Misplaced Pages

#764235

116-629: Josephus , writing at the end of the 1st century CE, associates the sect with the upper echelons of Judean society. As a whole, they fulfilled various political, social, and religious roles, including maintaining the Temple in Jerusalem . The group became extinct sometime after the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE . The English term entered via Latin from Koinē Greek : Σαδδουκαῖοι , romanized:  Saddukaioi . The name Zadok

232-418: A Jewish priest . His older full-blooded brother was also, like his father, called Matthias. Their mother was an aristocratic woman who was descended from the royal and formerly ruling Hasmonean dynasty . Josephus's paternal grandparents were a man also named Joseph(us) and his wife—an unnamed Hebrew noblewoman—distant relatives of each other. Josephus's family was wealthy. He descended through his father from

348-655: A Greek Jewish woman from Crete , who was a member of a distinguished family. They had two sons, Flavius Justus and Flavius Simonides Agrippa. Josephus's life story remains ambiguous. He was described by Harris in 1985 as a law-observant Jew who believed in the compatibility of Judaism and Graeco-Roman thought, commonly referred to as Hellenistic Judaism . Josippon , the Hebrew version of Josephus, contains changes. His critics were never satisfied as to why he failed to commit suicide in Galilee, and after his capture, accepted

464-476: A Roman onslaught. In Upper Galilee , he fortified the towns of Jamnith , Seph , Mero , and Achabare , among other places. Josephus, with the Galileans under his command, managed to bring both Sepphoris and Tiberias into subjection, but was eventually forced to relinquish his hold on Sepphoris by the arrival of Roman forces under Placidus the tribune and later by Vespasian himself. Josephus first engaged

580-547: A brief visit to Rome in the early 60s ( Life 13–17). In the wake of the suppression of the Jewish revolt, Josephus would have witnessed the marches of Titus 's triumphant legions leading their Jewish captives, and carrying treasures from the despoiled Temple in Jerusalem . It was against this background that Josephus wrote his War . He blames the Jewish War on what he calls "unrepresentative and over-zealous fanatics" among

696-449: A deputy—called the segan (deputy), mishneh (second), or "memunneh" (appointed)—to stand at his right; another assistant was called the " Catholicos ". For offenses which entailed flagellation, the high priest could be sentenced by a court of three; after submitting to the penalty, he could resume his office. The high priest was expected to be superior to all other priests in physique, in wisdom, in dignity, and in material wealth; if he

812-609: A detailed examination of all the available manuscripts, mainly from France and Spain. Henry St. John Thackeray and successors such as Ralph Marcus used Niese's version for the Loeb Classical Library edition widely used today. On the Jewish side, Josephus was far more obscure, as he was perceived as a traitor. Rabbinical writings for a millennium after his death (e.g. the Mishnah ) almost never call out Josephus by name, although they sometimes tell parallel tales of

928-670: A person of great experience in everything belonging to his own nation, he attained to that remarkable familiarity with his country in every part, which his antiquarian researches so abundantly evince. But he was controlled by political motives: his great purpose was to bring his people, the despised Jewish race, into honour with the Greeks and Romans; and this purpose underlay every sentence, and filled his history with distortions and exaggerations. Josephus mentions that in his day there were 240 towns and villages scattered across Upper and Lower Galilee , some of which he names. Josephus's works are

1044-406: A prominent leader alongside the political ruler Zerubavel . Joshua was a son of Zadok , in accordance with Ezekiel 's prophecy. It was presumed that the high priest's son would succeed him, but this did not always happen. The role eventually passed from Phinehas (or his descendants) to Eli , who was descended from Ithamar (brother of Eleazar). However, Eli's family eventually lost rights to

1160-689: A rebellion in Judea. The most successful rebels were led by the Hasmonean family in what became the Maccabean Revolt , and eventually established the independent Hasmonean kingdom around 142 BCE. While the Sadducees are not attested to this early, many scholars presume that the later sects began to form during the Maccabean era (see Jewish sectarianism below). It is often speculated that

1276-576: A revolt". Paul L. Maier suggests that the sect drew their name from the Sadduc mentioned by Josephus. The Second Temple period is the period between the construction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem in 516 BCE and its destruction by the Romans during the Siege of Jerusalem. Throughout the Second Temple period, Jerusalem saw several shifts in rule. In Achaemenid Judea , the Temple in Jerusalem became

SECTION 10

#1732766028765

1392-916: A significant, extra-Biblical account of the post-Exilic period of the Maccabees , the Hasmonean dynasty, and the rise of Herod the Great . He also describes the Sadducees , the Pharisees and Essenes , the Herodian Temple, Quirinius 's census and the Zealots , and such figures as Pontius Pilate , Herod the Great , Agrippa I and Agrippa II , John the Baptist , James the brother of Jesus , and Jesus . Josephus represents an important source for studies of immediate post-Temple Judaism and

1508-524: A systematic order, proceeding topically and logically" and included all relevant material for their subject. Antiquarians moved beyond political history to include institutions and religious and private life. Josephus does offer this wider perspective in Antiquities . The works of Josephus are major sources of our understanding of Jewish life and history during the first century. His first work in Rome

1624-592: A visit of consolation to mourners, though even then, his dignity was guarded by prescribed etiquette. The high priest was not allowed to follow the bier of one in his own family who had died, nor leave the Temple or his house during the time of mourning. The people visited him to offer consolation; in receiving them, the Segan was at his right, the next in rank and the people at his left. The people said: "We are thy atonement." He answered: "Be ye blessed from heaven". During

1740-468: Is damaged in some places. In the Life , Niese follows mainly manuscript P, but refers also to AMW and R. Henry St. John Thackeray for the Loeb Classical Library has a Greek text also mainly dependent on P. André Pelletier edited a new Greek text for his translation of Life . The ongoing Münsteraner Josephus-Ausgabe of Münster University will provide a new critical apparatus. Late Old Slavonic translations of

1856-478: Is described in detail in Mishnah Yoma. The succession was to be through one of his sons, and was to remain in his own family. If he had no son, the office devolved upon the brother next of age: such appears to have been the practice in the Hasmonean period. In this period, the high priests belonged to priestly families from the sons of Zadok . This tradition came to an end in the 2nd century BCE during

1972-403: Is further taught that just as the sacrifices facilitate an atonement for sin , so do the priestly garments. Though other priests would serve only when it was their week on rotation and on festivals (and even then their function was decided by lot), the high priest could choose to perform any priestly rite at any time. Josephus contends that the high priest almost invariably participated in

2088-552: Is referred to by a number of titles in the Hebrew Bible ; the title kohen gadol did not become dominant until well into the Second Temple period. In addition to the title of "great priest" ( kohen gadol ) which later became the standard Hebrew title, the term "head priest" ( kohen harosh ) was used, as was "anointed priest" ( kohen mashiach ). The Torah sometimes uses longer descriptions: "the great priest, who

2204-402: Is regarded as sufficient. A high priest so invested is known as merubbeh begadim. This investiture consists of arraying him in the eight pieces of dress and in removing them again on eight successive days, though (the anointing and) the investiture on the first day suffices to qualify him for the functions of the office. The only distinction between the "anointed" and the "invested" high priest

2320-570: Is related to the root צָדַק , ṣāḏaq (to be right, just), which could be indicative of their aristocratic status in society in the initial period of their existence. According to Abraham Geiger , the Sadducee sect of Judaism derived their name from that of Zadok , the first High Priest of Israel to serve in Solomon's Temple . The leaders of the sect were proposed as the Kohanim (priests,

2436-423: Is repentance: in later life he felt so bad about the traitorous War that he needed to demonstrate … his loyalty to Jewish history, law and culture." However, Josephus's "countless incidental remarks explaining basic Judean language, customs and laws … assume a Gentile audience. He does not expect his first hearers to know anything about the laws or Judean origins." The issue of who would read this multi-volume work

SECTION 20

#1732766028765

2552-488: Is that the former offers the bull for an unintentional transgression. The age of eligibility for the office is not fixed in the Torah ; but according to rabbinical tradition it was twenty. (For comparison, Levites began working at age 30. ) Aristobulus , however, was only seventeen when appointed by Herod the Great ; but the son of Onias III was too young (νηπιος) to succeed his father. Legitimacy of birth and lineage

2668-585: Is understood to be "the" priest, i.e. the high priest at that moment. The first high priest was Aaron himself, the ancestor of all priests; he was appointed to this role by God . Other notable high priests in the Bible include Aaron's son Eleazar , Eleazar's son Phinehas , Eli , and Zadok . After the Babylonian Exile , the first high priest was Joshua the High Priest , who is mentioned as

2784-538: Is unresolved. Other possible motives for writing Antiquities could be to dispel the misrepresentation of Jewish origins or as an apologetic to Greek cities of the Diaspora in order to protect Jews and to Roman authorities to garner their support for the Jews facing persecution. Josephus was a very popular writer with Christians in the 4th century and beyond as an independent source to the events before, during, and after

2900-664: The Haskalah ("Jewish Enlightenment") in the 19th century, when sufficiently "neutral" vernacular language translations were made. Kalman Schulman finally created a Hebrew translation of the Greek text of Josephus in 1863, although many rabbis continued to prefer the Yosippon version. By the 20th century, Jewish attitudes toward Josephus had softened, as he gave the Jews a respectable place in classical history. Various parts of his work were reinterpreted as more inspiring and favorable to

3016-411: The nomen Flavius from his patrons, as was the custom amongst freedmen . Vespasian arranged for Josephus to marry a captured Jewish woman, whom he later divorced. Around the year 71, Josephus married an Alexandrian Jewish woman as his third wife. They had three sons, of whom only Flavius Hyrcanus survived childhood. Josephus later divorced his third wife. Around 75, he married his fourth wife,

3132-651: The Egyptians , who, in turn, taught the Greeks . Moses set up a senatorial priestly aristocracy, which, like that of Rome, resisted monarchy . The great figures of the Tanakh are presented as ideal philosopher-leaders. He includes an autobiographical appendix defending his conduct at the end of the war when he cooperated with the Roman forces. Louis H. Feldman outlines the difference between calling this work Antiquities of

3248-658: The Roman army led by military commander Vespasian after the six-week siege of Yodfat . Josephus claimed the Jewish messianic prophecies that initiated the First Jewish–Roman War made reference to Vespasian becoming Roman emperor . In response, Vespasian decided to keep him as a slave and presumably interpreter . After Vespasian became emperor in AD ;69, he granted Josephus his freedom, at which time Josephus assumed

3364-579: The Seleucid Empire of Syria ( r.  200 – 142 BCE ). During this period, the High Priest of Israel was generally appointed with the direct approval of the Greek rulership, continuing the intermixing of religious politics with government. King Antiochus IV Epiphanes of the Seleucids began a persecution of traditional Jewish practices around 168–167 BCE, which set off

3480-569: The sin of arrogance on the part of the Children of Israel ( B . Zevachim 88b) and she also symbolizes that the high priest bears the lack of all the offerings and gifts of the sons of Israel. And it must be constantly on his head for the good pleasure of God towards them ( Exodus 28:38 ). Even though Aaron was the first high priest mentioned in the Book of Exodus , Louis Ginzberg in Legends of

3596-460: The " Sons of Zadok ", descendants of Eleazar , son of Aaron ). The aggadic work Avot of Rabbi Natan tells the story of the two disciples of Antigonus of Sokho (3rd century BCE), Zadok and Boethus. Antigonus having taught the maxim, "Be not like the servants who serve their masters for the sake of the wages, but be rather like those who serve without thought of receiving wages", his students repeated this maxim to their students. Eventually, either

Sadducees - Misplaced Pages Continue

3712-617: The 17th century. The 1544 Greek edition formed the basis of the 1732 English translation by William Whiston , which achieved enormous popularity in the English-speaking world. It was often the book—after the Bible—that Christians most frequently owned. Whiston claimed that certain works by Josephus had a similar style to the Epistles of St. Paul . Later editions of the Greek text include that of Benedikt Niese , who made

3828-502: The Emperor's family name of Flavius . Flavius Josephus fully defected to the Roman side and was granted Roman citizenship . He became an advisor and close associate of Vespasian's son Titus , serving as his translator during Titus's protracted siege of Jerusalem in AD 70, which resulted in the near-total razing of the city and the destruction of the Second Temple . Josephus recorded

3944-588: The Essenes and the Sadducees. In fact, some scholars suggest that the Essenes originated as a sect of Zadokites , which would indicate that the group itself had priestly, and thus Sadducaic origins. Within the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Sadducees are often referred to as Manasseh. The scrolls suggest that the Sadducees (Manasseh) and the Pharisees (Ephraim) became religious communities that were distinct from

4060-510: The Essenes, the true Judah. Clashes between the Essenes and the Sadducees are depicted in the Pesher on Nahum , which states "They [Manasseh] are the wicked ones ... whose reign over Israel will be brought down ... his wives, his children, and his infant will go into captivity. His warriors and his honored ones [will perish] by the sword." The reference to the Sadducees as those who reign over Israel corroborates their aristocratic status as opposed to

4176-408: The Galileans and by the Romans; he was guilty of shocking duplicity at Jotapata, saving himself by sacrifice of his companions; he was too naive to see how he stood condemned out of his own mouth for his conduct, and yet no words were too harsh when he was blackening his opponents; and after landing, however involuntarily, in the Roman camp, he turned his captivity to his own advantage, and benefited for

4292-516: The Great Jewish Revolt (AD 66–70), including the siege of Masada . His most important works were The Jewish War ( c.  75 ) and Antiquities of the Jews ( c.  94). The Jewish War recounts the Jewish revolt against Roman occupation. Antiquities of the Jews recounts the history of the world from a Jewish perspective for an ostensibly Greek and Roman audience. These works provide insight into first-century Judaism and

4408-519: The Greek also exist, but these contain a large number of Christian interpolations. Author Joseph Raymond calls Josephus "the Jewish Benedict Arnold " for betraying his own troops at Jotapata, while historian Mary Smallwood , in the introduction to the translation of The Jewish War by G. A. Williamson , writes: [Josephus] was conceited, not only about his own learning, but also about the opinions held of him as commander both by

4524-415: The Jews noted that in legends the first man that assumed the title of high priest of God is Enoch , who was succeeded by Methuselah , Lamech , Noah , Shem , Melchizedek , Abraham , Isaac and Levi . The high priest is the chief of all the priests; he should be anointed and invested with the priestly garments; but if the sacred oil were not obtainable, investiture with the additional four garments

4640-461: The Jews (cf. Life 430) – where the author for the most part re-visits the events of the War and his tenure in Galilee as governor and commander, apparently in response to allegations made against him by Justus of Tiberias (cf. Life 336). Josephus's Against Apion is a two-volume defence of Judaism as classical religion and philosophy , stressing its antiquity, as opposed to what Josephus claimed

4756-488: The Jews , completed during the last year of the reign of the Emperor Flavius Domitian , around 93 or 94 AD. In expounding Jewish history, law and custom, he is entering into many philosophical debates current in Rome at that time. Again he offers an apologia for the antiquity and universal significance of the Jewish people. Josephus claims to be writing this history because he "saw that others perverted

Sadducees - Misplaced Pages Continue

4872-517: The Jews instead of History of the Jews . Although Josephus says that he describes the events contained in Antiquities "in the order of time that belongs to them," Feldman argues that Josephus "aimed to organize [his] material systematically rather than chronologically" and had a scope that "ranged far beyond mere political history to political institutions, religious and private life." An autobiographical text written by Josephus in approximately 94–99 CE – possibly as an appendix to his Antiquities of

4988-542: The Jews than the Renaissance translations by Christians had been. Notably, the last stand at Masada (described in The Jewish War ), which past generations had deemed insane and fanatical, received a more positive reinterpretation as an inspiring call to action in this period. The standard editio maior of the various Greek manuscripts is that of Benedictus Niese , published 1885–95. The text of Antiquities

5104-424: The Jews, who led the masses away from their traditional aristocratic leaders (like himself), with disastrous results. For example, Josephus writes that " Simon [bar Giora] was a greater terror to the people than the Romans themselves." Josephus also blames some of the Roman governors of Judea , representing them as corrupt and incompetent administrators. The next work by Josephus is his 21-volume Antiquities of

5220-577: The Pharisees) is uniformly hostile. The Sadducees rejected the Oral Torah as proposed by the Pharisees. Rather, they saw the Written Torah as the sole source of divine authority. Later writings of the Pharisees criticized this belief as one that strengthened the Sadducees' own power. According to Josephus, the Sadducees beliefs included: The Sadducees did not believe in resurrection of

5336-564: The Pharisees, as he says that the Pharisees were more popular with the multitude. The Sadducees occasionally show up in the Christian gospels , but without much detail: usually merely as parts of a list of opponents of Jesus. The Christian Acts of the Apostles contains somewhat more information: Later rabbinic literature took a dim view of both the Sadducees and Boethusians , not only due to their perceived carefree approach to keeping to

5452-403: The Roman army at a village called Garis , where he launched an attack against Sepphoris a second time, before being repulsed. At length, he resisted the Roman army in its siege of Yodfat (Jotapata) until it fell to the Roman army in the lunar month of Tammuz , in the thirteenth year of Nero 's reign. After the Jewish garrison of Yodfat fell under siege, the Romans invaded, killing thousands;

5568-442: The Roman forces and became prisoners. In 69 AD, Josephus was released. According to his account, he acted as a negotiator with the defenders during the siege of Jerusalem in 70 AD, during which time his parents were held as hostages by Simon bar Giora . While being confined at Yodfat (Jotapata), Josephus claimed to have experienced a divine revelation that later led to his speech predicting Vespasian would become emperor. After

5684-486: The Sadducees grew out of the Judean religious elite in the early Hasmonean period, under rulers such as John Hyrcanus . Hasmonean rule lasted until 63 BCE, when the Roman general Pompey conquered Jerusalem , at which point the Roman period of Judea began. The province of Roman Judea was created in 6 CE (see also Syria Palaestina ). While cooperation between the Romans and the Jews had been strongest during

5800-506: The Sadducees included the maintenance of the Temple in Jerusalem. Their high social status was reinforced by their priestly responsibilities, as mandated in the Torah. The priests were responsible for performing sacrifices at the Temple, the primary method of worship in ancient Israel. This included presiding over sacrifices during the three festivals of pilgrimage to Jerusalem. Their religious beliefs and social status were mutually reinforcing, as

5916-411: The Sadducees is limited by the fact that not a single line of their own writings has survived out of antiquity, as the destruction of Jerusalem and much of the Judean elite in 70 CE seems to have broken them. Extant writings on the Sadducees are often from sources hostile to them; Josephus was a rival Pharisee, Christian records were generally not sympathetic, and the rabbinic tradition (descended from

SECTION 50

#1732766028765

6032-570: The Sadducees produced no primary works themselves, their attributes can be derived from other contemporaneous texts, including the New Testament , the Dead Sea Scrolls , and later, the Mishnah and Talmud . Overall, the Sadducees represented an aristocratic, wealthy, and traditional elite within the hierarchy. The Dead Sea Scrolls , which are often attributed to the Essenes, suggest clashing ideologies and social positions between

6148-679: The Sadducees state, "So too, regarding the Holy Scriptures, their impurity is according to (our) love for them. But the books of Homer, which are not beloved, do not defile the hands." A passage from the book of Acts suggests that both Pharisees and Sadducees collaborated in the Sanhedrin , the high Jewish court. Josephus Flavius Josephus ( / dʒ oʊ ˈ s iː f ə s / ; ‹See Tfd› Greek : Ἰώσηπος , Iṓsēpos ; c.  AD 37  – c.  100 ) or Yosef ben Mattityahu ( Hebrew : יוֹסֵף בֵּן מַתִּתְיָהוּ )

6264-536: The Sanctuary, The high priest was subject to the jurisdiction of the courts, but if accused of a crime entailing capital punishment he was tried by the Great Sanhedrin; he could, however, refuse to give testimony. The high priest needed to be married, and "should only marry a virgin"; to guard against contingencies, it was proposed to hold a second wife in readiness immediately before Yom Kippur ; but he

6380-561: The Torah and the Oral Torah but also due to their attempts to persuade the common folk to join their ranks according to Sifri to Deuteronomy (p. 233, Torah Ve'Hamitzvah edition). Maimonides viewed the Sadducees as rejecting the Oral Torah as an excuse to interpret the Written Torah in a lenient, personally convenient manner in his commentary to Pirkei Avot , 1.3.1 1:3. He described the Sadducees as "harming Israel and causing

6496-460: The actions of both parties with accuracy." Josephus confesses he will be unable to contain his sadness in transcribing these events; to illustrate this will have little effect on his historiography, Josephus suggests, "But if any one be inflexible in his censures of me, let him attribute the facts themselves to the historical part, and the lamentations to the writer himself only." His preface to Antiquities offers his opinion early on, saying, "Upon

6612-459: The ancient geography of the region: Outside of the Scriptures, Josephus holds the first and the only place among the native authors of Judaea; for Philo of Alexandria, the later Talmud, and other authorities, are of little service in understanding the geography of the country. Josephus is, however, to be used with great care. As a Jewish scholar, as an officer of Galilee, as a military man, and

6728-565: The author of the most extensive historical account of the Second Temple Period, gives a lengthy account of Jewish sectarianism in both The Jewish War and Jewish Antiquities . In Antiquities , he describes "the Pharisees have delivered to the people a great many observances by succession from their fathers, which are not written in the law of Moses, and for that reason it is that the Sadducees reject them and say that we are to esteem those observance to be obligatory which are in

6844-427: The background of Early Christianity . Josephus's works are the chief source next to the Bible for the history and antiquity of ancient Israel , and provide an independent extra-biblical account of such figures as Pontius Pilate , Herod the Great , John the Baptist , James, brother of Jesus , and Jesus of Nazareth . Josephus was born into one of Jerusalem's elite families. He was the second-born son of Matthias,

6960-517: The books of Mark and Matthew , describe anecdotes which hint at hostility between Jesus and the Sadducaic establishment. A pericope in Mark 12 and Matthew 22 recounts a dispute between Jesus and a Sadducee who challenged the resurrection of the dead by asking who the husband of a resurrected woman would be who had been married to each of seven brothers at one point. Jesus responds by saying that

7076-612: The center of worship in Judea. Its priests and attendants appear to have been powerful and influential in secular matters as well, a trend that would continue into the Hellenistic period . This power and influence also brought accusations of corruption. Alexander's conquest of the Mediterranean world brought an end to Achaemenid control of Jerusalem (539–334/333 BCE) and ushered in the Hellenistic period, which saw

SECTION 60

#1732766028765

7192-492: The ceremonies on Shabbat , Rosh Chodesh , and the three festivals . This may also be inferred from the glowing description given in the Wisdom of Sirach 1 of the high priest's appearance at the altar . The Great Sanhedrin alone had the right to appoint, or confirm the appointment of, the high priest. His consecration could take place only in the daytime. Two high priests could not be appointed together. Every high priest had

7308-685: The context of early Christianity . A careful reading of Josephus's writings and years of excavation allowed Ehud Netzer , an archaeologist from Hebrew University , to discover what he considered to be the location of Herod's Tomb , after searching for 35 years. It was above aqueducts and pools, at a flattened desert site, halfway up the hill to the Herodium , 12 km south of Jerusalem—as described in Josephus's writings. In October 2013, archaeologists Joseph Patrich and Benjamin Arubas challenged

7424-473: The dead , but believed (contrary to the claim of Josephus) in the traditional Jewish concept of Sheol for those who had died. Josephus also includes a claim that the Sadducees are rude compared to loving and compassionate Pharisees, but this is generally considered more of a sectarian insult rather than an unbiased judgment of the Sadducees on their own terms. Similarly, Josephus brags that the Sadducees were often forced to back down if their judgments clashed with

7540-476: The death of Zerubbabel , there was a tendency to combine political and priestly leadership in a single office; the final link in this development was the assumption of monarchy by the Hasmonean high priests after their successful revolt. But after Hasmonean national independence came to an end, the high-priesthood changed again in character, ceasing to be a hereditary and a life office. High priests were appointed and removed with great frequency. This may account for

7656-477: The destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem in 70 CE, the Sadducees appear only in a few references in the Talmud and some Christian texts. In the beginning of Karaite Judaism , the followers of Anan ben David were called "Sadducees" and set a claim of the former being a historical continuity from the latter. The Sadducee concept of the mortality of the soul is reflected on by Uriel da Costa , who mentions them in his writings. The religious responsibilities of

7772-474: The difference between history and philosophy by saying, "[T]hose that read my book may wonder how it comes to pass, that my discourse, which promises an account of laws and historical facts, contains so much of philosophy." In both works, Josephus emphasizes that accuracy is crucial to historiography. Louis H. Feldman notes that in Wars , Josephus commits himself to critical historiography, but in Antiquities , Josephus shifts to rhetorical historiography, which

7888-432: The entourage of Titus. There, he became a Roman citizen and client of the ruling Flavian dynasty . In addition to Roman citizenship , he was granted accommodation in the conquered Judaea and a pension. While in Rome and under Flavian patronage, Josephus wrote all of his known works. Although he only ever calls himself "Josephus" in his writings, later historians refer to him as "Flavius Josephus", confirming that he adopted

8004-401: The fact that in the post-Maccabean period the high priest was looked upon as exercising in all things, political, legal, and sacerdotal, the supreme authority, shows it to be almost certain that the presidency of the Sanhedrin was vested in the high priest (see Isidore Loeb in "R. E. J." 1889, xix. 188–201; Jelski, "Die Innere Einrichtung des Grossen Synhedrions", pp. 22–28, according to whom

8120-436: The fall of Jerusalem , and the subsequent fall of the fortresses of Herodion, Macharont and Masada and the Roman victory celebrations in Rome, the mopping-up operations, Roman military operations elsewhere in the empire and the uprising in Cyrene . Together with the account in his Life of some of the same events, it also provides the reader with an overview of Josephus's own part in the events since his return to Jerusalem from

8236-462: The founder of the Arabs , the connection of "Semites", "Hamites" and "Japhetites" to the classical nations of the world , and the story of the siege of Masada . Scholars debate about Josephus's intended audience. For example, Antiquities of the Jews could be written for Jews—"a few scholars from Laqueur onward have suggested that Josephus must have written primarily for fellow Jews (if also secondarily for Gentiles). The most common motive suggested

8352-573: The high priest were the robe ( me'il ), ephod (vest or apron), breastplate ( hoshen ), and headplate (Hebrew tzitz ). In addition to the above "golden garments", he also had a set of white "linen garments" ( bigdei ha-bad ) which he wore only on Yom Kippur for the Yom Kippur Temple service . According to the Talmud , the wearing of the Priestly golden head plate atoned for

8468-436: The high priesthood due to their sins, a prophecy fulfilled when King Solomon appointed Zadok (a descendant of Eleazar) in place of Abiathar (a descendant of Eli). Rabbinic tradition supports the positions that Ezra was an ordinary member of the priesthood, and that he actually served as a Kohen Gadol. The distinguished rank of the high priest is apparent from the fact that his sins are regarded as belonging also to

8584-449: The identification of the tomb as that of Herod. According to Patrich and Arubas, the tomb is too modest to be Herod's and has several unlikely features. Roi Porat, who replaced Netzer as excavation leader after the latter's death, stood by the identification. Josephus's writings provide the first-known source for many stories considered as Biblical history, despite not being found in the Bible or related material. These include Ishmael as

8700-494: The life of Jesus of Nazareth . Josephus was always accessible in the Greek-reading Eastern Mediterranean. His works were translated into Latin, but often in abbreviated form such as Pseudo-Hegesippus 's 4th century Latin version of The Jewish War ( Bellum Judaicum ). Christian interest in The Jewish War was largely out of interest in the downfall of the Jews and the Second Temple, which

8816-425: The more fringe group of Essenes. Furthermore, it suggests that the Essenes challenged the authenticity of the rule of the Sadducees, blaming the downfall of ancient Israel and the siege of Jerusalem on their impiety. The Dead Sea Scrolls specify the Sadducaic elite as those who broke the covenant with God in their rule of the Judean state, and thus became targets of divine vengeance. The New Testament , specifically

8932-627: The nation to stray from following God" in the Mishneh Torah , Hilchoth Avodah Zarah 10:2. The Jewish community of the Second Temple period is often defined by its sectarian and fragmented attributes. Josephus, in Antiquities , contextualizes the Sadducees as opposed to the Pharisees and the Essenes . The Sadducees are also notably distinguishable from the growing Jesus movement, which later evolved into Christianity . These groups differed in their beliefs, social statuses, and sacred texts. Though

9048-410: The offering of consolation he sat on a stool, the people on the floor; he rent his garments, not from above, but from below, near the feet, the penalty for rending them from above being flagellation. He could not permit his hair to be disheveled, nor could he cut it. He had one house attached to the Temple, and another in the city of Jerusalem. His honor required that he should spend most of his time in

9164-400: The patronage of Romans. The works of Josephus provide information about the First Jewish–Roman War and also represent literary source material for understanding the context of the Dead Sea Scrolls and late Temple Judaism. Josephan scholarship in the 19th and early 20th centuries took an interest in Josephus's relationship to the sect of the Pharisees . Some portrayed him as a member of

9280-652: The people of Tiberias appealed to King Agrippa 's forces to protect them from the insurgents. Josephus trained 65,000 troops in the region. Josephus also contended with John of Gischala who had also set his sight over the control of Galilee. Like Josephus, John had amassed to himself a large band of supporters from Gischala (Gush Halab) and Gabara , including the support of the Sanhedrin in Jerusalem. Meanwhile, Josephus fortified several towns and villages in Lower Galilee , among which were Tiberias, Bersabe , Selamin , Japha , and Tarichaea , in anticipation of

9396-525: The people. He was entrusted with the Urim and Thummim , which were worn in his garments. On Yom Kippur he alone performed the Yom Kippur Temple service , entering the Holy of Holies to atone for himself and for the people. Only he could offer the sacrifices for the sins of the entire people. He also offered a meal-offering twice daily, on behalf of himself and the whole priesthood. An unintentional killer

9512-423: The philosophical school of the Pharisees as a matter of deference, and not by willing association. The works of Josephus include useful material for historians about individuals, groups, customs, and geographical places. However, modern historians have been cautious of taking his writings at face value. For example, Carl Ritter , in his highly influential Erdkunde in the 1840s, wrote in a review of authorities on

9628-454: The prediction came true, he was released by Vespasian, who considered his gift of prophecy to be divine. Josephus wrote that his revelation had taught him three things: that God, the creator of the Jewish people, had decided to "punish" them; that "fortune" had been given to the Romans; and that God had chosen him "to announce the things that are to come". To many Jews, such claims were simply self-serving. In 71 AD, he went to Rome as part of

9744-476: The priesthood often represented the highest class in Judean society. However, Sadducees and the priests were not completely synonymous. Cohen writes that "not all priests, high priests, and aristocrats were Sadducees; many were Pharisees, and many were not members of any group at all." The Sadducees oversaw many formal affairs of the state. Members of the Sadducees: Knowledge about the beliefs of

9860-456: The priestly order of the Jehoiarib , which was the first of the 24 orders of priests in the Temple in Jerusalem . Josephus calls himself a fourth-generation descendant of " High Priest Jonathan", referring to either Jonathan Apphus or Alexander Jannaeus . He was raised in Jerusalem and educated alongside his brother. In his mid twenties, he traveled to negotiate with Emperor Nero for

9976-485: The priests when they are ministering in the Tabernacle . The high priest wore eight holy garments ( bigdei kodesh ). Of these, four were of the same type worn by all priests and four were unique to the high priest. Those vestments which were common to all priests were the tunic (Hebrew ketonet ), sash ( avnet ), turban (Hebrew mitznefet ), and undergarments ( michnasayim ). The vestments that were unique to

10092-431: The primary source for the chain of Jewish high priests during the Second Temple period. A few of the Jewish customs named by him include the practice of hanging a linen curtain at the entrance to one's house, and the Jewish custom to partake of a Sabbath-day 's meal around the sixth-hour of the day (at noon). He notes also that it was permissible for Jewish men to marry many wives ( polygamy ). His writings provide

10208-573: The references to multiple contemporaneous "high priests" (ἀρχιερεῖς) in Josephus . The deposed high priests seem to have retained the title, and to have continued to exercise certain functions. Even in the latest periods, the office was apparently restricted to a few families of great distinction (probably the benei kohanim gedolim , "[members of] high-priestly families"). Herod the Great nominated no less than six high priests; Archelaus , two. The Roman legate Quirinius and his successors exercised

10324-467: The reigns of Herod and his grandson, Agrippa I , the Romans moved power out of the hands of vassal kings and into the hands of Roman administrators , beginning with the Census of Quirinius in 6 CE. The First Jewish–Roman War broke out in 66 CE. After a few years of conflict, the Romans retook Jerusalem and destroyed the temple, bringing an end to the Second Temple period in 70 CE. After

10440-485: The release of some Jewish priests. Upon his return to Jerusalem, at the outbreak of the First Jewish–Roman War , Josephus was appointed the military governor of Galilee . His arrival in Galilee, however, was fraught with internal division: the inhabitants of Sepphoris and Tiberias opted to maintain peace with the Romans; the people of Sepphoris enlisted the help of the Roman army to protect their city, while

10556-555: The rest of his days from his change of side. In the Preface to Jewish Wars , Josephus criticizes historians who misrepresent the events of the Jewish–Roman War , writing that "they have a mind to demonstrate the greatness of the Romans, while they still diminish and lessen the actions of the Jews." Josephus states that his intention is to correct this method but that he "will not go to the other extreme ... [and] will prosecute

10672-421: The resurrected "neither marry nor are given in marriage, but are like angels in heaven." He also insults them on their own terms as knowing neither the scriptures nor the power of God, presumably a claim that even though the Sadducee insisted on the written law, Jesus considered them to have gotten it wrong. Matthew records John the Baptist calling both the Pharisees and Sadducees a "brood of vipers". Josephus,

10788-469: The right of appointment, as did Agrippa I , Herod of Chalcis , and Agrippa II . Even the people occasionally elected candidates to the office. The high priests before the Exile were apparently appointed for life; in fact, from Aaron to the exile fewer high priests served than in the 60 years preceding the fall of the Second Temple . Josephus enumerates only 52 high priests under the Second Temple, omitting

10904-532: The rule of the Hasmoneans , when the position was occupied by other priestly families unrelated to Zadok. After the Exile , the succession seems to have been, at first, in a direct line from father to son; but later the civil authorities arrogated to themselves the right of appointment. Antiochus IV Epiphanes for instance, deposed Onias III in favor of Jason , who was followed by Menelaus . Beginning with

11020-491: The same events that Josephus narrated. An Italian Jew writing in the 10th century indirectly brought Josephus back to prominence among Jews: he authored the Yosippon , which paraphrases Pseudo-Hegesippus's Latin version of The Jewish War , a Latin version of Antiquities , as well as other works. The epitomist also adds in his own snippets of history at times. Jews generally distrusted Christian translations of Josephus until

11136-460: The same time. The use of gold and silver vessels perhaps argues against a priestly association for these groups, as priests at the time would typically use stone vessels , to prevent transmission of impurity . Josephus mentioned in Antiquities of the Jews that "one Judas, a Gaulonite, of a city whose name was Gamala , who taking with him Sadduc, a Pharisee, became zealous to draw them to

11252-676: The second appointments of Hyrcanus II , Hananeel , and Joazar . The high priest was the presiding officer of the Sanhedrin. This view conflicts with the later Jewish tradition according to which the Pharisee tannaim (the Zugot ) at the head of the yeshivot presided over the great Sanhedrin also (Ḥag. ii. 2). However, a careful reading of the sources ("Ant." xx. 10; "Contra Ap." ii., § 22; comp. "Ant." iv. 8, § 14; xiv. 9, §§ 3–5 [Hyrcanus II. as president]; xx. 9, § 1 [Ananus]), as well as

11368-466: The sect and as a traitor to the Jewish nation—a view which became known as the classical concept of Josephus. In the mid-20th century, a new generation of scholars challenged this view and formulated the modern concept of Josephus. They consider him a Pharisee but describe him in part as patriot and a historian of some standing. In his 1991 book, Steve Mason argued that Josephus was not a Pharisee but an orthodox Aristocrat-Priest who became associated with

11484-399: The spread of Greek language, culture, and philosophical ideas, which intermixed with Judaism and created Hellenistic Judaism . After the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BCE, his generals divided the empire amongst themselves, and for the next 30 years they fought for control of the empire. Judea was first controlled by Ptolemaic Egypt ( r.  301–200 BCE ) and later by

11600-524: The survivors committed suicide. According to Josephus, he was trapped in a cave with 40 of his companions in July 67 AD. The Romans (commanded by Flavius Vespasian and his son Titus, both subsequently Roman emperors ) asked the group to surrender, but they refused. According to Josephus's account, he suggested a method of collective suicide; they drew lots and killed each other, one by one, and Josephus happened to be one of two men that were left who surrendered to

11716-612: The truth of those actions in their writings", those writings being the history of the Jews. In terms of some of his sources for the project, Josephus says that he drew from and "interpreted out of the Hebrew Scriptures" and that he was an eyewitness to the wars between the Jews and the Romans, which were earlier recounted in Jewish Wars . He outlines Jewish history beginning with the creation, as passed down through Jewish historical tradition. Abraham taught science to

11832-545: The two teachers or their pupils understood this to express the belief that there was neither an afterlife nor a resurrection of the dead , and founded the Sadducee and Boethusian sects. They lived luxuriously, using silver and golden vessels, because (as they claimed) the Pharisees led a hard life on earth and yet would have nothing to show for it in the world to come . The two sects of the Sadducees and Boethusians are thus, in all later Rabbinic sources, always mentioned together, not only as being similar, but as originating at

11948-465: The whole, a man that will peruse this history, may principally learn from it, that all events succeed well, even to an incredible degree, and the reward of felicity is proposed by God." After inserting this attitude, Josephus contradicts Berossus: "I shall accurately describe what is contained in our records, in the order of time that belongs to them ... without adding any thing to what is therein contained, or taking away any thing therefrom." He notes

12064-567: The written word, but are not to observe what are derived from the tradition of our forefathers." The Sadducees rejected the Pharisaic use of the Oral Torah to enforce their claims to power, citing the Written Torah as the sole manifestation of divinity. The rabbis , who are traditionally seen as the descendants of the Pharisees, describe the similarities and differences between the two sects in Mishnah Yadaim . The Mishnah explains that

12180-581: Was a Roman–Jewish historian and military leader. Best known for writing The Jewish War , he was born in Jerusalem —then part of the Roman province of Judea —to a father of priestly descent and a mother who claimed royal ancestry . He initially fought against the Roman Empire during the First Jewish–Roman War as general of the Jewish forces in Galilee , until surrendering in AD 67 to

12296-717: Was an account of the Jewish War, addressed to certain "upper barbarians"—usually thought to be the Jewish community in Mesopotamia —in his "paternal tongue" ( War I.3), arguably the Western Aramaic language . In AD 78 he finished a seven-volume account in Greek known as the Jewish War ( Latin Bellum Judaicum or De Bello Judaico ). It starts with the period of the Maccabees and concludes with accounts of

12412-458: Was anointed with the holy oil", "the priest who was anointed and invested to serve in place of his father" "the priest who is greater than his brothers, whom oil was poured on his head and who was invested to wear the garments", and "the priest in place of him [=Aaron] from his sons, who will come to the Tent of Meeting for the holy service". Some verses refer by name to a specific individual who

12528-524: Was essential, hence the care in keeping genealogical records and distrust of one whose mother had been captured in war. According to Josephus, birth on foreign soil was no disqualification. The high priest, like all priests, would minister barefoot when he was serving in the Temple. Like all priests, he had to immerse himself in the mikvah before vesting, and wash his hands and his feet before performing any sacred act. Neither common nor high priests could serve unless they wore their priestly vestments. It

12644-474: Was permitted to marry only an Israelite virgin. He was required to strictly avoid ritual defilement . He was forbidden to come in contact with the bodies of the dead, not even those of his parents (unlike regular priests, who may become ritually impure for the death of an immediate relative ). He was also forbidden to leave his hair dishevelled or exposed, or to rend his garments, as signs of mourning. The Torah provides for specific vestments to be worn by

12760-406: Was poor, his brother priests contributed to make him rich; but none of these conditions was indispensable. The high priest was required to be mindful of his honor. He was not allowed to mingle with the common people, nor permit himself to be seen disrobed, or in a public bath, etc.; but he could invite others to bathe with him. He was not allowed to participate in a public banquet, but he could pay

12876-440: Was required to remain in the city of refuge until the death of the high priest, at which point the killer could return home. The high priest alone was anointed with holy anointing oil upon his consecration, hence the title of the "anointed priest" (though in the initial consecration of Aaron and his sons, all of them were anointed ). The consecration also required wearing the special high priestly vestments for seven days. He

12992-525: Was the head of the Israelite priesthood . He played a unique role in the worship conducted in the Tabernacle and later in the Temple in Jerusalem , as well as in some non-ritual matters. Like all priests, he was required to be descended from Aaron (the first biblical priest). But unlike other priests, the high priest followed more restrictive laws, wore unique priestly garments, and was the only priest allowed to perform certain ceremonies. The high priest

13108-520: Was the norm of his time. Feldman notes further that it is significant that Josephus called his later work "Antiquities" (literally, archaeology) rather than history; in the Hellenistic period, archaeology meant either "history from the origins or archaic history." Thus, his title implies a Jewish peoples' history from their origins until the time he wrote. This distinction is significant to Feldman, because "in ancient times, historians were expected to write in chronological order," while "antiquarians wrote in

13224-402: Was the relatively more recent tradition of the Greeks. Some anti-Judaic allegations ascribed by Josephus to the Greek writer Apion and myths accredited to Manetho are also addressed. High Priest of Israel In Judaism , the High Priest of Israel ( Hebrew : כהן גדול , romanized :  Kohen Gadol , lit.   'great priest'; Aramaic :  Kahana Rabba )

13340-664: Was to have only one wife at a time. He could perform halizah , and it could be given to his widow, as she also was subject to the Levirate; his divorced wife could marry again. When entering the Temple, he was supported to the curtain by three men. He could take part in the service whenever he desired. On Yom Kippur, he wore white garments, while on other occasions he wore his golden vestments. The seven days preceding Yom Kippur were devoted to preparing for his high function, precautions being taken to prevent any accident that might render him Levitically impure. The ceremonial for that day

13456-740: Was widely considered divine punishment for the crime of killing Jesus . Improvements in printing technology (the Gutenberg Press ) led to his works receiving a number of new translations into the vernacular languages of Europe, generally based on the Latin versions. Only in 1544 did a version of the standard Greek text become available in French, edited by the Dutch humanist Arnoldus Arlenius . The first English translation, by Thomas Lodge , appeared in 1602, with subsequent editions appearing throughout

#764235