affairs. Not all Rinzai Zen organisations were under such strict state control. The Rinka monasteries, which were primarily located in rural areas rather than cities, had a greater degree of independence. The O-to-kan lineage, that centered on Daitoku-ji , also had
12330-409: The city, prompting the emperor to relocate the capital a second time, to Heian. A rebellion occurred in China toward the end of the 9th century, making the political situation unstable. The Japanese missions to Tang China were suspended and the influx of Chinese exports halted, a fact which facilitated the independent growth of Japanese culture called kokufu bunka [ ja ] . Therefore,
12467-424: The court and Buddhist clergy. Poetry, in particular, was a staple of court life. Nobles and ladies-in-waiting were expected to be well versed in the art of writing poetry as a mark of their status. Every occasion could call for the writing of a verse, from the birth of a child to the coronation of an emperor, or even a pretty scene of nature. A well-written poem could easily make or break one's reputation, and often
12604-428: The court aristocracy who had become prominent provincial figures. These military families gained prestige from connections to the imperial court and court-granted military titles and access to manpower. The Fujiwara family, Taira clan, and Minamoto clan were among the most prominent families supported by the new military class. A decline in food production, the growth of the population, and competition for resources among
12741-449: The early tenth century. By the early Heian period, the shōen had obtained legal status, and the large religious establishments sought clear titles in perpetuity, waiver of taxes, and immunity from government inspection of the shōen they held. Those people who worked the land found it advantageous to transfer title to shōen holders in return for a share of the harvest. People and lands were increasingly beyond central control and taxation,
12878-461: The eastern nation. It is recorded in an inscription left at the famous Rashõmon gate protecting the southern entryway to Kyoto that, on leaving to return to China, Yikong said he was aware of the futility of his efforts due to hostility and opposition he experienced from the dominant Tendai Buddhist school. What existed of Zen in the Heian period (794-1185 C.E.) was incorporated into and subordinate to
13015-517: The elimination of the powerful Fujiwara family, which sheltered his rebellious brother Yoshitsune. Three years later, he was appointed shōgun in Kyoto. One year before his death in 1199, Yoritomo expelled the teenaged emperor Go-Toba from the throne. Two of Go-Toba's sons succeeded him, but they would also be removed by Yoritomo's successors to the shogunate. The Heian period saw the rise of two esoteric Buddhist sects, Tendai and Shingon . Tendai
13152-433: The emperor's position temporarily, soon they and other Chinese-style structures were bypassed in the developing state. In 838 the end of the imperial-sanctioned missions to Tang China, which had begun in 630, marked the effective end of Chinese influence. Tang China was in a state of decline, and Chinese Buddhists were severely persecuted, undermining Japanese respect for Chinese institutions. Japan began to turn inward. As
13289-520: The emperor. War endeavours against Russia, China and finally during the Pacific War were supported by the Zen establishment. A notable work on this subject was Zen at War (1998) by Brian Victoria, an American-born Sōtō priest. One of his assertions was that some Zen masters known for their post-war internationalism and promotion of "world peace " were open Japanese nationalists in the inter-war years. Among them as an example Hakuun Yasutani ,
13426-465: The emperors and established the shogunate in Kamakura. When Emperor Kammu moved the capital to Heian-kyō ( Kyoto ), which remained the imperial capital for the next 1,000 years, he did so not only to strengthen imperial authority but also to improve his seat of government geopolitically. Nara was abandoned after only 70 years in part due to the ascendancy of Dōkyō and the encroaching secular power of
13563-442: The end, the Fujiwara were destroyed, the old system of government supplanted, and the insei system left powerless as bushi took control of court affairs, marking a turning point in Japanese history. In 1159, the Taira and Minamoto clashed ( Heiji Rebellion ), and a twenty-year period of Taira ascendancy began. Taira no Kiyomori emerged as the real power in Japan following the Fujiwara's destruction, and he would remain in command for
13700-449: The expense of Buddhism, which came under strict state control. Japan closed the gates to the rest of the world. The only traders to be allowed were Dutchmen admitted to the island of Dejima . New doctrines and methods were not to be introduced, nor were new temples and schools. The only exception was the Ōbaku lineage, which was introduced in the 17th century during the Edo period by Ingen ,
13837-517: The first Chinese patriarch. Zen was first introduced into Japan as early as 653-656 C.E. in the Asuka period (538–710 C.E.), at the time when the set of Zen monastic regulations was still nonexistent and Chan masters were willing to instruct anyone regardless of buddhist ordination. Dōshō (道昭, 629–700 C.E.) went over to China in 653 C.E., where he learned Chan from the famed Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang (玄奘, 602 – 664 C.E.), and he studied more fully with
13974-432: The first independent Zen school on Japanese soil, known as the short-lived and disapproved Daruma school. In 1189 Nōnin sent two students to China, to meet with Cho-an Te-kuang (1121–1203 C.E.), and ask for the recognition of Nōnin as a Zen-master. This recognition was granted. In 1168 C.E., Eisai traveled to China, whereafter he studied Tendai for twenty years. In 1187 C.E. he went to China again, and returned to establish
14111-417: The forehead ( hikimayu ). Women cultivated shiny, black flowing hair and a courtly woman's formal dress included a complex "twelve-layered robe" called jūnihitoe , though the actual number of layers varied. Costumes were determined by office and season, with a woman's robes, in particular, following a system of color combinations representing flowers, plants, and animals specific to a season or month, (see
14248-781: The founder of the Sanbo Kyodan School, even voiced antisemitic and nationalistic opinions after World War II . Only after international protests in the 1990s, following the publication of Zen at War , did the Sanbo Kyodan express apologies for this support. This involvement was not limited to the Zen schools, as all orthodox Japanese schools of Buddhism supported the militarist state. Victoria's particular claims about D. T. Suzuki 's involvement in militarism have been much disputed by other scholars. Some contemporary Japanese Zen teachers, such as Harada Daiun Sogaku and Shunryū Suzuki , have criticized Japanese Zen as being
14385-508: The granting of the use of lands to aristocrats and religious institutions, the second phase saw the growth of patrimonial "house governments", as in the old clan system. In fact, the form of the old clan system had remained largely intact within the great old centralized government. New institutions were now needed in the face of social, economic, and political changes. The Taihō Code lapsed, its institutions relegated to ceremonial functions. Family administrations now became public institutions. As
14522-407: The great families all led to the gradual decline of Fujiwara power and gave rise to military disturbances in the mid-tenth and eleventh centuries. Members of the Fujiwara, Taira, and Minamoto families—all of whom had descended from the imperial family—attacked one another, claimed control over vast tracts of conquered land, set up rival regimes, and generally upset the peace. The Fujiwara controlled
14659-465: The idea that there is an unchanging essential nature or reality behind the changing world of appearances. The difference and reconciliation of these two doctrines is the central theme of the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra . The primary goal of Rinzai Zen is kensho , seeing one's true nature, and mujodo no taigen , expression of this insight in daily life. Seeing one's true nature means seeing that there
14796-644: The importance of traditional Buddhist ideas and practices. The Record of the Dharma-Jewel Through the Ages ( Lidai Fabao Ji ) for example states "better that one should destroy śīla [ethics], and not destroy true seeing. Śīla [causes] rebirth in Heaven, adding more [karmic] bonds, while true seeing attains nirvāṇa." Similarly the Bloodstream Sermon states that it doesn't matter whether one
14933-545: The koan's question constantly. They are also advised not to attempt to answer it intellectually, since the goal of the practice is a non-conceptual insight into non-duality. The Zen student's mastery of a given kōan is presented to the teacher in a private interview (referred to in Japanese as dokusan , daisan , or sanzen ). The process includes standardized answers, "checking questions" ( sassho ) and common sets of "capping phrase" ( jakugo ) poetry, all which must be memorized by students. While there are standardized answers to
15070-409: The kōan method as hopelessly contrived. Similarly, the Song era master Foyan Qingyuan (1067-1120) rejected the use of koans (public cases) and similar stories, arguing that they did not exist during the time of Bodhidharma and that the true koan is "what is presently coming into being." Nianfo (Jp. nembutsu, from Skt. buddhānusmṛti "recollection of the Buddha") refers to the recitation of
15207-466: The main characters. The shōen system enabled the accumulation of wealth by an aristocratic elite; the economic surplus can be linked to the cultural developments of the Heian period and the "pursuit of arts". The major Buddhist temples in Heian-kyō and Nara also made use of the shōen . The establishment of branches rurally and integration of some Shinto shrines within these temple networks reflects
15344-501: The mind" and serve to focus and purify the mind, and support the development of the stages of dhyana . Chan Buddhists may also use other classic Buddhist practices like the four foundations of mindfulness and the Three Gates of Liberation ( emptiness or śūnyatā , signlessness or animitta , and wishlessness or apraṇihita ). Early Chan texts also teach forms of meditation that are unique to Mahāyāna Buddhism. For example,
15481-502: The most influential early Chinese meditation texts are the Anban Shouyi Jing (安般守意經, Sutra on ānāpānasmṛti ), the Zuochan Sanmei Jing (坐禪三昧經，Sutra of sitting dhyāna samādhi ) and the Damoduoluo Chan Jing (達摩多羅禪經, Dharmatrata dhyāna sutra) . These early Chinese meditation works continued to exert influence on Zen practice well into the modern era. For example, the 18th century Rinzai Zen master Tōrei Enji wrote
15618-471: The most powerful family, the Fujiwara governed Japan and determined the general affairs of state, such as succession to the throne. Family and state affairs were thoroughly intermixed, a pattern followed among other families, monasteries, and even the imperial family. Land management became the primary occupation of the aristocracy, not so much because direct control by the imperial family or central government had declined but more from strong family solidarity and
15755-518: The name of Shakyamuni Buddha: namu Shakamuni Butsu ) and Amida nembutsu were promoted by Soto school priests as easy practices for laypersons. Nianfo chan is also widely practiced in Vietnamese Thien . Since Zen is a form of Mahayana Buddhism , it is grounded on the schema of the bodhisattva path, which is based on the practice of the "transcendent virtues" or "perfections" ( Skt . pāramitā , Ch. bōluómì , Jp. baramitsu ) as well as
15892-493: The next 20 years. He gave his daughter Tokuko in marriage to the young emperor Takakura , who died at only 19, leaving their infant son Antoku to succeed to the throne. Kiyomori filled no less than 50 government posts with his relatives, rebuilt the Inland Sea, and encouraged trade with Song China. He also took aggressive actions to safeguard his power when necessary, including the removal and exile of 45 court officials and
16029-583: The ninth century, military service became part of shōen life. Not only the shōen but also civil and religious institutions formed private guard units to protect themselves. Gradually, the provincial upper class was transformed into a new military elite of samurai . Bushi interests were diverse, cutting across old power structures to form new associations in the tenth century. Mutual interests, family connections, and kinship were consolidated in military groups that became part of family administration. In time, large regional military families formed around members of
16166-467: The objects of experience to "the nature of conscious awareness itself", the innately pure buddha-nature , which was compared to a clear mirror or to the sun (which is always shining but may be covered by clouds). This type of meditation is based on classic Mahāyāna ideas which are not uniquely "Chan", but according to McRae it differs from traditional practice in that "no preparatory requirements, no moral prerequisites or preliminary exercises are given," and
16303-674: The personal expression of this insight in daily life for the benefit of others . Some Zen sources de-emphasize doctrinal study and traditional practices, favoring direct understanding through zazen and interaction with a master (Jp: rōshi , Ch: shīfu ) who may be depicted as an iconoclastic and unconventional figure. In spite of this, most Zen schools also promote traditional Buddhist practices like chanting, precepts , rituals, monasticism and scriptural study. With an emphasis on Buddha-nature thought, intrinsic enlightenment and sudden awakening , Zen teaching draws from numerous Buddhist sources, including Sarvāstivāda meditation,
16440-621: The practice of "observing the huatou " ( hwadu in Korean) is a widely practiced method. It was taught by Seon masters like Chinul (1158–1210) and Seongcheol (1912–1993), and modern Chinese masters like Sheng Yen and Xuyun . In the Japanese Rinzai school, kōan introspection developed its own formalized style, with a standardized curriculum of kōans , which must be studied, meditated on and "passed" in sequence. Monks are instructed to "become one" with their koan by repeating
16577-495: The provinces was tenuous at best, however. In the ninth and tenth centuries, much authority was lost to the great families, who disregarded the Chinese-style land and tax systems imposed by the government in Kyoto. Stability came to Japan, but, even though succession was ensured for the imperial family through heredity, power again concentrated in the hands of one noble family, the Fujiwara. Following Kammu's death in 806 and
16714-537: The razing of two troublesome temples, Todai-ji and Kofuku-ji. The Taira were seduced by court life and ignored problems in the provinces, where the Minamoto clan were rebuilding their strength. In 1183, two years after Kiyomori's death, Yoritomo Minamoto dispatched his brothers Yoshitsune and Noriyori to attack Kyoto. The Taira were routed and forced to flee, and the Empress Dowager tried to drown herself and
16851-614: The shogunate. The entry of the warrior class into court influence was a result of the Hōgen Rebellion . At this time Taira no Kiyomori revived the Fujiwara practices by placing his grandson on the throne to rule Japan by regency. Their clan, the Taira , would not be overthrown until after the Genpei War , which marked the start of the Kamakura shogunate . The Kamakura period began in 1185 when Minamoto no Yoritomo seized power from
16988-502: The study of meditation ( Chinese : 禪學 ; pinyin : chánxué ) though it is often used as an abbreviated form of Chánzong . Zen is also called 佛心宗, fóxīnzōng (Chinese) or busshin-shū (Japanese), the "Buddha-mind school," from fó-xīn , "Buddha-mind"; "this term can refer either to the (or a) Buddha's compassionate and enlightened mind , or to the originally clear and pure mind inherent in all beings to which they must awaken." Busshin may also refer to Buddhakaya ,
17125-686: The taking of the bodhisattva vows . The most widely used list of six virtues is: generosity , moral training (incl. five precepts ), patient endurance , energy or effort , meditation ( dhyana ), wisdom . An important source for these teachings is the Avatamsaka sutra , which also outlines the grounds ( bhumis ) or levels of the bodhisattva path. The pāramitās are mentioned in early Chan works such as Bodhidharma 's Two entrances and four practices and are seen as an important part of gradual cultivation ( jianxiu ) by later Chan figures like Zongmi . An important element of this practice
17262-459: The teaching line. In the Caodong and Soto traditions, koans were studied and commented on, for example Hongzhi published a collection of koans and Dogen discussed koans extensively. However, they were not traditionally used in sitting meditation. Some Zen masters have also critiqued the practice of using koans for meditation. According to Haskel, Bankei called kōans "old wastepaper" and saw
17399-447: The throne until the reign of Emperor Go-Sanjō (1068–1073), the first emperor not born of a Fujiwara mother since the ninth century. Go-Sanjo, determined to restore imperial control through strong personal rule, implemented reforms to curb Fujiwara influence. He also established an office to compile and validate estate records with the aim of reasserting central control. Many shōen were not properly certified, and large landholders, like
17536-451: The traditional Buddhist meditations. This uniquely Zen approach goes by various names like “maintaining mind” (shouxin 守心), “maintaining unity” (shouyi 守一), “pacifying the mind” (anxin 安心), “discerning the mind” (guanxin 觀心), and “viewing the mind” (kanxin 看心). A traditional phrase that describes this practice states that "Chán points directly to the human mind, to enable people to see their true nature and become buddhas." According to McRae
17673-626: The two terms negate two different cognitive functions both called manas in Yogacara , namely "intentionality" or self-centered thinking, and "discriminative thinking" ( vikalpa ). The usage of two different terms for "non-thinking" points to a crucial difference between Sōtō and Rinzai in their interpretation of the negation of these two cognitive functions. According to Rui, Rinzai Zen starts with hi shiryō , negating discriminative thinking, and culminates in fu shiryō , negating intentional or self-centered thinking; Sōtō starts with fu shiryō , which
17810-478: The war activities of the Japanese imperial system by the Japanese Zen establishment—including the Sōtō sect, the major branches of Rinzai, and several renowned teachers. According to Sharf, They became willing accomplices in the promulgation of the kokutai (national polity) ideology—the attempt to render Japan a culturally homogeneous and spiritually evolved nation politically unified under the divine rule of
17947-728: The Ōbaku-school. There are modern Zen organizations in Japan which have especially attracted Western lay followers, namely the Sanbo Kyodan and the FAS Society. The Sanbo Kyodan is a small Japanese lay organization, established by Hakuun Yasutani , which has been very influential in the West. Well-known teachers from this school are Philip Kapleau and Taizan Maezumi . Maezumi's influence stretches further through his dharma heirs, such as Joko Beck , Tetsugen Bernard Glassman , and especially Dennis Merzel , who has appointed more than
18084-479: Was a key part of social interaction. Almost as important was the choice of calligraphy, or handwriting, used. The Japanese of this period believed handwriting could reflect the condition of a person's soul: therefore, poor or hasty writing could be considered a sign of poor breeding. Whether the script was Chinese or Japanese, good writing and artistic skill were paramount to social reputation when it came to poetry. Sei Shōnagon mentions in her Pillow Book that when
18221-603: Was forced to open to Western trade which brought influence and, eventually, a restructuring of all government and commercial structures to Western standards. Shinto became the officiated state religion and Buddhism was coerced to adapt to the new regime. The Buddhist establishment saw the Western world as a threat, but also as a challenge to stand up to. Buddhist institutions had a simple choice: adapt or perish. Rinzai and Soto Zen chose to adapt, trying to modernize Zen in accord with Western insights, while simultaneously maintaining
18358-399: Was in 815, when the Chinese monk Yikong (義空) visited Japan as the representative of Chan's Southern-school lineage, based on the teachings of the master Mazu Daoyi (馬祖道一, 709–788 C.E.), who was the mentor of Baizhang (百丈懐海, 720–814 C.E.), the supposed author of the initial set of Zen monastic regulations. Yikong arrived in 815 C.E. and tried unsuccessfully to transmit Zen systematically to
18495-403: Was one of national peace, the government failed to effectively police the territory, leading to frequent robberies of travellers. The Heian period was preceded by the Nara period and began in 794 AD after the movement of the capital of Japan to Heian-kyō (modern Kyoto), by the 50th emperor, Emperor Kammu . Kammu first tried to move the capital to Nagaoka-kyō , but a series of disasters befell
18632-468: Was to instruct Saichō (最澄, 767-822 C.E.), founder of the Japanese Tendai sect of Buddhism. Saicho visited Tang China in 804 C.E. as part of an official embassy sent by Emperor Kammu (桓武天皇, 781-806 C.E.). There he studied four branches of Buddhism including Chan and Tiantai , which he was, by that time, already familiar with. The first attempt of establishing Zen as an independent doctrine
18769-597: Was uniquely Japanese. Hiragana gave written expression to the spoken word and, with it, to the rise in Japan's famous vernacular literature, much of it written by court women who had not been trained in Chinese as had their male counterparts. Three late-tenth-century and early-11th-century women presented their views of life and romance at the Heian court in Kagerō Nikki by "the mother of Fujiwara Michitsuna ", The Pillow Book by Sei Shōnagon and The Tale of Genji by Murasaki Shikibu . Indigenous art also flourished under
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