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154-577: In May 1991, the organisation declared an independent Republic of Somaliland in the region that had constituted British Somaliland before independence and unification with the former colony of Italian Somaliland in 1960 after a bloody war of independence . In 1977, a group of Somali expats in Saudi Arabia hailing from the Isaaq clan begun to collect funds for the aim of launching a newspaper covering Somali affairs. The grassroots group has grown into

308-525: A Marxist-Leninist state . The abolition of feudalism , increased literacy , nationalization , and sweeping land reform including the resettlement and villagization from the Ethiopian Highlands became priorities. After a power struggle in 1977, Mengistu Halie Mariam gained undisputed leadership of the Derg. In 1977, Somalia, which had previously been receiving assistance and arms from

462-490: A British mission that concluded with an alliance between the two nations, but it was not until 1855 that the Amhara kingdoms of northern Ethiopia (Gondar, Gojjam , and Shewa ) were briefly united after the power of the emperor was restored beginning with the reign of Tewodros II . Tewodros II began a process of consolidation, centralisation, and state-building that would be continued by succeeding emperors. This process reduced

616-490: A Protectorate Advisory Council was established on a tribal basis, with representatives of other communities and official members as well. In 1957, a Legislative Council and an Executive Council were created. From 1959, there were elections to the Legislative Council. A new constitution was introduced in 1960, shortly before independence. In 1991, after a bloody civil war for independence in the northern part of

770-490: A Sades or the sixth sound እ as in incorporate and the graph ጰ has no equivalent in English or Latin graphs. Ethiopis is believed to be the twelfth direct descendant of Adam. His father is identified as Kush, while his grandfather is known as Kam. In the 15th-century Ge'ez Book of Axum , the name is ascribed to a legendary individual called Ityopp'is . He was an extra-biblical son of Cush, son of Ham , said to have founded

924-519: A clan basis but wealthy businessmen also contributed. The SNM's initial funding model worked in a similar fashion to 'diya' payments whereby each Isaaq clan resident in Saudi Arabia and the Gulf would collect a set amount from their communities. This decentralised funding model gave the organisation relative independence. Moreover, enhancing the organisation's accountability to its numerous supporters. Therefore, this financial autonomy provided more freedom to

1078-470: A conclusion that another expedition against him would be useless; that they must build a railway, make roads and effectively occupy the whole of the protectorate, or else abandon the interior. The latter course was decided upon and during the first months of 1945, the advance posts were withdrawn and the British administration confined to the coast town of Berbera . Sheikh Bashir settled many disputes among

1232-451: A curfew for several years; arbitrary restrictions on the extension of the curfew have facilitated extortion by soldiers and curfew patrols. Internal travel is controlled through military checkpoints .... The existence of the SNM has provided a pretext for President Barre and his military deputies in the north to wage a war against peaceful citizens and to enable them to consolidate their control of

1386-712: A dependency of the Government of India. From 1898 it was under the purview of the Foreign Office , and from 1905 onward (with the exception of a period of military administration until 1948 following the Italian invasion) it was administered by the Colonial Office . Until 1957, executive and legislative power were solely vested in the Governor, although he had a non-statutory council to advise him. In 1947,

1540-435: A distinctive dress. It was based on the standard British Army khaki drill but included a knitted woollen pullover and drill patches on the shoulders. Shorts were worn with woollen socks on puttees and "chaplis", boots or bare feet. Equipment consisted of leather ammunition bandolier and a leather waist belt. The officers wore pith helmets and khaki drill uniforms. Other ranks wore a "kullah" with " puggree " which ended in

1694-459: A fort and took up a defensive position in anticipation of a British counterattack. The British campaign against Sheikh Hamza troops proved abortive after several defeats as his forces kept on the move. No sooner had the expedition left the area, than the news travelled fast among the Somali nomads across the plain. The war had exposed the British administration to humiliation. The government came to

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1848-514: A fuel tanker supplying the Somalian regime's base in the town. This operation was organised by local commanders without prior planning utilizing a local force of Arap clansmen based in the organisation's Lanqeyrta base. According to Hassan Isse , 1985–86 was the most effective period of guerrilla warfare by the SNM against the Somalian regime whereby its operations extended southwards with support from Dir clansmen which would later call themselves

2002-621: A judicial system. In April 1993, Eritrea gained independence from Ethiopia after a national referendum . In May 1998, a border dispute with Eritrea led to the Eritrean–Ethiopian War , which lasted until June 2000 and cost both countries an estimated $ 1 million a day. This had a negative effect on Ethiopia's economy, and a border conflict between the two countries would continue until 2018 . As of 2018, further civil war in Ethiopia continues, mainly due to destabilization of

2156-515: A large proportion of the city and fully took over Burao . In this pre-emptive strike, approximately 3000-5000 men from the SNM routed the Somalian army from both cities. In Burao, the SNM led to the killing of many Somalian military leaders and the confiscation of valuable military equipment. The Somalian government responded by with a counterattack which led to over 10,000 Somalian soldiers, SNM rebels and civilians being killed. However, soon after

2310-551: A long tail which hung down the back. A "chaplis" is typically a colourful sandal. A "kullah" is a type of cap. A "puggree" is typically a strip of cloth wound around the upper portion of a hat or helmet, particularly a pith helmet, and falling down from behind to act as a shade for the back of the neck. Following the defeat of the Dervish resistance, the two fundamental goals of British policy in British Somaliland were

2464-467: A mild climate year round. With temperatures fairly uniform year round, the seasons in Addis Ababa are largely defined by rainfall: a dry season from October to February, a light rainy season from March to May, and a heavy rainy season from June to September. The average annual rainfall is approximately 1,200 millimetres (47 in). There are on average seven hours of sunshine per day. The dry season

2618-482: A police force, and eventually on 7 July found Sheikh Bashir and his unit in defensive positions behind their fortifications in the mountains of Bur Dhab. After clashes Sheikh Bashir and his second-in-command, Alin Yusuf Ali, nicknamed Qaybdiid, were killed. A third rebel was wounded and was captured along with two other rebels. The rest fled the fortifications and dispersed. On the British side the police general leading

2772-523: A result, the conference granted the government of Somaliland local legitimacy beyond the realms of the Isaaq dominated SNM, especially since the town of Borama was predominantly inhabited by the Gadabursi . At this conference, the delegates agreed to establish an executive president and a bicameral legislature whereby Somaliland's second president Muhammad Haji Egal was elected. Egal would be reelected for

2926-539: A second term in 1997. British Somaliland British Somaliland , officially the Somaliland Protectorate ( Somali : Maxmiyadda Dhulka Soomaalida ), was a protectorate of the United Kingdom in modern Somaliland . During its existence, the territory was bordered by Italian Somalia , French Somali Coast and Abyssinia (temporarily Italian Ethiopia ). From 1940 to 1941, it

3080-524: A semi-political party unofficially referred to as Somali Islamic Democratic party (later Somali National movement) Representing intellectuals, businessmen and prominent figures of the ex-pat community in Saudi Arabia. By the end of 1979, the group had a strong foothold in local Somali communities in Riyadh , Dhahran , Khobar and especially Jeddah where they set meetings for every 3 months discussing

3234-485: A similar elevation to Addis Ababa and have a comparable climate. In less elevated regions, particularly the lower lying Ethiopian xeric grasslands and shrublands in the east of Ethiopia, the climate can be significantly hotter and drier. Dallol , in the Danakil Depression in this eastern zone, has the world's highest average annual temperature of 34 °C (93.2 °F). Ethiopia is vulnerable to many of

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3388-409: A study published in the journal Science , this dwelling is proof of the earliest permanent human occupation at high altitude yet discovered. Thousands of animal bones, hundreds of stone tools, and ancient fireplaces were discovered, revealing a diet that featured giant mole rats . Evidence of some of the earliest known stone-tipped projectile weapons (a characteristic tool of Homo sapiens ),

3542-513: A substantial number of people armed with rifles and spears and staged a revolt. The British authorities responded rapidly and severely, sending reinforcements to the town and opening fire on the armed mobs in two "local actions" as well as arresting minor religious leaders in the town. The British administration recruited Indian and South African troops, led by police general James David, to fight against Sheikh Bashir and had intelligence plans to capture him alive. The British authorities mobilized

3696-645: Is home to around 132 million inhabitants, making it the 10th-most populous country in the world, the 2nd-most populous in Africa after Nigeria , and the most populated landlocked country on Earth. The national capital and largest city, Addis Ababa , lies several kilometres west of the East African Rift that splits the country into the African and Somali tectonic plates . Anatomically modern humans emerged from modern-day Ethiopia and set out for

3850-547: Is internationally recognised as an autonomous region of Somalia , regards itself as the successor state to British Somaliland. In the late 19th century, the United Kingdom signed agreements with the Gadabuursi , Issa , Habr Awal , Garhajis , Arap , Habr Je'lo and Warsangeli clans establishing a protectorate. Many of these clans had signed the protection treaties with the British in response to Ethiopian Emperor Menelik's Invasions . The agreements dictated

4004-464: Is now Tigray Region and Eritrea. According to the medieval Book of Axum , the kingdom's first capital, Mazaber, was built by Itiyopis, son of Cush. Aksum would later at times extend its rule into Yemen on the other side of the Red Sea. The Persian prophet Mani listed Axum with Rome, Persia, and China as one of the four great powers of his era, during the 3rd century. It is also believed that there

4158-547: Is now thought to have been minor, limited to a few localities, and disappearing after a few decades or a century. It may have been a trading or military colony in alliance with the Ethiopian civilization of Dʿmt or some other proto-Axumite state. After the fall of Dʿmt during the 4th century BC, the Ethiopian plateau came to be dominated by smaller successor kingdoms. In the 1st century AD, the Kingdom of Aksum emerged in what

4312-401: Is surrounded by lowlands, steppes , or semi-desert. There is a great diversity of terrain with wide variations in climate, soils, natural vegetation and settlement patterns. Ethiopia is an ecologically diverse country, ranging from the deserts along the eastern border to the tropical forests in the south to extensive Afromontane in the northern and southwestern parts. Lake Tana in the north

4466-489: Is the country's largest economic sector, accounting for over 37% of the gross domestic product as of 2022. However, in terms of per capita income and the Human Development Index , the country is regarded as poor, with high rates of poverty , poor respect for human rights , widespread ethnic discrimination , and a literacy rate of only 49%. Tradition holds that the name Ethiopia (ኢትዮጵያ) comes from

4620-786: Is the most widely professed faith in the country, with significant minorities of the adherents of Islam and a small percentage to traditional faiths . This sovereign state is a founding member of the UN, the Group of 24 , the Non-Aligned Movement , the Group of 77 , and the Organisation of African Unity . Addis Ababa is the headquarters of the African Union , the Pan African Chamber of Commerce and Industry ,

4774-570: Is the source of the Blue Nile . It also has many endemic species, notably the gelada , the walia ibex and the Ethiopian wolf ("Simien fox"). The wide range of altitude has given the country a variety of ecologically distinct areas, and this has helped to encourage the evolution of endemic species in ecological isolation. The nation is a land of geographical contrasts, ranging from the vast fertile west, with its forests and numerous rivers, to

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4928-508: Is the sunniest time of the year, though even at the height of the rainy season in July and August there are still usually several hours per day of bright sunshine. The average annual temperature in Addis Ababa is 16 °C (60.8 °F), with daily maximum temperatures averaging 20–25 °C (68.0–77.0 °F) throughout the year, and overnight lows averaging 5–10 °C (41.0–50.0 °F). Most major cities and tourist sites in Ethiopia lie at

5082-662: The Aksumite Empire , indicates that Aksum's ruler governed an area that was flanked to the west by the territory of Ethiopia and Sasu. The Aksumite King Ezana eventually conquered Nubia the following century, and the Aksumites thereafter appropriated the designation "Ethiopians" for their own kingdom. In the Ge'ez version of the Ezana inscription, Aἰθίοπες is equated with the unvocalized Ḥbšt and Ḥbśt (Ḥabashat), and denotes for

5236-689: The East African campaign in 1941. The country was placed under British military administration , and then Ethiopia's full sovereignty was restored with the signing of the Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement in December 1944. On 24 October 1945, Ethiopia became a founding member of the United Nations . In 1952, Haile Selassie orchestrated a federation with Eritrea . He dissolved this in 1962 and annexed Eritrea, resulting in

5390-467: The Eritrean War of Independence . Haile Selassie also played a leading role in the formation of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU). Opinion within Ethiopia turned against Haile Selassie, owing to the worldwide 1973 oil crisis causing a sharp increase in gasoline prices starting on 13 February 1974, leading to student and worker protests. The feudal oligarchical cabinet of Aklilu Habte-Wold

5544-510: The Ethiopian–Adal War (1529–1543) contributed to fragmentation of the empire, which ultimately fell under a decentralization known as Zemene Mesafint in the mid-18th century. Emperor Tewodros II ended Zemene Mesafint at the beginning of his reign in 1855, marking the reunification and modernization of Ethiopia. From 1878 onwards, Emperor Menelik II launched a series of conquests known as Menelik's Expansions , which resulted in

5698-540: The Ethiopian–Adal War , but was ultimately defeated at the 1543 Battle of Wayna Daga . By the 16th century, an influx of migration by ethnic Oromo into northern parts of the region fragmented the empire's power. Embarking from present-day Guji and Borena Zone , the Oromos were largely motivated by several folkloric conceptions—beginning with Moggaasaa and Liqimssa —many of whom related to their raids. This persisted until gada of Meslé. According to Abba Bahrey ,

5852-583: The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia , is a landlocked country located in the Horn of Africa region of East Africa . It shares borders with Eritrea to the north , Djibouti to the northeast , Somalia to the east , Kenya to the south , South Sudan to the west , and Sudan to the northwest . Ethiopia covers a land area of 1,104,300 square kilometres (1,104,300 square kilometres (426,400 sq mi)). As of 2024 , it

6006-528: The Horn of Africa , which is the easternmost part of the African landmass. The territories that have frontiers with Ethiopia are Eritrea to the north and then, moving in a clockwise direction, Djibouti, Somalia, Kenya, South Sudan and Sudan. Within Ethiopia is a vast highland complex of mountains and dissected plateaus divided by the Great Rift Valley , which runs generally southwest to northeast and

6160-555: The Jebel Irhoud site in Morocco have since been dated to an earlier period, about 300,000 years ago, while Omo-Kibish I (Omo I) from southern Ethiopia is the oldest anatomically modern Homo sapiens skeleton currently known (196 ± 5 kya). According to some linguists, the first Afroasiatic -speaking populations arrived in the region during the ensuing Neolithic era from the family's proposed urheimat ("original homeland") in

6314-747: The Mahdist War allied to Britain, Turkey, and Egypt against the Sudanese Mahdist State. In 1887, Menelik II , king of Shewa , invaded the Emirate of Harar after his victory at the Battle of Chelenqo . On 10 March 1889, Yohannes IV was killed by the Sudanese Khalifah Abdullah's army whilst leading his army in the Battle of Gallabat . Ethiopia, in roughly its current form, began under the reign of Menelik II, who

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6468-472: The Merawi massacre in early 2024, which left 50 to 100 residents deaths in Merawi town in Amhara. At 1,104,300 square kilometres (426,372.61 sq mi), Ethiopia is the world's 26th-largest country, comparable in size to Bolivia . It lies between the 3rd parallel north and the 15th parallel north and longitudes 33rd meridian east and 48th meridian east . The major portion of Ethiopia lies in

6622-676: The Near East and elsewhere in the Middle Paleolithic period. Southwestern Ethiopia has been proposed as a possible homeland of the Afroasiatic language family . In 980 BC, the Kingdom of D'mt extended its realm over Eritrea and the northern region of Ethiopia, while the Kingdom of Aksum maintained a unified civilization in the region for 900 years. Christianity was embraced by the kingdom in 330, and Islam arrived by

6776-721: The Nile Valley , or the Near East . The majority of scholars today propose that the Afroasiatic family developed in northeast Africa because of the higher diversity of lineages in that region, a telltale sign of linguistic origin. In 2019, archaeologists discovered a 30,000-year-old Middle Stone Age rock shelter at the Fincha Habera site in Bale Mountains at an elevation of 3,469 metres (11,381 feet) above sea level. At this high altitude, humans are susceptible both to hypoxia and to extreme weather. According to

6930-562: The Omo remains , were excavated in the southwestern Omo Kibish area and have been dated to the Middle Paleolithic , around 200,000 years ago. Additionally, skeletons of Homo sapiens idaltu were found at a site in the Middle Awash valley. Dated to approximately 160,000 years ago, they may represent an extinct subspecies of Homo sapiens , or the immediate ancestors of anatomically modern humans. Archaic Homo sapiens fossils excavated at

7084-536: The Red Terror , a violent political repression campaign by the Derg against various opposition groups. In 1987, the Derg dissolved itself and established the People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (PDRE) upon the adoption of the 1987 Constitution of Ethiopia . A 1983–85 famine affected around 8 million people, resulting in 1 million dead. Insurrections against authoritarian rule sprang up, particularly in

7238-557: The Sahara that were then known within the Ecumene (habitable world). The earliest mention of the term is found in the works of Homer , where it is used to refer to two people groups, one in Africa and one in the east from eastern Turkey to India. This Greek name was borrowed into Amharic as ኢትዮጵያ, ʾĪtyōṗṗyā . In Greco - Roman epigraphs, Aethiopia was a specific toponym for ancient Nubia . At least as early as c.  850 ,

7392-703: The Somali Democratic Republic , the area which formerly encompassed British Somaliland declared independence. In May 1991, the formation of the " Republic of Somaliland " was proclaimed, with the local government regarding it as the successor to the former British Somaliland as well as to the State of Somaliland . However, Somaliland’s independence remains unrecognised by any United Nations member state. 09°33′38″N 44°03′17″E  /  9.56056°N 44.05472°E  / 9.56056; 44.05472 Ethiopia Ethiopia , officially

7546-683: The Somali Salvation Democratic Front (SSDF) insurgency in neighbouring Puntland . The end of the Cold War coincided with the peak of the SNM insurgency, significantly reducing the likelihood of the organisation obtaining superpower support. The task of financing the fight against the Barre regime proved a challenge as the SNM lacked a foreign sponsor. Additionally, the Somalian regime imprisoned wealthy Isaaq merchants and traders to prevent them from financially supporting

7700-613: The USSR , invaded Ethiopia in the Ogaden War , capturing part of the Ogaden region. Ethiopia recovered it after it began receiving massive military aid from the Soviet bloc countries. By the end of the seventies, Mengistu presided over the second-largest army in all of sub-Saharan Africa , as well as a formidable air force and navy. In 1976–78, up to 500,000 were killed as a result of

7854-654: The United Nations Economic Commission for Africa , the African Standby Force and many of the global non-governmental organizations focused on Africa. Ethiopia became a full member of BRICS in 2024. Ethiopia is one of the least developed countries but is sometimes considered an emerging power , having the fastest economic growth in sub-Saharan African countries because of foreign direct investment in expansion of agricultural and manufacturing industries; agriculture

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8008-740: The Zemene Mesafint or "Age of Princes," a period of isolation. Emperors became figureheads, controlled by regional lords and noblemen like Ras Mikael Sehul, Ras Wolde Selassie of Tigray, and by the Yejju Oromo dynasty of the Wara Sheh , including Ras Gugsa of Yejju . Before the Zemene Mesafint, Emperor Iyoas I had introduced the Oromo language ( Afaan Oromo ) at court, replacing Amharic. Ethiopian isolationism ended following

8162-420: The colours of the pan-African flag with green, yellow and red stripes in representation of pan-Africanist ideology. The early 20th century was marked by the reign of Emperor Haile Selassie (Ras Tafari) . He came to power after Lij Iyasu was deposed, and undertook a nationwide modernization campaign from 1916 when he was made a Ras and Regent ( Inderase ) for the Empress Regnant Zewditu , and became

8316-441: The de facto ruler of the Ethiopian Empire. Following Zewditu's death, on 2 November 1930, he succeeded her as emperor. In 1931, Haile Selassie endowed Ethiopia with its first-ever Constitution in emulation of Imperial Japan's 1890 Constitution . The independence of Ethiopia was interrupted by the Second Italo-Ethiopian War , beginning when it was invaded by Fascist Italy in early October 1935, and by subsequent Italian rule of

8470-474: The first Hijra in 615. After the collapse of Aksum in 960, the Zagwe dynasty ruled the north-central parts of Ethiopia until being overthrown by Yekuno Amlak in 1270, inaugurating the Ethiopian Empire and the Solomonic dynasty , claimed descent from the biblical Solomon and Queen of Sheba under their son Menelik I . By the 14th century, the empire had grown in prestige through territorial expansion and fighting against adjacent territories; most notably,

8624-399: The "Somaliland Freedom Fighter" is Amina Mahamoud Suldan. In 1982, the organisation moved its headquarters from London to Dire Dawa , Ethiopia where 3 key military bases were established. From here, it would launch guerrilla raids into the Maroodi Jeex and Togdheer regions. A growing number of northern civilian recruits and defectors from the Somali army, drawn almost exclusively from

8778-459: The "Southern SNM". In the late 1980s, the National Security Service increased its activities against dissidents and SNM sympathizers. In response, the SNM carried out the assassination of the regional National Security Service Chief in 1986 which led to the newly appointed Northern military commander Mohammed Said Hersi Morgan in unleashing a new wave of terror against the Isaaq population as set out by his " Letter of Death ". However, in 1988

8932-531: The 110-man Constabulary unit, including the British commander, Colonel Richard Corfield . In 1914, the British created the Somaliland Camel Corps to assist in maintaining order in British Somaliland. In 1920, the British launched their fifth and final expedition against Hassan and his followers. Employing the then-new technology of military aircraft, the British finally managed to quell Hassan's twenty-year-long struggle. The British tricked Hassan into preparing for an official visit, then launched bombing raids in

9086-444: The Aksumite population to shift into the southern region and establish the Zagwe dynasty , changing its capital to Lalibela . Zagwe's rule ended when an Amhara noble man Yekuno Amlak revolted against King Yetbarak and established the Ethiopian Empire (known by exonym "Abyssinia"). The Ethiopian Empire initiated territorial expansion under the leadership of Amda Seyon I . He launched campaigns against his Muslim adversaries to

9240-431: The Aksumite territory reached its peak between the 5th and 6th centuries. This period was interrupted by several incursions into the South Arabian protectorate, including Jewish Dhu Nuwas of the Himyarite Kingdom and the Aksumite–Persian wars . In 575, the Aksumites besieged and retook Sana'a following the assassination of its governor Sayf ibn Dhī Yazan . The Red Sea was left to the Rashidun Caliphate in 646, and

9394-405: The British as the "Mad Mullah". Repeated military expeditions were unsuccessfully launched against Hassan and his Dervishes before World War I . On 9 August 1913, the Somaliland Camel Constabulary suffered a serious defeat at the Battle of Dul Madoba at the hands of the Dervishes. Hassan had already evaded several attempts to capture him. At Dul Madoba, his forces killed or wounded 57 members of

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9548-405: The British troops as well as a number of Indian and South African troops perished in the clashes, and a policeman was injured. Despite the death of Sheikh Hamza and his followers resistance against British authorities continued in Somaliland, especially in Erigavo where his death stirred further resistance in the town and the town of Badhan and lead to attacks on British colonial troops throughout

9702-424: The Cadaadle armoury near Berbera and escaped with an undetermined amount of arms and ammunition. Directed by Colonel Mohamed Hashi Lihle , it was deemed to be the SNM's " most striking initial military success " and thought to of produced a more coherent and better organised opposition force. Between the 27 and 31 May 1988, the SNM launched its main offensive on Somalia 's second capital Hargeisa where it captured

9856-402: The Fourth Brigade started moving into Ethiopia where they formed the nucleus of what would later become the Somali National Movement. The SNM's capability of obtaining funding domestically was critical to its ability to endure as an insurgent organisation due to the lack of external resources. For a variety of geopolitical reasons, the SNM did not rely on Ethiopia or Libya for funding, unlike

10010-411: The Greco-Roman sphere of influence, but embarked on significant cultural ties and trade connections between the Indian subcontinent and the Roman Empire via the Silk Road , primarily exporting ivory , tortoise shell, gold and emeralds, and importing silk and spices. The kingdom adopted the name "Ethiopia" during the reign of Ezana in the 4th century. After the conquest of Kingdom of Kush in 330,

10164-427: The Isaaq clan, were shaped into a guerrilla force and trained to produce a hard-core of disciplined fighters. Although the Ethiopians were said to have initially only supplied ammunition, Isaaq recruits came with their own arms in addition the equipment seized from the Somalian army . Soon after, the Somalian army established the "Isaaq Exterminator" command which aimed to ethnically cleanse the Isaaq population. Over

10318-435: The Italian government to expand their territorial claims. This First Italo–Ethiopian War culminated in the Battle of Adwa on 1 March 1896, in which Italy's colonial forces were defeated by the Ethiopians. During this time, about a third of the population died in the Great Ethiopian Famine (1888 to 1892), and the rinderpest swept through the area, destroying much of the herd economy. On 11 October 1897, Ethiopia adopted

10472-603: The London-based steering committee. During this, conference it issued a press release entitled ‘ A Better Alternative ’, which stated that any Somali was welcome to join the movement as long as they believed in the SNM's principles. One of the major units of the WSLF was the Fourth Brigade known as " Afraad " which was composed of Isaaq officers. Afraad's initial objective was to liberate Somalis living in Somali Region of Ethiopia , but its focus later shifted due to increasing abuses against Isaaq civilian population perpetrated by WSLF. Killing, looting and rape of civilians by WSLF

10626-403: The SNM announced that they have taken control of Hargeisa. Over the subsequent few years, the SNM would exert control of the vast majority of North-Western Somalia and expanded its operations to approximately 50 km East of Erigavo . Although it never gained full control of major cities including Hargeisa , Burao and Berbera but resorted to laying siege on them. By the beginning of 1991,

10780-419: The SNM becoming overwhelmed with volunteers. Additionally, Barre's response this operation was seen "as an attack on the whole of the Isaaq people" and led to the Isaaq uniting behind the SNM. Elders across the Isaaq community took on a leading role to advance mass mobilisation efforts to rejuvenate decimated SNM numbers and capitalise on the enhanced support to organisation by Isaaq civilians. After meetings, it

10934-409: The SNM grew in strength and number throughout the 1980s, the Barre became increasingly repressive in the North of the country and systematically targeted those from Isaaq communities who were deemed to be supportive of the SNM. The consequence of the crackdown was a dramatic increase in support of the SNM. As a result, a substantial number of men, soldiers, students, traders, and civil servants joined

11088-440: The SNM launched its first military operation against the Somalian government. Operating from Ethiopian bases, commando units attacked Mandera Prison near Berbera and freed a group of northern dissidents. The assault liberated more than 700 political prisoners according to SNM reports; subsequent independent estimates indicated that approximately about a dozen government opponents escaped. Simultaneously, SNM commando units raided

11242-702: The SNM leadership had talks with representatives from the Issa , Gadabursi , Dhulbahante and Warsangeli clans. This was especially the case since non-Isaaq communities were said to have been largely associated with Barre's regime and fought on opposing side of the Isaaq . This conference laid the foundation for the "Grand Conference of the Northern Clans" which occurred in Burao between 27 April and 18 May 1991 which aimed to bring peace to Northern Somalia. After extensive consultations amongst clan representatives and

11396-417: The SNM leadership, it was agreed that Northern Somalia (formerly State of Somaliland ) would revoke its voluntary union with the rest of Somalia to form the " Republic of Somaliland ". Although there were hopes amongst of Northern communities for succession as early as 1961, the SNM did not have a clear policy on this matter from the onset. However, any nationalistic objectives amongst SNM members and supporters

11550-430: The SNM of a civilian base of support in their area of operation, those living in rural areas between Hargeisa and the Ethiopian border have suffered particularly brutal treatment. A scorched earth policy that involved the burning of farms, the killing of livestock, the destruction of water-storage tanks and the deliberate poisoning of wells, has been pursued actively by the military. The principal towns have been subjected to

11704-406: The SNM succeeded in taking control of North-Western Somalia including Hargeisa and other regional capitals. In October 1981, Ahmed Mohamed Gulaid was elected as chairman of the organisation alongside Ahmed Ismail Abdi ‘Duksi’ as secretary-general. Additionally, an eight-member executive council was elected to oversee political and military activities. Reports state that the SNM was indisputably

11858-479: The SNM. Additionally, leadership roles were awarded across clan spectrums although the Isaaq were the majority. After the SNM was able to exert control over North-Western Somalia, the organisation quickly opted for a cessation of hostilities and reconciliation with non-Isaaq communities. A peace conference occurred in Berbera between 15–21 February 1991 restore trust and confidence between Northern communities whereby

12012-463: The Somalian army was able to regain control of both cities by the end of July. This was due to unprecedented levels of internal reinforces, the employment of non-Isaaq militias and Ogaden refugees. Moreover, external assistance to the Somalian regime including mercenary pilots from South Africa and Libya in addition to economic and military aid from the UAE and Italy played a large role in recapturing

12166-773: The Soviet Union or the United States and calling for the dismantling of all foreign military bases in the region. However, in the late 1980s a pro-Western foreign policy was adopted and the organisation favored United States involvement in a post-Siad Barre Somalia . On 18 October 1981, the organisation had its first official conference at the International Student Union of the University of London . There were 14 delegates drawn from England , Saudi Arabia and other Gulf states in addition to

12320-810: The Tigrayan rebel forces agreed to a cessation of hostilities on 2 November 2022 . Coupled with OLA insurgency , the federal government relations with Fano militias, who previously allied to the government in the Tigray War, deteriorated in mid-2023, resulting in a war in the Amhara Region . According to reports conducted by the Ethiopian Human Rights Commission (EHRC), mass human rights violations carried out by ENDF troops including door-to-door searches, extrajudicial killings, massacres and detentions. Notable incident includes

12474-735: The Trust Territory of Somaliland to create the Somali Republic . On 1 July 1960 the legislature elected Haji Bashir , the old speaker of the Somaliland Assembly, as the first President of the new Republic of Somalia National Assembly, and also on that same day Aden Adde was elected as the President of the newly formed Somali Republic. Until 1898, Somaliland was administered by the British resident at Aden as

12628-406: The ancient Habash . Several important finds have propelled Ethiopia and the surrounding region to the forefront of  palaeontology . The oldest hominid discovered to date in Ethiopia is the 4.2 million-year-old Ardipithecus ramidus ( Ardi ) found by Tim D. White in 1994. The most well-known hominid discovery is Australopithecus afarensis ( Lucy ). Known locally as Dinkinesh ,

12782-536: The authorities seized and impounded a total of 6,000 camels owned by the Habr Je'lo , the clan that Sheikh Bashir belonged to. The British authorities made the return of the livestock dependent on the turning over and arrest of the escaped rebels. The remaining rebels were subsequently found and arrested, and transported to the Saad-ud-Din archipelago , off the coast of Zeila in northwestern Somaliland. In 1947,

12936-473: The capital to Gondar in 1636, marking the beginning of the " Gondarine period ". He expelled Jesuits, reclaimed lands, and relocated them to Fremona . During his rule, Fasilides constructed the iconic royal fortress, Fasil Ghebbi , built forty-four churches, and revived Ethiopian art . He is also credited with building seven stone bridges over the Blue Nile River . Gondar's power declined after

13090-463: The cities of Burao and Erigavo in the former British Somaliland protectorate against British authorities in July 1945 led by Sheikh Bashir , a Somali religious leader belonging to the Yeesif sub-division. On 2 July, Sheikh Hamza collected 25 of his followers in the town of Wadamago and transported them on a lorry to the vicinity of Burao , where he distributed arms to half of his followers. On

13244-611: The cities. Approximately, 50,000 people were killed between March 1988 and March 1989 as a result of the Somalian Army's "savage assault" on the Isaaq population. Although this operation was not viewed as successful, it was seen as the death knell of Barre's regime and consequently a point of no return in Northern Somalia's (present day Somaliland ) move towards independence. Furthermore, the Somalian Army's indiscriminate aerial and artillery bombing of both cities led to

13398-605: The city of Axum . The Greek name Αἰθιοπία (from Αἰθίοψ , "an Ethiopian") is a compound word, later explained as derived from the Greek words αἴθω and ὤψ ( eithō "I burn" + ōps "face"). According to the Liddell-Scott Jones Greek-English Lexicon , the designation properly translates as burnt-face in noun form and red-brown in adjectival form. The historian Herodotus used the appellation to denote those parts of Africa south of

13552-682: The city of Taleh where most of his troops were stationed, causing the mullah to retreat into the desert. Hassan and his Dervish supporters fled to the Ogaden, where Hassan died in 1921. The Somaliland Camel Corps , also referred to as the Somali Camel Corps, was a unit of the British Army based in British Somaliland. It lasted from the early 20th century until 1944. The troopers of the Somaliland Camel Corps had

13706-456: The coast, and contrasted with the more interventionist colonial experience of Italian Somalia . Beginning in 1899, the British were forced to expend considerable human and military capital to contain a decades-long resistance movement mounted by the Dervish resistance movement. The movement was led by Sayyid Mohammed Abdullah Hassan , a Somali religious leader referred to colloquially by

13860-423: The context in which the SNM was formed: Since 1981, with the formation of the SNM, northern Somalia has seen the worst atrocities. Serious human right violations, including extra-judicial executions of unarmed civilians, detentions without trial, unfair trials, torture, rape, looting and extortion, have been a prominent feature of life in the towns and countryside in the northern region since 1981. In order to deprive

14014-516: The country (1936–1941) after Italian victory in the war. Italy, however, never managed to secure the country in its totality, due to resistance from the Arbegnoch , this made Ethiopia, along with Liberia , the only African countries to never be colonized. Following the entry of Italy into World War II , British Empire forces, together with the Arbegnoch , liberated Ethiopia in the course of

14168-513: The country and have a climate which is generally considerably cooler than other regions at similar proximity to the Equator. Most of the country's major cities are located at elevations of around 2,000–2,500 m (6,562–8,202 ft) above sea level, including historic capitals such as Gondar and Axum. The modern capital, Addis Ababa, is situated on the foothills of Mount Entoto at an elevation of around 2,400 metres (7,900 ft). It experiences

14322-593: The country and was granted asylum in Zimbabwe. In July 1991, the EPRDF convened a National Conference to establish the Transitional Government of Ethiopia composed of an 87-member Council of Representatives and guided by a national charter that functioned as a transitional constitution. In 1994, a new constitution was written that established a parliamentary republic with a bicameral legislature and

14476-528: The country by terrorizing anyone who is suspected of not being wholeheartedly pro-government. Years of sustained state violence have created a serious level of political unrest in the region. Unlike other organized guerilla groups which were relatively independent from the non-combatant local population, the SNM established an extensive support network bringing together the diverse segments of the Isaaq population both at home and abroad. The mobilisation of solidarity and relationship building with diverse Isaaq clans

14630-431: The country with a new constitution and ethnic-based federalism . Since then, Ethiopia has suffered from prolonged and unsolved inter-ethnic clashes and political instability marked by democratic backsliding . From 2018, regional and ethnically based factions carried out armed attacks in multiple ongoing wars throughout Ethiopia . Ethiopia is a multi-ethnic state with over 80 different ethnic groups . Christianity

14784-450: The country. Ethnic violence rose during the late 2010s and early 2020s, with various clashes and conflicts leading to millions of Ethiopians being displaced. The federal government decided that elections for 2020 (later being rescheduled to 2021 ) be cancelled, due to health and safety concerns about COVID-19 . The Tigray Region 's TPLF opposed this, and proceeded to hold elections anyway on 9 September 2020. Relations between

14938-453: The court as slaves . They were given positions of trust by the monarch, and they converted members of the royal court to Christianity. Frumentius became the first bishop of Aksum. A coin dated to 324 shows that Ethiopia was the second country to officially adopt Christianity (after Armenia did so in 301), although the religion may have been at first confined to court circles; it was the first major power to do so. The Aksumites were accustomed to

15092-593: The death of Iyasu I in 1706. Following Iyasu II 's death in 1755, Empress Mentewab brought her brother, Ras Wolde Leul, to Gondar, making him Ras Bitwaded. This led to regnal conflict between Mentewab's Quaregnoch and the Wollo group led by Wubit. In 1767, Ras Mikael Sehul , a regent in Tigray Province , seized Gondar, killing the child Iyoas I in 1769, the reigning emperor, and installed 70-year-old Yohannes II . Between 1769 and 1855, Ethiopia witnessed

15246-577: The deteriorating situation in the Somali Democratic Republic post Ogaden War . In 1980, the key leaders in the Saudi group determined that London provided a more favourable political climate for operating an international dissident group, therefore several people relocated to London to work full-time with the movement. The organisation was formally founded in Jeddah in April 1981 by an intellectual elite with

15400-534: The district and the seizing of arms from the rural constabulary. The British authorities was not finished with the rebels even after most of them had died and continued its counter-insurgency campaign. The authorities had quickly learned the names and identities of all the followers of Sheikh Bashir and tried to convince the locals to turn them in. When they refused, the authorities invoked the Collective Punishment Ordinance , under which

15554-419: The earliest expansion occurred under Emperor Dawit II ( luba Melbah ), when they encroached to Bale before invading Adal Sultanate. Ethiopia saw major diplomatic contact with Portugal from the 17th century, mainly related to religion. Beginning in 1555, Portuguese Jesuits attempted to develop Roman Catholicism as the state religion. After several failures, they sent several missionaries in 1603, including

15708-748: The east, resulting in a significant shift in the balance of power in favor of the Christians for the next two centuries. After Amda Seyon's successful eastern campaigns, most of the Muslim principalities in the Horn of Africa came under the suzerainty of the Ethiopian Empire. Stretching from Gojjam to the Somali Coast in Zelia . Among these Muslim entities was the Sultanate of Ifat . During

15862-500: The entire budget for the administration of the British Somaliland protectorate was only £213,139. In May 1960, the British Government stated that it would be prepared to grant independence to the then Somaliland protectorate. The Legislative Council of British Somaliland passed a resolution in April 1960 requesting independence. The legislative councils of the territory agreed to this proposal. In April 1960, leaders of

16016-590: The establishment of the protectorate were to "secure a supply market, check the traffic in slaves, and to exclude the interference of foreign powers." The British principally viewed the protectorate as a source for supplies of meat for their British Indian outpost in Aden through the maintenance of order in the coastal areas and protection of the caravan routes from the interior. Hence, the region's nickname of "Aden's butcher's shop". Colonial administration during this period did not extend administrative infrastructure beyond

16170-454: The evening of 3 July the group entered Burao and opened fire on the police guard of the central prison in the city, which was filled with prisoners arrested for previous demonstrations. The group also attacked the house of the district commissioner of Burao District , Major Chambers, resulting in the death of Major Chamber's police guard before escaping to Bur Dhab, a strategic mountain south-east of Burao, where Sheikh Bashir's small unit occupied

16324-632: The exodus to SNM bases in Ethiopia. Nevertheless, this defiant show of resistance in the northwest was met with further subjugation from the regime. A Human Rights Watch testimony before the United States Congress ' Africa Subcommittee on 14 July 1988 stated that the actions of the Barre government have "created a level of violence unprecedented in scope and duration in Somalia". The testimony of Aryeh Neier (co-founder of HRW ) explains

16478-568: The federal government and Tigray deteriorated rapidly, and in November 2020, Ethiopia began a military offensive in Tigray in response to attacks on army units stationed there, marking the beginning of the Tigray war . By March 2022, as many as 500,000 people had died as a result of violence and famine . After a number of peace and mediation proposals in the intervening years, Ethiopia and

16632-642: The first time the highland inhabitants of Aksum. This new demonym was subsequently rendered as ḥbs ('Aḥbāsh) in Sabaic and as Ḥabasha in Arabic . Derivatives of this are used in some languages that use loanwords from Arabic, for example in Malay Habsyah . In English, and generally outside of Ethiopia, the country was historically known as Abyssinia. This toponym was derived from the Latinized form of

16786-402: The following years, the SNM made numerous clandestine military incursions into northwest Somalia. Although these attacks never posed a direct threat to the regime's control of the area, such activities and the boldness and tenacity of its small force were a constant irritation to the Barre regime. The first military offensive of the SNM took place near Baligubadle where a small force attacked

16940-495: The formation of Ethiopia's current border. Externally, during the late 19th century, Ethiopia defended itself against foreign invasions, including from Egypt and Italy ; as a result, Ethiopia preserved its sovereignty during the Scramble for Africa . In 1936, Ethiopia was occupied by Fascist Italy and annexed with Italian-possessed Eritrea and Somaliland , later forming Italian East Africa . In 1941, during World War II , it

17094-577: The human rights violation under Mohamed Siad Barre regime. Due to political and logistical obstacles in Saudi Arabia, the Somali Islamic Democratic party decide to move its headquarters to London and along with Somali London Association, Somali Welfare Association, and Somali National Party (as well as members of the Somali Student Union) to converge and launch Somali National Movement in 1981. This press conference

17248-521: The larger Somali population in United Kingdom soon after, and the organisation's formation was announced on 6 April 1981 in Connaught Hall, London . The said communities composed primarily of students, activists, intellectuals and African communities, particularly Somalis in London , Cardiff , Sheffield , Manchester and Liverpool played greater role in raising funds and spreading awareness of

17402-491: The main road to Berbera, but were dislodged from their positions and retreated after losing the Battle of Tug Argan . During this period, the British rounded up soldiers and governmental officials to evacuate them from the territory through Berbera. In total, 7,000 people, including civilians, were evacuated. The Somalis serving in the Somaliland Camel Corps were given the choice of evacuation or disbandment;

17556-471: The majority chose to remain and were allowed to retain their arms. In March 1941, after a six-month Italian occupation, British forces recaptured the protectorate during Operation Appearance . The final remnants of the Italian guerrilla movement discontinued all resistance in British Somaliland by the autumn of 1943. The 1945 Sheikh Bashir Rebellion was an uprising by tribesmen of the Habr Je'lo clan in

17710-432: The most 'democratic' of all the fronts in Somalia, since it had five elected leaders since its creation, all of whom had served a full term in office, to be replaced by an elected successor. The Central Committee was responsible for the vast majority of decisions and was responsible for organising regular congresses to elect the leadership. Throughout the organisation's period of activity, various clans were incorporated into

17864-457: The most influential, Spanish Jesuit Pedro Paez . Under Emperor Susenyos I , Roman Catholicism became the state religion of the Ethiopian Empire in 1622. This decision caused an uprising by the Orthodox populace. In 1632, Emperor Fasilides halted Roman Catholic state administration, restoring Orthodox Tewahedo as the state religion. Fasilides' reign solidified imperial power, relocating

18018-714: The name Aethiopia also occurs in many translations of the Old Testament in allusion to Nubia. The ancient Hebrew texts identify Nubia instead as Kush . However, in the New Testament , the Greek term Aithiops does occur, referring to a servant of the Kandake , the queen of Kush. Following the Hellenic and biblical traditions, the Monumentum Adulitanum , a 3rd-century inscription belonging to

18172-482: The name of the first King of Ethiopia, Ethiop, or Ethiopis . Ayele Berkerie explains: According to an Ethiopian tradition, the term Ethiopia is derived from the word Ethiopis, a name of the Ethiopian king, the seventh in the ancestral lines. Metshafe Aksum or the Ethiopian Book of Aksum identifies Itiopis as the twelfth king of Ethiopia and the father of Aksumawi. The Ethiopians pronounce Ethiopia እትዮጵያ with

18326-484: The northern part of Ethiopia in Tigray and Amhara regions, and is widely believed to be the successor state to Punt . This polity's capital was located at Yeha in what is now northern Ethiopia. Most modern historians consider this civilization to be a native Ethiopian one, although in earlier times many suggested it was Sabaean -influenced because of the latter's hegemony of the Red Sea . Other scholars regard Dʿmt as

18480-561: The northern regions of Eritrea and Tigray. The Tigray People's Liberation Front (TPLF) merged with other ethnically based opposition movements in 1989, to form the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF). The collapse of Marxism–Leninism during the revolutions of 1989 coincided with the Soviet Union stopping aid to Ethiopia altogether in 1990. EPRDF forces advanced on Addis Ababa in May 1991, and Mengistu fled

18634-420: The objective of overthrowing Barre's dictatorial regime. At the first congress in Jeddah, the organisation's name was officially changed to the " Somali National Movement " (SNM). Additionally, there was a call to action for the proposed funding of three full-time staff members. These individuals would go on to quit their jobs in Saudi Arabia to devote their time to the movement. The "Saudi group" reached out to

18788-455: The organisation but is also thought to have strengthened the insurgency movement. The establishment of internal revenue sources was a crucial factor allowed the organisation to succeed and outperform its competitors. Additionally, the organisation succeeded in fostering relationships with commercial intermediaries via the 'Abban' system (an indigenous credit system constructed outside of Barre ’s nationalization processes). Therefore, facilitating

18942-522: The organisation's leadership to SNM members in Ethiopia . The SNM also published the bi-monthly magazine "Liberty". Women often played an "invisible role" in the organisation working predominantly as nurses and medics during the conflict. Additionally, since they were less likely to arouse suspicion compared to men they travelled more freely allowing them to establish clandestine communication channels which also benefited traders. One well known woman dubbed

19096-443: The organisation. Those who were not imprisoned were forced to report to an 'orientation centre' to prove they were still in town and be degraded. These centres were originally used for socialist propaganda teaching, however were then routinely used to track the movement of citizens in Northern Somalia by the intelligence services. The SNM had to rely on the support of its Isaaq constituency for funds, which were primarily collected on

19250-453: The organization’s affairs. Isaaq delegates received approximately $ 14–25 million in remittances which funded the supply arms of to the rural guerillas who helped overthrow the Barre regime. In the Summer of 1981, the organisation published a magazine called "Somalia Uncensored". This magazine aimed to spread the message of the SNM to expatriate communities across England and elsewhere. It

19404-565: The pastoral economy and settle in urban areas. Customs taxes also helped pay for British India's patrol of Somalia's Red Sea Coast. Among military units in British Somaliland during the interwar period was a battalion of the Indian Army 4th Bombay Grenadiers . In August 1940, during the East African campaign in World War II , British Somaliland was invaded by Italy. The few British forces that were present attempted to defend

19558-405: The port city of Adulis was plundered by Arab Muslims in the 8th century; along with irrevocable land degradation , claimed climate change and sporadic rainfall precipitation from 730 to 760, these factors likely caused the kingdom to decline in power as part of an important trade route. Aksum came to an end in 960 when Queen Gudit defeated the last king of Aksum. In response, the remnant of

19712-442: The power of regional rulers, restructured the empire's administration, and created a professional army. These changes created the basis for establishing the effective sovereignty and territorial integrity of the Ethiopian state. In 1875 and 1876, Ottoman and Egyptian forces, accompanied by many European and American advisors, twice invaded Abyssinia but were initially defeated. From 1885 to 1889 (under Yohannes IV ), Ethiopia joined

19866-412: The preservation of stability and the economic self-sufficiency of the protectorate. The second goal remained particularly elusive because of local resistance to taxation that might have been used to support the protectorate's administration. By the 1930s, the British presence had extended to other parts of British Somaliland. Growth in commercial trade motivated some livestock herders to subsequently leave

20020-411: The protection of Somali rights and the maintenance of independence. The British garrisoned the protectorate from Aden and administered it from their British India colony until 1898. British Somaliland was then administered by the Foreign Office until 1905 and afterwards by the Colonial Office . Generally, the British did not have much interest in the resource-barren region. The stated purposes of

20174-476: The reign of Emperor Zara Yaqob , the Ethiopian Empire reached its pinnacle. His rule was marked by the consolidation of territorial acquisitions from earlier rulers, the oversight of the construction of numerous churches and monasteries, the active promotion of literature and art, and the strengthening of central imperial authority. Ifat's successor, the Adal Sultanate , tried to conquer Ethiopia during

20328-521: The result of a union of Afroasiatic-speaking cultures of the Cushitic and Semitic branches; namely, local Agaw peoples and Sabaeans from Southern Arabia. However, Ge'ez , the ancient Semitic language of Ethiopia, is thought to have developed independently from the Sabaean language . As early as 2000 BC, other Semitic speakers were living in Ethiopia and Eritrea where Ge'ez developed. Sabaean influence

20482-420: The situation rapidly changed when President Barre and Meningstu signed a peace accord where it was agreed that they would both cease hostilities towards one another and stop harbouring each other's dissident. As a result, forcing the SNM to relocate into Northern Somalia, a key event which drastically changed the trajectory of the conflict whereby its activities lead to an all out war that led to its victory. As

20636-560: The specimen was found in the Awash Valley of Afar Region in 1974 by Donald Johanson , and is one of the most complete and best-preserved adult Australopithecine fossils ever uncovered. Lucy's taxonomic name refers to the region where the discovery was made. This hominid is estimated to have lived 3.2 million years ago. Ethiopia is also considered one of the earliest sites of the emergence of anatomically modern humans , Homo sapiens . The oldest of these local fossil finds,

20790-412: The stone tips of javelins or throwing spears, were discovered in 2013 at the Ethiopian site of Gademotta , which date to around 279,000 years ago. In 2019, additional Middle Stone Age projectile weapons were found at Aduma, dated 100,000–80,000 years ago, in the form of points considered likely to belong to darts delivered by spear throwers. In 980 BC, Dʿmt was established in present-day Eritrea and

20944-542: The systematic application of the apparatuses of state repression which increased in number and scope after the formation of the Isaaq-based Somali National Movement in April 1981 Armed clashes between Afraad and the Ogaden forces of WSLF began shortly after 1979. An Isaaq army officer arrested 14 leading WSLF fighters who have been harassing and abusing the local population at Gobyar. From February 1982, Isaaq army officers and fighters from

21098-693: The taxing of constituents themselves by commandeering one young man and one sheep from each household. As a result, encouraging entrepreneurialism but also containing it. Therefore, these processes produced a negotiation between rulers and ruled in which the opinions of ordinary Isaaq kin mattered since they provided the resources to continue the fight. Dahabshil which would later become one of Somaliland 's largest money transfer and telecom firms started out as an SNM financier. As Isaaq financiers based in Dire Dawa ( Ethiopia ) used SNM radios to transfer money to fighters, this allowed them to also intervene in

21252-416: The tribes in the vicinity, which kept them from raiding each other. He was generally thought to settle disputes through the use of Islamic Sharia and gathered around him a strong following. Sheikh Bashir sent a message to religious figures in the town of Erigavo and called on them to revolt and join the rebellion he led. The religious leaders as well as the people of Erigavo heeded his call, and mobilized

21406-494: The two territories met in Mogadishu and agreed to form a unitary state. An elected president was to be head of state. Full executive powers would be held by a prime minister answerable to an elected National Assembly of 123 members representing the two territories. On 26 June 1960, the British Somaliland protectorate gained independence as the State of Somaliland . Five days later on 1 July 1960 Somaliland officially merged with

21560-490: The world's hottest settlement of Dallol in its north. The Ethiopian Highlands are the largest continuous mountain ranges in Africa, and the Sof Omar Caves contains the largest cave on the continent. Ethiopia also has the second-largest number of UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Africa. The predominant climate type is tropical monsoon, with wide topographic-induced variation. The Ethiopian Highlands cover most of

21714-647: Was occupied by the British Army , and its full sovereignty was restored in 1944 after a period of military administration . The Derg , a Soviet-backed military junta, took power in 1974 after deposing Emperor Haile Selassie and the Solomonic dynasty, and ruled the country for nearly 17 years amidst the Ethiopian Civil War . Following the dissolution of the Derg in 1991, the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) dominated

21868-569: Was Emperor from 1889 until his death in 1913. From his base in the central province of Shewa, Menelik set out to annex territories to the south, east, and west — areas inhabited by the Oromo, Sidama , Gurage, Welayta , and other peoples. He achieved this with the help of Ras Gobana Dacche 's Shewan Oromo militia, which occupied lands that had not been held since Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi 's war, as well as other areas that had never been under Ethiopian rule. For his leadership, despite opposition from more traditional elements of society, Menelik II

22022-468: Was a connection between Egyptian and Ethiopian churches. There is diminutive evidence that the Aksumites were associated with the Queen of Sheba , via their royal inscription. Around 316 AD, Frumentius and his brother Edesius from Tyre accompanied their uncle on a voyage to Ethiopia. When the vessel stopped at a Red Sea port, the natives killed all the travellers except the two brothers, who were taken to

22176-483: Was able to defeat the Somalian army in the North-West of the country. By June 1989, the SNM was actively mounting attacks on major hubs across the North-West, blockading transport routes and interfering with regime supplies to military garrisons. As a result, the Barre regime gradually lost control of the area by December 1989 with exception to major towns which were under active siege by the SNM. On December 5, 1989,

22330-530: Was abruptly altered in light of the genocide experienced under the Barre regime. As a result, strengthening the case for succession and reclamation of independence to the territory of State of Somaliland . Garad Cabdiqani Garaad Jama who led the Dhulbahante delegation was first to table the case for succession. In May 1991, the SNM announced the independence of " Somaliland " and the formation of an interim administration whereby Abdirahman Ahmed Ali Tuur

22484-519: Was common from 1978 onwards. This abuse was due to the Somali state employing the Ogadeni subsection of WSLF as a subsidiary militia that would be used to maintain control over the northern regions of Somalia . I. M. Lewis contextualises the period in which Afraad was formed as follows: The process of Daarood colonization of the north including seizure of property and economic favouritism at Isaaq expense, greatly intensified under Gani's brutal rule, with

22638-454: Was decided that the Elders also known as the "Guurti" would become responsible for organising logistical support and recruiting new SNM combatants. Consequently, sub-clan affiliation became a key aspect of the military wing of the organisation and the "Guurti" became an integral part of the SNM's central committee after 1988. As a result of this increased support from the local population, the SNM

22792-510: Was edited by Hassan Isse Jama who was a former BBC Somali Service broadcaster who was forced to relinquish his role at the BBC due to his SNM related activities. This publication was printed in London and was largely financed by the Saudi-Somali community. Moreover, it was published on a monthly basis between June and December 1981 whereby its final edition announced the formal transfer of

22946-406: Was elected to govern for a period of two years. Many former SNM members were key in the formation of the government and constitution. In May 1993 the "Borama Conference" took place to elect a new President and Vice President. The conference was attended by 150 elders from the Isaaq (88), Gadabursi (21), Dhulbahante (21), Warsengali (11) and Issa (9) communities and was endorsed by the SNM. As

23100-401: Was heralded as a national hero. He had signed the Treaty of Wuchale with Italy in May 1889, by which Italy would recognize Ethiopia's sovereignty so long as Italy could control an area north of Ethiopia (now part of modern Eritrea). In return, Italy was to provide Menelik with weapons and support him as emperor. The Italians used the time between the signing of the treaty and its ratification by

23254-471: Was key to ensuring the upkeep of SNM combatants. A system known as "Qaaraan" which aimed to transform social into economic capital was adopted whereby SNM members would seek support from their respective clans. This system was deeply ingrained in pastoral-nomadic ethics but also extended to urban dwellers. Therefore, acting as a form insurance to prevent the risk of minimise the risk of absolute pauperisation and poverty within clan families. On January 2, 1983,

23408-446: Was occupied by the Italians and was part of Italian East Africa . On 26 June 1960, British Somaliland was formally granted independence by the United Kingdom as the State of Somaliland . Five days later, on 1 July 1960, the State of Somaliland voluntarily united with the Trust Territory of Somalia (the former Italian Somalia ) to form the Somali Republic . The government of Somaliland , an unrecognised independent state that

23562-410: Was reportedly attended by over 500 Somalis from across Europe . A four-page press release also criticised the nepotism, corruption and chaos into which Somalia endured under Siad Barre 's dictatorship, and outlined the case to overthrow the regime to reestablish a just and democratic system. Additionally, the SNM advocated a mixed economy and a neutral foreign policy, therefore rejecting alignment with

23716-433: Was toppled, and a new government was formed with Endelkachew Makonnen serving as Prime Minister. Haile Selassie's rule ended on 12 September 1974, when he was deposed by the Derg , a committee made up of military and police officers. After the execution of 60 former government and military officials , the new Provisional Military Administrative Council abolished the monarchy in March 1975 and established Ethiopia as

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