Canaan
181-761: State of Israel (1948–present) The Second Temple period or post-exilic period in Jewish history denotes the approximately 600 years (516 BCE – 70 CE) during which the Second Temple stood in the city of Jerusalem . It began with the return to Zion and subsequent reconstruction of the Temple in Jerusalem , and ended with the First Jewish–Roman War and the Roman siege of Jerusalem . In 587/586 BCE,
362-615: A sabra mentality and culture to their writing. S. Yizhar , Moshe Shamir , Hanoch Bartov and Benjamin Tammuz vacillated between individualism and commitment to society and state. In its early years Israel sought to maintain a non-aligned position between the super-powers. But in 1952 an antisemitic public trial was staged in Moscow in which a group of Jewish doctors were accused of trying to poison Stalin (the Doctors' plot ), followed by
543-463: A Hasmonean -lineage Jewish priest, killed a Jew in his hometown Modi'in who stepped forward to offer sacrifice to the Greek gods ; he then killed a Seleucid official who ordered the sacrifice. According to 1 Maccabees , he declared, "Let everyone who is zealous for the law and supports the covenant come out with me!", and fled with his sons and followers to the wilderness of Judea. These events signaled
724-639: A Hellenistic Judaism , which first developed in the Jewish diaspora of Alexandria and Antioch, and then spread to Judea. The major literary product of this cultural syncretism is the Septuagint translation of the Hebrew Bible from Biblical Hebrew and Biblical Aramaic to Koiné Greek . The reason for the production of this translation seems to be that many of the Alexandrian Jews had lost
905-551: A mystic Jewish sect during the Second Temple period that flourished from the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century CE. The Essene movement likely originated as a distinct group among Jews during Jonathan Apphus ' time, driven by disputes over Jewish law and the belief that Jonathan's high priesthood was illegitimate. Most scholars think the Essenes seceded from the Zadokite priests. They attributed their interpretation of
1086-817: A national holiday on 5 Iyar of every year according to the Hebrew calendar . After the Declaration, Minhelet HaAm became the Provisional government of Israel, whilst Moetzet HaAm became the Provisional State Council . Paragraph 13 of the Declaration provides that the State of Israel would be based on freedom, justice and peace as envisaged by the prophets of Israel; it will ensure complete equality of social and political rights to all its inhabitants irrespective of religion, race or sex . However,
1267-574: A national water carrier , a huge engineering project designed to transfer Israel's allocation of the Jordan river 's waters towards the south of the country in realization of Ben-Gurion's dream of mass Jewish settlement of the Negev desert. The Arabs responded by trying to divert the headwaters of the Jordan, leading to growing conflict between Israel and Syria. Until 1966 Israel's principal arms supplier
1448-853: A cease fire was agreed. During 1971 violent demonstrations by the Israeli Black Panthers , made the Israeli public aware of resentment among Mizrahi Jews at ongoing discrimination and social gaps. In 1972 the US Jewish Mafia leader, Meyer Lansky , who had taken refuge in Israel, was deported to the United States. Essenes The Essenes ( / ˈ ɛ s iː n z , ɛ ˈ s iː n z / ; Hebrew : אִסִּיִים , ʾĪssīyīm ; Greek : Ἐσσηνοί, Ἐσσαῖοι, or Ὀσσαῖοι, Essenoi, Essaioi, Ossaioi ) or Essenians were
1629-499: A ceasefire was reluctantly accepted on 7 November. At Egypt's request the UN sent an Emergency Force (UNEF), consisting of 6000 peacekeeping troops from 10 nations to supervise the ceasefire—the first ever UN peacekeeping operation. From 15 November the UN troops marked out a zone across the Sinai to separate the Israeli and Egyptian forces. Upon receiving US guarantees of Israeli access to
1810-443: A commitment to practice piety to God and righteousness toward humanity; maintain a pure lifestyle; abstain from criminal and immoral activities; transmit their rules uncorrupted; and preserve the books of the Essenes and the names of the angels. Their theology included belief in the immortality of the soul and that they would receive their souls back after death. Part of their activities included purification by water rituals which
1991-468: A component of every Israeli coalition until 1992, usually running the Ministry of Education. Mapai was once again victorious in the 1959 elections , increasing its number of seats to 47, Labour had 7. Ben-Gurion remained prime minister. In 1959 there were renewed skirmishes along Israel's borders that continued throughout the early 1960s. The Arab League continued to widen its economic boycott and there
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#17327652481812172-594: A departure from typical Seleucid practice, which did not attempt to suppress local religions in their empire. Scholars of Second Temple Judaism sometimes refer to Antiochus' reign as the 'Antiochene crises' for the Jews, and as a period of civil war between Hellenized and orthodox forms of Judaism. According to 1 Maccabees , 2 Maccabees , and Josephus , the Seleucid Emperor Antiochus IV ( r. 175–164 ) moved to assert strict control over
2353-634: A fortified town in the Lower Galilee , was besieged for 47 days before it fell to treachery; the city was razed, many people were killed, and the rest were enslaved. Gamla , the major Jewish stronghold in the Golan Heights , fell after a one-month siege. Following a lull in military operations caused by civil war and political turmoil in Rome , Vespasian was summoned to Rome and appointed Emperor. In early 70 CE, Titus moved to besiege Jerusalem,
2534-531: A group of Religious Zionists who created the first Jewish settlement , a town near Hebron called Kiryat Arba . There were no other religious settlements until after 1974. Ben-Gurion's Rafi party merged with the Labour-Mapai alliance. Ben-Gurion remained outside as an independent. In 1968, compulsory education was extended until the age of 16 for all citizens (it had been 14) and the government embarked on an extensive program of integration in education. In
2715-706: A messianic sect from within Second Temple Judaism. In 66 CE, the Jews of Judea rose in revolt against Rome, sparking the First Jewish–Roman War (66-73 CE), also known as the Great Jewish Revolt. Flavius Josephus , a contemporary Jewish historian who fought as the commander of Jewish forces in Galilee but later defected to the Roman side, chronicled the events of the war in his book The Jewish War . Vespasian , an experienced Roman general,
2896-509: A mighty army camped near them, appealed to Pompey to decide between them. Three delegations then appeared before Pompey: one sent by Aristobulus, one sent by Hyrcanus, and another from "the people" who demanded to abolish the Hasmonean dynasty, which had transformed the rule of the priests into the rule of kings. Pompey heard the delegations but refrained from deciding. Eventually, in 63 BCE, Pompey invaded Judea, conquered Jerusalem , desecrated
3077-615: A moderate, mostly defensive policy that included the formation of a large and deterring army. Her nine-year reign is described as one of peace and economic prosperity, during which the country recovered from wars. The queen clearly supported the Pharisees , even allowing them to persecute and punish the Sadducees. Her rule had a distinct Hellenistic flavor, as there was no tradition of female rule in Judea. Hasmonean kings attempted to revive
3258-580: A month-long UN truce came into effect. Following independence the Haganah became the Israel Defense Forces (IDF). The Palmach , Etzel and Lehi were required to cease independent operations and join the IDF. During the ceasefire, Etzel attempted to bring in a private arms shipment aboard a ship called " Altalena ". When they refused to hand the arms to the government, Ben-Gurion ordered that
3439-696: A part of the Apocrypha and the Dead Sea Scrolls . Among the major sources for the time period are the writings of Josephus , Philo , the Books of the Maccabees , Greek and Roman writers and later Rabbinic literature . The destruction of Jerusalem and the Second Temple in 70 CE is considered one of the most cataclysmic events in Jewish history. The loss of mother-city and temple necessitated
3620-484: A peak in size and population during the late Second Temple period. The majority of scholars estimate that city's population at that time to have been between 70,000 and 100,000. Herod II ruled Ituraea and Trachonitis until his death in 34 CE when he was succeeded as tetrarch by Herod Agrippa I , who had previously been ruler of Chalcis . Agrippa surrendered Chalcis to his brother Herod and ruled in Philip's stead. On
3801-607: A pretext for seizing the Suez Canal. Israel was to attack Egypt, and Britain and France would then call on both sides to withdraw. When, as expected, the Egyptians refused, Anglo-French forces would invade to take control of the Canal. Israeli forces, commanded by General Moshe Dayan , attacked Egypt on 29 October 1956. On 30 October Britain and France made their pre-arranged call for both sides to stop fighting and withdraw from
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#17327652481813982-666: A regular practice instead of a one time event. The Haran Gawaita uses the name Nasoraeans for the Mandaeans arriving from Jerusalem, meaning guardians or possessors of secret rites and knowledge. Scholars such as Kurt Rudolph , Rudolf Macúch , Mark Lidzbarski and Ethel S. Drower connect the Mandaeans with the Nasaraeans described by Epiphanius , a group within the Essenes according to Joseph Lightfoot . Epiphanius (29:6) says that they existed before Jesus. That
4163-468: A reshaping of Jewish culture to ensure its survival. Judaism's Temple-based sects disappeared. Rabbinic Judaism , centered around communal synagogue worship and Torah study , eventually evolved out of the Pharisaic school and became the mainstream form of the religion. During the same era, Christianity gradually separated from Judaism , becoming a predominantly Gentile religion. A few decades after
4344-429: A result of communal ownership, did not engage in trading . Josephus and Philo provide lengthy accounts of their communal meetings, meals, and religious celebrations. This communal living has led some scholars to view the Essenes as a group practicing social and material egalitarianism. Despite their prohibition on swearing oaths, after a three-year probationary period, new members would take an oath that included
4525-551: A result of the discovery of an extensive group of religious documents known as the Dead Sea Scrolls , which are commonly believed to be the Essenes' library. The scrolls were found at Qumran , an archaeological site situated along the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea , believed to have been the dwelling place of an Essene community. These documents preserve multiple copies of parts of the Hebrew Bible along with deuterocanonical and sectarian manuscripts, including writings such as
4706-867: A result, Israel's victory in the Six-Day War, Jews could visit the Old City of Jerusalem and pray at the Western Wall (the holiest site in Judaism) for the first time since the end of the British Mandate, to which they had been denied access by the Jordanians in contravention of the 1949 Armistice agreement. The four-meter-wide public alley beside the Wall was expanded into a massive plaza and worshippers were allowed to sit, or use other furniture, for
4887-588: A royal mission to restore the walls of the city. The Bible mentions tension between the returnees and those who had remained in Judah, the former rebuffing the attempt of the "peoples of the land" to participate in the rebuilding of the Temple; this attitude was based partly on the exclusivism which the exiles had developed while in Babylon and, probably, partly on disputes over property. The careers of Ezra and Nehemiah in
5068-704: A similar trial in Czechoslovakia ( Slánský trial ). This, and the failure of Israel to be included in the Bandung Conference (of non-aligned states ), effectively ended Israel's pursuit of non-alignment. On 19 May 1950, in contravention of international law, Egypt announced that the Suez Canal would be closed to Israeli ships and commerce. In 1952 a military coup in Egypt brought Abdel Nasser to power. The United States pursued close relations with
5249-458: A testimony to the city's former might. Josephus wrote that over a million people perished in the siege and the subsequent fighting. While contemporary studies dispute this figure, all agree that the siege had a major toll on human life, with many people being killed and enslaved, and large parts of the city destroyed. After the fall of Jerusalem, Titus returned to Rome, leaving the remaining Jewish strongholds, including Herodium and Machaerus , to
5430-553: A vassal Judea . In 6 CE, Judea was fully incorporated into the Roman Empire as the province of Judaea . Growing dissatisfaction with Roman rule and civil disturbances eventually led to the First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 CE), resulting in the destruction of Jerusalem and its Temple, which ended the Second Temple period. As Second Temple Judaism developed, multiple religious currents emerged and extensive cultural, religious, and political developments occurred. The development of
5611-560: Is bhiria zidqa , meaning 'elect of righteousness' or 'the chosen righteous', a term found in the Book of Enoch and Genesis Apocryphon II, 4. As Nasoraeans, Mandaeans believe that they constitute the true congregation of bnia nhura , meaning 'Sons of Light', a term used by the Essenes. Mandaean scripture affirms that the Mandaeans descend directly from John the Baptist 's original Nasoraean Mandaean disciples in Jerusalem. Similar to
Second Temple period - Misplaced Pages Continue
5792-458: Is a matter of dispute but around 80 percent of the Arab inhabitants of what became Israel (half of the Arab total of Mandatory Palestine) left or were expelled from their homes. Later, a series of laws passed by the first Israeli government prevented Arabs who had left from returning to their homes or claiming their property. They and many of their descendants remain refugees . Except in Jordan,
5973-861: Is described as biniana rba ḏ-šrara ("the Great building of Truth") and bit tušlima ("house of Perfection") in Mandaean texts such as the Qulasta , Ginza Rabba , and the Mandaean Book of John . The only known literary parallels are in Essene texts from Qumran such as the Community Rule , which has similar phrases such as the "house of Perfection and Truth in Israel" ( Community Rule 1QS VIII 9) and "house of Truth in Israel." The Magharians or Magarites ( Arabic : Al-Maghariyyah , 'people of
6154-454: Is gaining acceptance among scholars. It is recognized as the etymology of the form Ossaioi (and note that Philo also offered an O spelling) and Essaioi and Esseni spelling variations have been discussed by VanderKam, Goranson, and others. In medieval Hebrew (e.g., Sefer Yosippon ) Hassidim "the Pious" replaces "Essenes". While this Hebrew name is not the etymology of Essaioi / Esseni ,
6335-475: Is not supported by archeological evidence. Alexander Jannaeus ( r. 103–76 BCE ) waged a series of expansionist wars, primarily against the Hellenistic cities surrounding Judea. Unlike his predecessors, who were focused on the concentration of the Jewish population in one country, his military efforts were motivated by a desire to control key economic points such as ports and trade routes. On
6516-708: Is questioned by some, but others accept the pre-Christian origin of the Nasaraeans. Early religious concepts and terminologies recur in the Dead Sea Scrolls , and Yardena (Jordan) has been the name of every baptismal water in Mandaeism . Mara ḏ-Rabuta ( Mandaic for 'Lord of Greatness', which is One of the names for the Mandaean God Hayyi Rabbi ) is found in the Genesis Apocryphon II, 4. Another early self-appellation
6697-572: Is widely seen as a product of the Persian period (probably 450–350 BCE). This consensus echoes a traditional Jewish view which gives Ezra a pivotal role in its promulgation. It has been suggested that Darius ' reform of the empire's administrative structures, which included the collection, codification, and administration of local law codes, was the driving force behind the Jewish Torah's redaction. Yehud's population significantly decreased during
6878-598: The 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight from the land that the State of Israel came to control and subsequently led to waves of Jewish immigration from other parts of the Middle East . The latter half of the 20th century saw a series of further conflicts between Israel and its neighbouring Arab nations. In 1967, the Six-Day War erupted; in its aftermath, Israel captured and occupied the Golan Heights from Syria,
7059-618: The Achaemenid Persian Empire , which annexed Babylonian territorial possessions after the fall of Babylon . Soon after the conquest, Persian king Cyrus the Great issued a proclamation known as the Edict of Cyrus , encouraging the exiles to return to their homeland after the Persians raised it as an autonomous Jewish-governed province . Under the Persians ( c. 539–332 BCE ), the returned Jewish population restored
7240-408: The Community Rule , the Damascus Document , and the War Scroll , which provide valuable insights into the communal life, ideology and theology of the Essenes. According to the conventional view, the Essenes disappeared after the First Jewish–Roman War , which also witnessed the destruction of the settlement at Qumran. Scholars have noted the absence of direct sources supporting this claim, raising
7421-495: The Diaspora . Others remained in the Land of Israel, and some converted to Christianity . Jewish historians occasionally refers to this time period, which corresponds with the world's late antiquity, as the Rabbinic or Talmudic period. After the destruction of the Second Temple, Judaism separated into a linguistically Greek and a Hebrew / Aramaic sphere. The theology and religious texts of each community were distinctively different. Hellenized Judaism never developed yeshivas to study
Second Temple period - Misplaced Pages Continue
7602-411: The Green Line , were established. These borders were not recognized by the Arab states as international boundaries. Israel was in control of the Galilee , Jezreel Valley , West Jerusalem , the coastal plain and the Negev . The Syrians remained in control of a strip of territory along the Sea of Galilee originally allocated to the Jewish state, the Lebanese occupied a tiny area at Rosh Hanikra , and
7783-405: The Holy of Holies , imprisoned Aristobulus, and declared Hyrcanus an " ethnarch ", a title inferior to the title "king". Judea then became a vassal kingdom of the Roman Republic . After Pompey's conquest of Judea in 63 BCE, Hyrcanus II assumed the role of ethnarch; however, his advisor Antipater was ruler in practice and managed the kingdom's affairs. Some cities which were conquered by
7964-486: The Knesset maintains that the declaration is neither a law nor an ordinary legal document. The Supreme Court has ruled that the guarantees were merely guiding principles, and that the declaration is not a constitutional law making a practical ruling on the upholding or nullification of various ordinances and statutes. Immediately following the declaration of the new state, both superpower leaders, US President Harry S. Truman and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin , recognized
8145-409: The Mediterranean . According to the Book of Ezra , the Persian Cyrus the Great ended the Babylonian exile in 538 BCE, the year after he captured Babylon. The exile ended with the return under Zerubbabel the Prince (so-called because he was a descendant of the royal line of David ) and Joshua the Priest (a descendant of the line of the former High Priests of the Temple) and their construction of
8326-410: The Neo-Babylonian Empire conquered the Kingdom of Judah ; the Judeans lost their independence upon the Babylonian siege of Jerusalem , during which the First Temple was destroyed. After the Babylonians annexed Judah as a province , part of the subjugated populace was exiled to Babylon . This exilic period lasted for nearly five decades, ending after the Neo-Babylonian Empire itself was conquered by
8507-450: The Palestinian National Authority . In 1994, the Israel–Jordan peace treaty was signed. Despite efforts to finalize the peace agreement , the conflict continues to play a major role in Israeli and international political, social, and economic life. With the British Mandate of Palestine scheduled to come to an end on 15 May 1948, the governing body of the Jewish community, the Jewish National Council (JNC), on 2 March 1948 began work on
8688-444: The Qumran community. It was proposed before the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered that the name came into several Greek spellings from a Hebrew self-designation later found in some Dead Sea Scrolls, ʻosey haTorah , "'doers' or 'makers' of Torah ". Although dozens of etymology suggestions have been published, this is the only etymology published before 1947 that was confirmed by Qumran text self-designation references, and it
8869-494: The Second Temple in the period 521–516 BCE. The Cyrus Cylinder , an ancient tablet on which is written a declaration in the name of Cyrus referring to restoration of temples and repatriation of exiled peoples, has often been taken as corroboration of the authenticity of the biblical decrees attributed to Cyrus, but other scholars point out that the cylinder's text is specific to Babylon and Mesopotamia and makes no mention of Judah or Jerusalem. Professor Lester L. Grabbe asserted that
9050-405: The Sinai Peninsula , the Gaza Strip , the Golan Heights , and the formerly Jordanian-controlled West Bank of the Jordan River . East Jerusalem was arguably annexed by Israel. Residents were given permanent residency status and the option of applying for Israeli citizenship. The annexation was not recognized internationally (the Jordanian annexation of 1950 was also unrecognized except for
9231-504: The Tetrarchy . The central part of the Tetrarchy was given to Herod Archelaus , including Judea proper, Idumea and Samaria . Herod's death in 4 BCE caused the release of built up frustrations of the people who were suppressed by his brutality. Many people were impoverished because of Herod's high taxes and spending. When he died, his building projects that once allowed for job opportunities were stopped, and many people lost their jobs. This built up frustrations that ultimately contributed to
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#17327652481819412-425: The Uzi submachine gun first entered use by the Israel Defense Forces. In 1955 the Egyptian government began recruiting former Nazi rocket scientists for a missile program. Sharett's government was brought down by the Lavon Affair , a crude plan to disrupt US–Egyptian relations, involving Israeli agents planting bombs at American sites in Egypt. The plan failed when 11 agents were arrested. Defense Minister Lavon
9593-428: The " land for peace " formula, which called for the establishment of a just and lasting peace based on Israeli withdrawal from territories occupied in 1967 in return for the end of all states of belligerency, respect for the sovereignty of all states in the area, and the right to live in peace within secure, recognized boundaries. The resolution was accepted by both sides, though with different interpretations, and has been
9774-449: The "alleged decree of Cyrus" regarding Judah, "cannot be considered authentic", but that there was a "general policy of allowing deportees to return and to re-establish cult sites". He also stated that archaeology suggests that the return was a "trickle" taking place over decades, rather than a single event. The Persians may have experimented initially with ruling Judah as a Davidic client-kingdom under descendants of Jehoiachin , but by
9955-450: The 120 seats after the 1969 election . Meir was the first female prime minister of Israel and the first woman to have headed a Middle Eastern state in modern times. Gahal retained its 26 seats, and was the second largest party. In early 1969 fighting broke out between Egypt and Israel along the Suez Canal. In retaliation for repeated Egyptian shelling of Israeli positions along the Suez Canal, Israeli planes made deep strikes into Egypt in
10136-465: The 1949 ceasefire. In January 1949, Israel held its first elections . The Socialist-Zionist parties Mapai and Mapam won the most seats (46 and 19 respectively). Mapai's leader David Ben-Gurion was appointed prime minister , and formed a coalition that did not include Mapam, who were Stalinist and loyal to the USSR (another Stalinist party, non-Zionist Maki won 4 seats). This was a significant decision because it signaled that Israel would not be in
10317-429: The 1969–1970 " War of Attrition ". In December 1969, Israeli naval commandos took five missile boats during the night from Cherbourg Harbour in France. Israel had paid for the boats but the French had refused to supply them. In July 1970 the Israelis shot down five Soviet fighters that were aiding the Egyptians in the course of the War of Attrition . Following this, the US worked to calm the situation and in August 1970
10498-427: The 5th century BCE were thus a kind of religious colonisation in reverse, an attempt by one of the many Jewish factions in Babylon to create a self-segregated, ritually pure society inspired by the prophesies of Ezekiel and his followers. The Persian era, and especially the period between 538 and 400 BCE, laid the foundations for the unified Judaic religion and the beginning of a scriptural canon. The final Torah
10679-596: The Arab armies out and conquered some of the territory that had been included in the proposed Arab state. At the end of November, tenuous local ceasefires were arranged between the Israelis, Syrians, and Lebanese. On 1 December King Abdullah announced the union of Transjordan with Arab Palestine west of the Jordan; only Britain recognized the annexation. Israel signed armistices with Egypt (24 February), Lebanon (23 March), Jordan (3 April) and Syria (20 July). No actual peace agreements were signed. With permanent ceasefire coming into effect, Israel's new borders, later known as
10860-423: The Aramaic equivalent Hesi'im known from Eastern Aramaic texts has been suggested. Others suggest that Essene is a transliteration of the Hebrew word ḥiṣonim ( ḥiṣon "outside"), which the Mishnah (e.g., Megillah 4:8 ) uses to describe various sectarian groups. Another theory is that the name was borrowed from a cult of devotees to Artemis in Anatolia , whose demeanor and dress somewhat resembled those of
11041-438: The Canal area, and for them to be allowed to take up positions at key points on the Canal. Egypt refused and the allies commenced air strikes on 31 October aimed at neutralizing the Egyptian air force. By 5 November the Israelis had overrun the Sinai . The Anglo-French invasion began that day. There was uproar in the UN, with the US and USSR for once in agreement in denouncing the actions of Israel, Britain, and France. A demand for
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#173276524818111222-411: The Egyptians retained the Gaza strip and still had some forces surrounded inside Israeli territory. Jordanian forces remained in the West Bank , where the British had stationed them before the war. Jordan annexed the areas it occupied while Egypt kept Gaza as an occupied zone . Following the ceasefire declaration, Britain released over 2,000 Jewish detainees it was still holding in Cyprus and recognized
11403-401: The Elder positioned them somewhere above Ein Gedi , on the west side of the Dead Sea. Pliny relates in a few lines that the Essenes possess no money, had existed for thousands of generations, and that their priestly class ("contemplatives") did not marry . Josephus gave a detailed account of the Essenes in The Jewish War ( c. 75 CE ), with a shorter description in Antiquities of
11584-665: The Essene groups appear to have been celibate , but Josephus speaks also of another " order of Essenes" that observed the practice of being engaged for three years and then becoming married. According to Josephus, they had customs and observances such as collective ownership, electing a leader to attend to the interests of the group, and obedience to the orders from their leader. Also, they were forbidden from swearing oaths and from sacrificing animals . They controlled their tempers and served as channels of peace, carrying weapons only for protection against robbers. The Essenes chose not to possess slaves but served each other and, as
11765-456: The Essenes ritually immersed in water every morning (a practice similar to the use of the mikveh for daily immersion found among some contemporary Hasidim ), ate together after prayer, devoted themselves to charity and benevolence, forbade the expression of anger, studied the books of the elders, preserved secrets, and were very mindful of the names of the angels kept in their sacred writings. The Essenes have gained fame in modern times as
11946-506: The Essenes and Christians were eschatological communities, where judgement on the world would come at any time. The New Testament also possibly quotes writings used by the Qumran community. Luke 1:31-35 states " And now you will conceive in your womb and bear a son and you will name him Jesus. He will be great and will be called the son of the Most High...the son of God" which seems to echo 4Q 246 , stating: "He will be called great and he will be called Son of God, and they will call him Son of
12127-404: The Essenes had an idea of a pierced Messiah based on 4Q285 ; however, the interpretation of the text is ambiguous. Some scholars interpreted it as the Messiah being killed himself, while modern scholars mostly interpret it as the Messiah executing the enemies of Israel in an eschatological war. Both the Essenes and Christians practiced a ritual of immersion by water, however the Essenes had it as
12308-470: The Essenes had settled "not in one city" but "in large numbers in every town". Philo speaks of "more than four thousand" Essaioi living in "Palestine and Syria ", more precisely, "in many cities of Judaea and in many villages and grouped in great societies of many members". Pliny locates them "on the west side of the Dead Sea, away from the coast... [above] the town of Engeda ". Some modern scholars and archeologists have argued that Essenes inhabited
12489-463: The Essenes in detail. Most scholars believe that the community at Qumran that most likely produced the Dead Sea Scrolls was an offshoot of the Essenes. However, this theory has been disputed by some; for example, Norman Golb argues that the primary research on the Qumran documents and ruins (by Father Roland de Vaux , from the École Biblique et Archéologique de Jérusalem ) lacked scientific method, and drew wrong conclusions that comfortably entered
12670-418: The Essenes in honour"; "a certain Essene named Manaemus"; "to hold all Essenes in honor"; "the Essenes"). In several places, however, Josephus has Essaios , which is usually assumed to mean Essene ("Judas of the Essaios race"; "Simon of the Essaios race"; "John the Essaios "; "those who are called by us Essaioi "; "Simon a man of the Essaios race"). Josephus identified the Essenes as one of
12851-416: The Essenes suggests that the movement was founded by a Jewish high priest, dubbed by the Essenes the Teacher of Righteousness , whose office had been usurped by Jonathan (of priestly but not of Zadokite lineage), labeled the "man of lies" or "false priest". Others follow this line and a few argue that the Teacher of Righteousness was not only the leader of the Essenes at Qumran, but was also identical to
13032-746: The Essenes that they would refrain from defecation on the Sabbath. According to Joseph Lightfoot , the Church Father Epiphanius (writing in the 4th century CE) seems to make a distinction between two main groups within the Essenes: "Of those that came before his [Elxai, an Ossaean prophet] time and during it, the Ossaeans and the Nasaraeans ." Part 18 Epiphanius describes each group as following: The Nasaraean—they were Jews by nationality—originally from Gileaditis, Bashanitis and
13213-435: The Essenes, it is forbidden for a Mandaean to reveal the names of the angels to a gentile. Essene graves are oriented north–south and a Mandaean's grave must also be in the north–south direction so that if the dead Mandaean were stood upright, they would face north. Mandaeans have an oral tradition that some were originally vegetarian and also similar to the Essenes, they are pacifists . The bit manda ( beth manda )
13394-651: The First Jewish-Roman War, the Bar-Kokhba Revolt (132–135 CE) erupted; its brutal suppression by the Romans further dwindled the Jewish population in Judea and enhanced the role of Jewish diaspora . During the ensuing Rabbinic period , the Jewish demographic center shifted to Galilee , where the Mishnah was compiled, and later to Babylonia , while smaller Jewish communities persisted across
13575-515: The Haredi Agudat Israel party. A separate body was created to provide education for the remaining Palestinian-Arab population. The major political parties now competed for immigrants to join their education systems. The government banned the existing educational bodies from the transit camps and tried to mandate a unitary secular socialist education under the control of "camp managers" who also had to provide work, food and housing for
13756-686: The Hasmoneans were removed from Judaean rule, including Azotus , Jaffa and Samaria , as well as Scythopolis and several cities in Transjordan , which formed the semi-autonomous Decapolis . Hyrcanus II's rule was unstable. Alexander II , Aristobulus II's son, raised a large army and seized Jerusalem, forcing Hyrcanus to leave the city. The Roman general Aulus Gabinius invaded Judea in retaliation, sent Hyrcanus back to Jerusalem, and reinstated him as high priest. When Caesar's civil war broke out, Julius Caesar attempted to install Aristobulus on
13937-518: The Hasmoneans' kingdom increasingly exercised total self-governance as it undertook military campaigns to push the weakening Seleucids out of the region, establishing itself as the last Jewish kingdom and preceding an almost 2000-year-long hiatus in Jewish sovereignty in the Levant . In 63 BCE, the Roman Republic conquered the kingdom. In 37 BCE, the Romans appointed Herod the Great as king of
14118-591: The Hebrew Bible canon , the synagogue and Jewish eschatology can be traced back to the Second Temple period. According to Jewish tradition, prophecy ceased during the early Second Temple period; this left the Jews without their version of divine guidance when they felt most in need of support and direction. Under Hellenistic rule, the growing influence of Hellenism in Judaism became a source of dissent for those Jews who clung to their monotheistic faith; this
14299-460: The Israeli airforce launched pre-emptive attacks destroying first the Egyptian air force, and then later the same day destroying the air forces of Jordan and Syria. Israel then defeated (almost successively) Egypt, Jordan and Syria. By 11 June the Arab forces were routed and all parties had accepted the cease-fire called for by UN Security Council Resolutions 235 and 236. Israel gained control of
14480-906: The Israeli borders, and Egypt closed the Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping. Nasser demanded that the UNEF leave Sinai, threatening escalation to a full war. Egyptian radio broadcasts talked of a coming genocide. On 26 May Nasser declared, " The battle will be a general one and our basic objective will be to destroy Israel ". Israel considered the Straits of Tiran closure a Casus belli . Egypt, Syria, Jordan and Iraq signed defence pacts and Iraqi troops began deploying to Jordan, Syria and Egypt. Algeria also announced that it would send troops to Egypt. Between 1963 and 1967 Egyptian troops had tested chemical weapons on Yemenite civilians as part of an Egyptian intervention in support of rebels . Israel responded by calling up its civilian reserves, bringing much of
14661-405: The Israeli economy to a halt. The Israelis set up a national unity coalition, including for the first time Menachem Begin 's party, Herut , in a coalition. During a national radio broadcast, Prime Minister Levi Eshkol stammered, causing widespread fear in Israel. To calm public concern Moshe Dayan (Chief of Staff during the Sinai war) was appointed Defence Minister. On the morning of 5 June 1967
14842-635: The Jewish community in Babylonia , to which Jews were exiled after the Babylonian conquest as well as after the Bar Kokhba revolt in 135 CE, already held a speedily growing population of an estimated one million Jews, which increased to an estimated two million between the years 200 CE and 500 CE, both by natural growth and by immigration of more Jews from the Land of Israel , making up about one-sixth of
15023-501: The Jews ( c. 94 CE ) and The Life of Flavius Josephus ( c. 97 CE ). Claiming firsthand knowledge, he lists the Essenoi as one of the three sects of Jewish philosophy alongside the Pharisees and Sadducees . He relates the same information concerning piety , celibacy; the absence of personal property and of money; the belief in communality ; and commitment to a strict observance of Sabbath . He further adds that
15204-609: The Jews without their version of divine guidance at a time when they felt most in need of support and direction. History of Israel (1948%E2%80%93present) Canaan State of Israel (1948–present) In 1948, following the 1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine , the Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel sparked the 1948 Arab–Israeli War , which resulted in
15385-517: The Judah described in the Bible: a Jewish monarchy ruled from Jerusalem and including all territories once ruled by David and Solomon. In order to carry out this project, the Hasmoneans forcibly converted neighbor nations to Judaism. Some scholars argue that the Hasmonean dynasty institutionalized the final Jewish biblical canon . After Salome Alexander died in 67 BCE, Hyrcanus II , her older son,
15566-554: The Knesset passed the Law of Return , which granted to all Jews and those of Jewish ancestry (Jewish grandparent), and their spouses, the right to settle in Israel and gain citizenship. That year 50,000 Yemenite Jews (99%) were secretly flown to Israel. In 1951 Iraqi Jews were granted temporary permission to leave the country and 120,000 (over 90%) opted to move to Israel . Jews also fled from Lebanon, Syria and Egypt. Between 1948 and 1958
15747-486: The Most High...He will judge the earth in righteousness...and every nation will bow down to him". Other similarities include high devotion to the faith even to the point of martyrdom, communal prayer, self denial and a belief in a captivity in a sinful world. John the Baptist has also been argued to have been an Essene, as there are numerous parallels between John's mission and the Essenes, which suggests he perhaps
15928-693: The Nazis and sued his accuser. Kastner lost the trial and was assassinated two years later. In 1958 the Supreme Court exonerated him. In May 1960 Adolf Eichmann , one of the chief administrators of the Nazi Holocaust, was located in Argentina by the Mossad , later kidnapping him and bringing him to Israel. In 1961 he was put on trial, and after several months found guilty and sentenced to death. He
16109-674: The Oral Law. Rabbinic Judaism (centered in the Land of Israel and Babylon) almost entirely ignores the Hellenized Diaspora in its writings. It is unknown whether Hellenized Judaism ultimately vanished as its adherents assmiliated into the Christianized Greco-Roman society, or if it persisted as a distinct, bible-oriented community that later affected the development of Karaite Judaism . By the first century,
16290-637: The Palestinian refugees were settled in large refugee camps in poor, overcrowded conditions and denied citizenship by their host countries. In December 1949, the UN (in response to a British proposal) established an agency ( UNRWA ) to provide aid to the Palestinian refugees. It became the largest single UN agency and is the only UN agency that serves a single people. A 120-seat parliament, the Knesset , met first in Tel Aviv , then moved to Jerusalem after
16471-565: The Persian era; it is likely that it never exceeded 30,000. This represents a 70% decrease when compared to the late First Temple period. Jerusalem's area was also smaller compared with the late First Temple period. The city shrank to its pre-eighth century BCE size, and its inhabited areas—the City of David and the Temple Mount —had a population of around 1500. Together with the surrounding farms and unwalled settled areas, Jerusalem's population
16652-886: The Roman Legions. The war ended in 73-74 CE with the siege of Masada . According to Josephus, the siege resulted in the mass suicide of the Sicarii rebels and resident Jewish families, though the historicity of the mass suicide is debated. The failure of the First Jewish Revolt eventually led to two subsequent Jewish uprisings against Rome: the Diaspora Revolt and the Bar Kokhba Revolt in Judaea, both of which ended in catastrophic failure. The Diaspora Revolt, which erupted between 115 and 117 CE,
16833-404: The Roman forces, which led to widespread devastation and the near-total expulsion or annihilation of Jews from these regions. Two generations after the First Jewish-Roman War, the Bar Kokhba Revolt (132-136 CE) erupted. One reason seems to be the re-establishment of Jerusalem as a Roman colony under the name of Aelia Capitolina . The revolt was brutally suppressed by the Romans and resulted in
17014-612: The Second Temple and expanding the Temple Mount , and founding Caesarea Maritima as a major port city. Herod also constructed the enclosure around the Cave of the Patriarchs in Hebron , the fortress at Masada , and Herodium . The Herodian kingdom under Herod experienced a period of growth and expansion. After Herod's death in 4 BCE, the kingdom was partitioned to several parts to each of his three sons (initially four parts), forming
17195-608: The Seleucid satrapy of Coele Syria and Phoenicia after his successful invasion of Ptolemaic Egypt (170 to 168 BCE) was turned back by the intervention of the Roman Republic. He sacked Jerusalem and the Temple, suppressing Jewish and Samaritan religious and cultural observances, and imposed Hellenistic practices ( c. 168-167 BCE). Antiochus' actions enraged the elites but also the rural population, who had remained mostly untouched by Hellenism. In 167 BCE, Mattathias ,
17376-475: The Sinai peninsula in a few days. The Israeli political leadership learnt that Israel had a limited time frame within which to operate militarily after which international political pressure would restrict Israel's freedom of action. In 1956, two modern-orthodox (and religious-Zionist ) parties, Mizrachi and Hapoel HaMizrachi , joined to form the National Religious Party . The party was
17557-654: The Soviet bloc. The Knesset elected Chaim Weizmann as the first (largely ceremonial) president of Israel . Hebrew and Arabic were made the official languages of the new state. All governments have been coalitions—no party has ever won a majority in the Knesset. From 1948 until 1977 all governments were led by Mapai and the Alignment , predecessors of the Labour Party . In those years Labour Zionists , initially led by David Ben-Gurion , dominated Israeli politics and
17738-425: The Soviet block (except Romania) broke off relations with Israel. Antisemitic purges encouraged the remnants of Polish Jewry to move to Israel. Increased Soviet antisemitism and enthusiasm generated by the 1967 victory led to a wave of Soviet Jews applying to emigrate to Israel. Most Jews were refused exit visas and persecuted by the authorities. Some were arrested, becoming known as Prisoners of Zion . As
17919-653: The Suez Canal, freedom of access out of the Gulf of Aqaba and Egyptian action to stop Palestinian raids from Gaza, the Israelis withdrew to the Negev. In practice the Suez Canal remained closed to Israeli shipping. The conflict marked the end of West-European dominance in the Middle East. Nasser emerged as the victor in the conflict, having won the political battle, but the Israeli military learnt that it did not need British or French support to conquer Sinai and that it could conquer
18100-638: The Torah to their early leader, the Teacher of Righteousness , possibly a legitimate high priest. Embracing a conservative approach to Jewish law, they observed a strict hierarchy favoring priests (the Sons of Zadok ) over laypeople, emphasized ritual purity, and held a dualistic worldview . According to Jewish writers Josephus and Philo , the Essenes numbered around four thousand, and resided in various settlements throughout Judaea . Conversely, Roman writer Pliny
18281-466: The Transjordan... They acknowledged Moses and believed that he had received laws—not this law, however, but some other. And so, they were Jews who kept all the Jewish observances, but they would not offer sacrifice or eat meat. They considered it unlawful to eat meat or make sacrifices with it. They claim that these Books are fictions, and that none of these customs were instituted by the fathers. This
18462-609: The UK, Iraq, and Pakistan). Other areas occupied remained under military rule (Israeli civil law did not apply to them) pending a final settlement. The Golan was also annexed in 1981. The result of the 29 August 1967 Arab League summit was the Khartoum Resolution , which according to Abd al Azim Ramadan, left only one option – a war with Israel. On 22 November 1967, the Security Council adopted Resolution 242 ,
18643-529: The US also agreed to provide A-4 Skyhawk tactical aircraft to Israel. In 1966 security restrictions placed on Arab-Israelis were eased and efforts made to integrate them into Israeli life. In 1966, Black and white TV broadcasts began. On 15 May 1967 the first public performance of Naomi Shemer 's classic song " Jerusalem of Gold " took place and over the next few weeks it dominated the Israeli airwaves. Two days later Syria, Egypt, and Jordan amassed troops along
18824-996: The West Bank from Jordan, and the Gaza Strip and the Sinai Peninsula from Egypt. In 1973, the Yom Kippur War began with an attack by Egypt on the Israeli-occupied Sinai Peninsula. In 1979 the Egypt–Israel peace treaty was signed, based on the Camp David Accords . In 1993, Israel signed the Oslo I Accord with the Palestine Liberation Organization , which was followed by the establishment of
19005-631: The ability to speak Hebrew and Aramaic. At the turn of the 2nd-century BCE, a successful military campaign in Coele-Syria led by the Seleucid Antiochus ;III finally brought the region into the Seleucid empire, with Jerusalem falling under his control in 198 BCE. The Seleucids, like the Ptolemies before them, held a suzerainty over Judea : they respected Jewish culture and protected Jewish institutions. This policy
19186-468: The academic canon. For Golb, the number of documents is too extensive and includes many different writing styles and calligraphies; the ruins seem to have been a fortress, used as a military base for a very long period of time—including the 1st century—so they therefore could not have been inhabited by the Essenes; and the large graveyard excavated in 1870, just 50 metres (160 ft) east of the Qumran ruins,
19367-415: The allegedly desecrated temple. This event is commemorated by the Jewish festival of Hannukkah . The Maccabean cause was aided further in 164 BCE when Antiochus IV died and his generals fought over guardianship of his young son Antiochus V ; this turmoil ended when Antiochus IV's nephew, Demetrios I , returned from exile in Rome, deposed Antiochus V, and ascended to the Seleucid throne. Demetrios continued
19548-437: The archeological evidence, virtually all scholars support Dio's claim of massive depopulation. The revolt put an end to Jewish aspirations for the reconstruction of Jerusalem and the Temple as well as, more concretely, for Jewish settlement in the district of Judea. The province of Judaea was renamed Syria Palaestina . Jewish presence in Judaea significantly dwindled after the failure of the Bar Kokhba revolt. Nevertheless, there
19729-792: The basis of all subsequent peace negotiations. By the late sixties, about 500,000 Jews had left Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia. Over the course of twenty years, some 850,000 Jews from Arab countries (99%) relocated to Israel (680,000), France and the Americas. The land and property left behind by the Jews (much of it in Arab city centres) is still a matter of some dispute. Today there are about 9,000 Jews living in Arab states, of whom 75% live in Morocco and 15% in Tunisia. Vast assets, approximately $ 150 billion worth of goods and property (before inflation) were left behind in these countries. After 1967
19910-488: The books of Moses like the Nasaraean. We do not know much about the canon of the Essenes, and what their attitude was towards the apocryphal writings, however the Essenes perhaps did not esteem the book of Esther highly as manuscripts of Esther are completely absent in Qumran, likely because of their opposition to mixed marriages and the use of different calendars. The Essenes were unique for their time for being against
20091-555: The camp, however the Israelis sustained unexpectedly high casualties and the attack was not viewed as a success. Despite heavy casualties, the Palestinians claimed victory, while Fatah and the PLO (of which it formed part) became famous across the Arab world. In early 1969 Levi Eshkol died in office of a heart attack and Golda Meir became prime minister with the largest percentage of the vote ever won by an Israeli party, winning 56 of
20272-607: The causes of the First Jewish–Roman War . In 6 CE, the country fell into unrest, and the Herodian ruler of Judea was deposed in favor of forming the new Iudaea Province under direct Roman rule. The Roman province of Judaea extended over parts of the former regions of the Hasmonean and Herodian kingdoms . It was created in 6 CE with the Census of Quirinius and merged into Syria Palaestina after 135 CE. Jerusalem reached
20453-474: The center of rebel resistance in Judaea. The city had been taken over by several rebel factions following a period of massive unrest and the collapse of a short-lived provisional government . The first two walls of Jerusalem were breached in three weeks, but the Roman Army was unable to breach the third and thickest wall due to a stubborn rebel standoff. According to Josephus , a contemporary historian and
20634-702: The city and rebuilt the Temple in Jerusalem. In 332 BCE, the Achaemenid Empire fell to Alexander the Great , and the region was later incorporated into the Ptolemaic Kingdom ( c. 301–200 BCE ) and the Seleucid Empire ( c. 200–167 BCE ). The Maccabean Revolt against Seleucid rule led to the establishment of a nominally independent Jewish kingdom under the Hasmonean dynasty (140–37 BCE). While it initially exercised governance semi-autonomously under Seleucid hegemony,
20815-544: The death of Herod Antipas in 39 CE Herod Agrippa became ruler of Galilee also, and in 41 CE, as a mark of favour by the Emperor Claudius , succeeded the Roman prefect Marullus as ruler of Judea. The era from roughly 4 BCE to 33 CE is also notable as being the time period when Jesus of Nazareth should have lived, primarily in Galilee, under the reign of Herod Antipas. It is therefore considered in specifically Jewish history as being when Christianity arose as
20996-515: The desert from the Roman invasions. Other scholars refute these arguments—particularly since Josephus describes some Essenes as allowing marriage. Another issue is the relationship between the Essaioi and Philo's Therapeutae and Therapeutrides . He regarded the Therapeutae as a contemplative branch of the Essaioi who, he said, pursued an active life. One theory on the formation of
21177-403: The economy was run on primarily socialist lines . From 1948 to 1951 immigration doubled the Jewish population of Israel and left an indelible imprint on Israeli society. Overall, 700,000 Jews settled in Israel during this period. Some 300,000 arrived from Asian and North African nations as part of the Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries . Among them, the largest group (over 100,000)
21358-411: The establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz Israel to serve as the homeland for the Jewish people , to be known as the State of Israel . The meeting was led by David Ben-Gurion , the Executive Head of the World Zionist Organization , Chairman of the Jewish Agency for Palestine , and soon to be first Prime Minister of Israel . The event is celebrated annually in Israel as Independence Day ,
21539-460: The extensive depopulation of Judea proper, more so than during the First Jewish–Roman War of 70 CE. Some scholars have described these events as genocide . According to Cassius Dio , 580,000 Jews perished in the war and many more died of hunger and disease, 50 fortresses and 985 villages were destroyed. In addition, many Judean war captives were sold into slavery. Some modern historians assert that Dio's numbers were somewhat exaggerated, but based on
21720-411: The first time in centuries. In Hebron , Jews gained access to the Cave of the Patriarchs (the second most holy site in Judaism) for the first time since the 14th century (previously Jews were only allowed to pray at the entrance). A third Jewish holy site, Rachel's Tomb , in Bethlehem , also became accessible. The Sinai oil fields made Israel self-sufficient in energy. In 1968 Moshe Levinger led
21901-425: The government. Israel received financial aid from private donations from outside the country (mainly the United States). The pressure on the new state's finances led Ben-Gurion to negotiate a controversial reparations agreement with West Germany . During the Knesset debate some 5,000 demonstrators gathered and riot police had to cordon the building. In 1952, Israel and West Germany signed an agreement and over
22082-508: The governmental balance and sparked opposition to his rule, resulting in the Judean Civil War , which Jannaeus brutally suppressed. Salome Alexandra ( r. 76–67 BCE ), Jannaeus' widow, ascended to power following her husband's death. Under her rule, the priesthood was separated from the other powers of government for the first time since the rise of the Hasmoneans. Salome appointed her son, Hyrcanus II , as high priest and his brother, Aristobulus II , as army commander, and pursued
22263-452: The group in Judea . Flavius Josephus in Chapter 8 of " The Jewish War " states: 2.(119)For there are three philosophical sects among the Jews. The followers of the first of which are the Pharisees; of the second, the Sadducees ; and the third sect, which pretends to a severer discipline , are called Essenes. These last are Jews by birth, and seem to have a greater affection for each other than other sects have. According to Josephus ,
22444-443: The head of a left-wing coalition. Between 1953 and 1956, there were intermittent clashes along all of Israel's borders as Arab terrorism and breaches of the ceasefire resulting in Israeli counter-raids . Palestinian fedayeen attacks, often organized and sponsored by the Egyptians, were made from (Egyptian) occupied Gaza . Fedayeen attacks led to a growing cycle of violence as Israel launched reprisal attacks against Gaza. In 1954
22625-399: The immigrants. There were attempts to force orthodox Yemenite children to adopt a secular life style by teachers, including many instances of Yemenite children having their side-curls cut by teachers. The Yemenite Children Affair led to the first Israeli public inquiry (the Fromkin Inquiry), the collapse of the coalition, and an election in 1951, with little change in the results. In 1953
22806-418: The leader of the revolt. He benefited from another internal Seleucid struggle between King Demetrius I Soter and an usurper, Alexander Balas . Both turned to Jonathan, attempting to win him over with concessions, and Alexander Balas even elevated him to the position of high priest. Alexander Balas was eventually able to assert himself, but he was quickly defeated by Demetrios' son Demetrios II . The battle for
22987-413: The main source for the war, the city was ravaged by murder, famine and cannibalism . On Tisha B'Av , 70 CE (August 30), Roman forces finally overwhelmed the defenders and set fire to the Temple. Resistance continued for another month, but eventually the upper and lower parts of the city were taken as well, and the city was burned to the ground. Titus spared only the three towers of the Herodian citadel as
23168-412: The major cities children from mainly Sephardi / Mizrahi neighbourhoods were bused to newly established middle schools in better areas. The system remained in place until after 2000. In March 1968 Israeli forces attacked the Palestinian militia, Fatah , at its base in the Jordanian town of Karameh . The attack was in response to land mines placed on Israeli roads. The Israelis retreated after destroying
23349-413: The mid–5th century BCE Judah had become in practice a theocracy , ruled by hereditary High Priests and a Persian-appointed governor, frequently Jewish, charged with keeping order and seeing that tribute was paid. A second group of 5,000, led by Ezra and Nehemiah , returned to Judah in 456 BCE. The first was empowered by the Persian king to enforce the Torah , the second had the status of governor and
23530-412: The missile program was designed to carry chemical warheads . This action was condemned by Ben-Gurion and led to the Mossad director, Isser Harel , resignation. In 1963 Ben-Gurion quit again over the Lavon affair. His attempts to make his party Mapai support him over the issue failed. Levi Eshkol became leader of Mapai and the new prime minister. Ben-Gurion quit Mapai to form the new party Rafi , he
23711-441: The natural and exact sciences. The first works of Hebrew literature in Israel were written by immigrant authors rooted in the world and traditions of European Jewry. Yosef Haim Brenner (1881–1921) and Shmuel Yosef Agnon (1888–1970), are considered by many to be the fathers of modern Hebrew literature . Native-born writers who published their work in the 1940s and 1950s, often called the "War of Independence generation," brought
23892-416: The new Arab states, particularly the Nasser-led Egyptian Free Officers Movement and Ibn Saud of Saudi Arabia . Israel's solution to diplomatic isolation was to establish good relations with newly independent states in Africa and with France, which was engaged in the Algerian War . In the January 1955 elections Mapai won 40 seats and the Labour Party 10, Moshe Sharett became prime minister of Israel at
24073-457: The new state. The Arab League members Egypt, Transjordan, Syria, Lebanon and Iraq refused to accept the UN partition plan and proclaimed the right of self-determination for the Arabs across the whole of Palestine. The Arab states marched their forces into what had, until the previous day, been the British Mandate for Palestine, starting the first Arab–Israeli War . The Arab states had heavy military equipment at their disposal and were initially on
24254-655: The next 14 years, West Germany paid Israel 3 billion marks (around US$ 714 million according to 1953-1955 conversion rates). The reparations became a decisive part of Israel's income, comprising as high as 87.5% of Israel's income in 1956. In 1950, the Israeli government launched Israel Bonds for American and Canadian Jews to buy. In 1951, the final results of the bonds program exceeded $ 52 million. In 1957, bond sales amounted to 35% of Israel's special development budget. The proceeds from these sources were invested in industrial and agricultural development projects, which allowed Israel to become economically self-sufficient. Among
24435-436: The offensive (the Jewish forces were not a state before 15 May and could not buy heavy arms). On 29 May 1948, the British initiated United Nations Security Council Resolution 50 declaring an arms embargo on the region. Czechoslovakia violated the resolution , supplying the Jewish state with critical military hardware to match the (mainly British) heavy equipment and planes already owned by the invading Arab states. On 11 June
24616-414: The organization of a Jewish provisional government. On 12 April 1948 it formed the Minhelet HaAm ( Hebrew : מנהלת העם , lit. People's Administration ), all of its members being drawn from Moetzet HaAm ( People's Council ), the temporary legislative body set up at the same time. On 14 May 1948—the day the last British forces left Haifa—the People's Council gathered at the Tel Aviv Museum and proclaimed
24797-410: The original Messianic figure about 150 years before the time of the Gospels . Fred Gladstone Bratton notes that The Teacher of Righteousness of the Scrolls would seem to be a prototype of Jesus , for both spoke of the New Covenant ; they preached a similar gospel; each was regarded as a Savior or Redeemer; and each was condemned and put to death by reactionary factions... We do not know whether Jesus
24978-494: The party-affiliated education system was scrapped and replaced by a secular state education system and a state-run Modern Orthodox system. Agudat Israel were allowed to maintain their existing school system. In the early 1950s, under the administration of Yaakov Dori , who had served as the Israel Defense Forces’ first chief of staff, the Technion launched a campaign to recruit Jewish and pro-Israel scientists from abroad to establish research laboratories and teaching departments in
25159-407: The population of Israel rose from 800,000 to two million. During this period, food, clothes and furniture had to be rationed in what became known as the Austerity Period ( Tkufat haTsena ). Immigrants were mostly refugees without money or possessions, and many were housed in temporary camps known as ma'abarot . By 1952 more than 200,000 immigrants were living in tents or prefabricated shacks built by
25340-413: The position of the head of Histadrut , Israel's labour union organization. His demands were accepted and Mapai won the 1961 election (42 seats keeping Ben-Gurion as PM) with a slight reduction in its share of the seats. Menachem Begin's Herut party and the Liberals came next with 17 seats each. In 1962 the Mossad began assassinating German rocket scientists working in Egypt after one of them reported
25521-432: The possibility of their endurance or the survival of related groups in the following centuries. Some researchers suggest that Essene teachings could have influenced other religious traditions, such as Early Christianity and Mandaeism . Josephus uses the name Essenes in his two main accounts, The Jewish War 2.119, 158, 160 and Antiquities of the Jews , 13.171–2, but some manuscripts read here Essaion ("holding
25702-457: The practice of slave-ownership, and slavery, which they regarded as unjust and ungodly, regarding all men as having been born equal. At the outset of the First Jewish–Roman War in 66 CE, as Roman advances were anticipated, command over parts of western Judea was assigned to John the Essene (or Essaean), who was placed in charge of the toparchy of Thamna . This region encompassed Lydda , Joppa , and Emmaus . Josephus and Philo discuss
25883-414: The projects made possible by the aid was the Hadera power plant , the Dead Sea Works , the National Water Carrier , port development in Haifa , Ashdod , and Eilat , desalination plants, and national infrastructure projects. In 1949 education was made free and compulsory for all citizens until the age of 14. The state now funded the party-affiliated Zionist education system and a new body created by
26064-400: The region through a variety of contacts, but especially as a result of the development of commerce and the arrival of Greek settlers. Between 301 and 219 BCE the Ptolemies ruled Judea in relative peace. Jews often found themselves working in the Ptolemaic administration and army, which led to the rise of a Hellenized Jewish elite class (e.g. the Tobiads ). This period also saw the rise of
26245-438: The same time, he carried on his predecessors' conversion policy, and destroyed Pella because its inhabitants refused to convert. During his reign, the Hasmonean kingdom expanded to its greatest extent, now including the coastal plain, the northern Negev, and western parts of Transjordan. Jannaeus' dual role as king and high priest, his inclination towards the Sadducees , the high cost of the wars in both money and lives threatened
26426-477: The settlement at Qumran , a plateau in the Judean Desert along the Dead Sea, citing Pliny the Elder in support and giving credence that the Dead Sea Scrolls are the product of the Essenes. This theory, though not yet conclusively proven, has come to dominate the scholarly discussion and public perception of the Essenes. The accounts by Josephus and Philo show that the Essenes led a strictly communal life—often compared to later Christian monasticism . Many of
26607-409: The ship be sunk. Several Etzel members were killed in the fighting. Large numbers of Jewish immigrants—many of them World War II veterans and Holocaust survivors—now began arriving in the new state of Israel, and many joined the IDF. After an initial loss of territory by the Jewish state and its occupation by the Arab armies, from July the tide gradually turned in the Israelis' favour and they pushed
26788-525: The start of the Maccabean Revolt . When Mattathias died, his son Judas Maccabeus took over as leader of the revolt. He used guerrilla tactics to defeat several small Seleucid armies while Antiochus IV was fighting a war in the east. The conflict was heavily religiously charged because, in order to distinguish themselves from their Jewish opponents, the Maccabees presented themselves as radical Jews and carried out large-scale forced circumcisions . Judas eventually succeeded in capturing Jerusalem and purifying
26969-488: The state of Israel. On 11 May 1949, Israel was admitted as a member of the United Nations. Out of an Israeli population of 650,000, some 6,000 men and women were killed in the fighting, including 4,000 soldiers in the IDF (approximately 1% of the population). According to United Nations figures, 726,000 Palestinians had fled or were expelled by the Israelis between 1947 and 1949. The precise number of refugees , many of whom settled in refugee camps in neighboring states,
27150-417: The three major Jewish sects of that period. Philo's usage is Essaioi , although he admits this Greek form of the original name , that according to his etymology signifies "holiness", to be inexact. Pliny's Latin text has Esseni . Gabriele Boccaccini implies that a convincing etymology for the name Essene has not been found, but that the term applies to a larger group within Judea that also included
27331-450: The throne was a mistake that needed to be undone. Along with Aretas III , king of the Nabateans , these two formed an alliance and together they attacked and besieged Jerusalem. During the same period, Roman general Pompey was in the midst of a campaign in the Eastern Mediterranean. After defeating Mithridates VI of Pontus, Pompey conquered the Seleucid Kingdom, which became a Roman province called Syria . The warrying brothers, who saw
27512-418: The throne was now between him and the general Diodotos Tryphon , which strengthened Jonathan's position even more. This did not change when Tryphon was able to capture and murder Jonathan in Acre through treachery. In 142 BCE, Simon Thassi , the last of Mattathias' sons, took over as rebellion leader and high priest. He was eventually successful in destroying the Acra , a fortified complex in Jerusalem that
27693-454: The throne. In 37 BCE, Jerusalem was taken after a siege , and Antigonus was captured and executed. In 37-36 BCE, Herod the Great was appointed king of the Jews by the Roman Senate . The kingdom of Judea during his period is also referred to as the Herodian kingdom . As a close and loyal ally to the Romans, Herod extended his rule as far as Arabia and the Hauran. Herod undertook many colossal building projects, including fully rebuilding
27874-456: The throne; however, Aristobulus was poisoned, and his son Alexander, who was preparing to support him, was beheaded at Antioch at the command of Pompey. Antipater and his sons Phasael and Herod gained status and power at the expense of the Hasmonean dynasty's waning power. When the Parthians invaded the area in 40 BCE, they installed Antigonus II Mattathias , Aristobulus II's youngest son, as king. Phasael committed suicide, and Hyrcanus II
28055-614: The title of king for the first time and combined it with the office of high priest. People were now more open to Hellenistic influences that had been demonized as un-Jewish during the war; the Hasmonean kingship bore clear Hellenistic monarchy traits, but combined these with theocratic elements. Aristobulus conquered and annexed Galilee . The Galilee, which had previously been sparsely inhabited, mostly by pagan populations, but also by Jewish communities, experienced an influx of Jewish settlement following these conquests. Josephus writes that he had also subjugated and Judaized Iturea , but this claim
28236-407: The war against the Maccabees and backed their Jewish opponents. Around this time Judas was able to make a treaty with the Romans. Around 161 BCE, a Roman–Jewish Treaty was signed. In 160 BCE, the Seleucid general Bacchides defeated the Maccabees at the Battle of Elasa in 160 BCE; Judas' death during the battle dealt a blow to the rebels. After Judas died, his brother Jonathan Apphus took over as
28417-410: The world Jewish population at that era. During the 600 years of the Second Temple period, multiple religious currents emerged and extensive religious developments occurred. The development of the Hebrew Bible canon , the synagogue , Jewish eschatology can all be traced back to the Second Temple period. According to Jewish tradition, prophecy ceased during the early Second Temple period; this left
28598-461: Was Egypt's main source of foreign currency. Egypt also blockaded the Gulf of Aqaba preventing Israeli access to the Red Sea . Israel made a secret agreement with the French at Sèvres to co-ordinate military operations against Egypt. Britain and France had already begun secret preparations for military action. It has been alleged that the French also agreed to build a nuclear plant for the Israelis. Britain and France arranged for Israel to give them
28779-445: Was France; but in 1966, following the withdrawal from Algeria , Charles de Gaulle announced France would cease supplying Israel with arms (and refused to refund money paid for 50 warplanes). On 5 February 1966, the US announced that it was taking over the former French and West German obligations, to maintain military "stabilization" in the Middle East. Included in the military hardware would be over 200 M48 tanks . In May of that year
28960-401: Was a dispute over water rights in the River Jordan basin. With Soviet backing, the Arab states, particularly Egypt, were continuing to build up their forces. Israel's main military hardware supplier was France . In 1961 a Herut no-confidence motion over the resurfaced Lavon Affair led to Ben-Gurion's resignation. Ben-Gurion declared that he would only accept office if Lavon was fired from
29141-399: Was a continuous small Jewish presence and Galilee became its religious center. Jewish communities also continued to reside in the southern Hebron Hills and on the coastal plain. The Mishnah and part of the Talmud , central Jewish texts, were composed during the 2nd to 4th centuries CE in Tiberias and Jerusalem . Over the next centuries, more Jews emigrated to flourishing communities in
29322-452: Was a major catalyst for the Maccabean revolt. In the latter years of the period, Jewish society was deeply polarized along ideological lines, and the sects of the Pharisees , Sadducees , Essenes , Zealots , and early Christianity were formed. Important Jewish writings were also composed during the Second Temple period, including portions of the Hebrew Bible, such as the books of Ezra , Nehemiah , Esther and Daniel and writings that are
29503-417: Was an Essene, but some scholars feel that he was at least influenced by them. Lawrence Schiffman has argued that the Qumran community may be called Sadducean , and not Essene, since their legal positions retain a link with Sadducean tradition. Rituals of the Essenes and Christianity have much in common; the Dead Sea Scrolls describe a meal of bread and wine that will be instituted by the messiah , both
29684-402: Was around 3000 people. The rest of the population lived in small, unwalled towns and villages. The Israel of the Persian period consisted of descendants of the inhabitants of the former Kingdom of Judah, returnees from the Babylonian exile community, Mesopotamians who had joined them or had been exiled themselves to Samaria at a far earlier period, Samaritans , and others. In 332 BCE, the region
29865-418: Was blamed despite his denial of responsibility. The Lavon affair led to Sharett's resignation and Ben-Gurion returned to the post of prime minister. In 1955 Egypt concluded a massive arms deal with Czechoslovakia , upsetting the balance of power in the Middle East. In 1956, the increasingly pro-Soviet President Nasser of Egypt, announced the nationalization of the (French and British owned) Suez Canal , which
30046-452: Was conquered by Alexander the Great of Macedon , ushering in the Hellenistic period . After his death in 322 BCE, his generals divided the empire and Judea became a frontier region between the Seleucid Empire and Ptolemaic Egypt . Under the Hellenistic kingdoms, Judea was ruled by the hereditary office of the High Priest of Israel as a Hellenistic vassal. At the same time, Hellenism gradually spread to varied degrees on all sides in
30227-402: Was drastically reversed by Antiochus IV , possibly due to a dispute over leadership of the Temple in Jerusalem and the office of High Priest or a revolt whose nature was lost to time. Antiochus IV issued decrees forbidding many traditional Jewish practices and began a campaign of persecution against devout Jews. This triggered a revolt against his rule, the Maccabean Revolt . These decrees were
30408-425: Was driven by messianic expectations and the local tensions and violence experienced by Jews in the diaspora. This revolt saw Jewish communities in the Roman provinces of Egypt , Cyrenaica , and Cyprus rise in rebellion, characterized by attacks on local populations, temples, public structures, and roads. The Roman suppression was marked by severe retaliation and ethnic cleansing , involving local populations joining
30589-486: Was entitled to assume the throne and was already acting as high priest. However, Aristobulus II , her younger son, was more energetic and determined to become king. Aristobulus gathered an army to attack Jerusalem, forcing Hyrcanus to abdicate the crown. The abdication was formally carried out in the temple, and Aristobulus' son, Alexander, married Hyrcanus' daughter, Alexandra. However, Antipater , an Edomite noble who served as Hyrcanus' advisor, convinced him that giving up
30770-472: Was from Iraq. The rest of the immigrants were from Europe, including more than 270,000 from Eastern Europe, mainly Romania and Poland (over 100,000 each). Nearly all the Jewish immigrants could be described as refugees, but only 136,000 from Central Europe had international certification because they belonged to the 250,000 Jews registered by the allies as displaced after World War II and living in displaced persons camps in Germany, Austria, and Italy. In 1950
30951-419: Was hanged in 1962 and is the only person ever sentenced to death by an Israeli court. Testimonies by Holocaust survivors at the trial and the extensive publicity that surrounded it has led the trial to be considered a turning point in public awareness of the Holocaust. In 1963 Yigael Yadin began excavating Masada . In 1964 Egypt, Jordan, and Syria developed a unified military command. Israel completed work on
31132-413: Was joined by Shimon Peres and Moshe Dayan . Begin's Herut party joined with the Liberals to form Gahal . Mapai and Labour united for the 1965 elections , winning 45 seats and maintaining Levi Eshkol as prime minister. Ben-Gurion's Rafi party received 10 seats, Gahal gained 26 seats becoming the second largest party. Rudolph Kastner , a minor political functionary, was accused of collaborating with
31313-456: Was made of over 1200 tombs that included many women and children; Pliny clearly wrote that the Essenes who lived near the Dead Sea "had not one woman, had renounced all pleasure... and no one was born in their race". Golb's book presents observations about de Vaux's premature conclusions and their uncontroverted acceptance by the general academic community. He states that the documents probably stemmed from various libraries in Jerusalem, kept safe in
31494-444: Was reduced to a village and the Samaritan Temple on Mount Gerizim was destroyed. Archaeological evidence places these events between 111 and 110 BCE. Hyrcanus also launched a military campaign in Idumea , capturing Marisa and Adora. The Idumeans were forced to convert to Judaism, by threat of exile or death, depending on the source. Following the death of Hyrcanus, his son Aristobulus I ( r. 104–103 BCE ) assumed
31675-447: Was relieved of his burden, establishing the now de facto independent Hasmonean state of Judea, minting coins for the first time, and doubling the state's territory. Around 110 BCE, Hyrcanus launched an invasion of Transjordan . His army laid siege to the city of Medeba and took it after a six-month siege. After this victory, he turned north and invaded Samaria , which had long separated Judea from Jewish settlements in Galilee. Shechem
31856-439: Was sent by emperor Nero to crush the rebellion. He arrived at Ptolemais along with legions X Fretensis and V Macedonica . There he was joined by his son Titus , who arrived from Alexandria at the head of Legio XV Apollinaris , as well as by the armies of various local allies including that of king Agrippa II. During the Galilee campaign , many towns surrendered without a fight, and others were taken by force. Yodfat ,
32037-428: Was supported by rainwater catchment and storage. According to the Community Rule , repentance was a prerequisite to water purification. Ritual purification was a common practice among the peoples of Judea during this period and was thus not specific to the Essenes. A ritual bath or mikveh was found near many synagogues of the period continuing into modern times. Purity and cleanliness was considered so important to
32218-412: Was taken as a prisoner to Babylon after having his ear severed in order to prevent him from ever acting as high priest again. Herod, who fled the Parthians, found his way to Mark Antony , who then controlled the eastern part of the Roman Republic. In agreement with his co-ruler Augustus , who controlled the western part, the two decided to appoint Herod as king of Judaea, and sent him with an army to seize
32399-430: Was the difference between the Nasaraean and the others... After this Nasaraean sect in turn comes another closely connected with them, called the Ossaeans. These are Jews like the former... originally came from Nabataea, Ituraea, Moabitis, and Arielis, the lands beyond the basin of what sacred scripture called the Salt Sea... Though it is different from the other six of these seven sects, it causes schism only by forbidding
32580-452: Was the last symbol of Seleucid rule in Judea. After Simon was assassinated and replaced by his son John Hyrcanus I ( r. 134–104 BCE ), Antiochus VII led a large army into Judea, forcing Hyrcanus to surrender as a vassal ruler in Jerusalem after a two-year siege. However, following Antiochus' death in the Seleucid-Parthian Wars in 129 BCE, the Seleucids were soon too weak to pursue an active policy outside of Syria ; Hyrcanus
32761-475: Was trained by the Essene community. In the early church a book called the Odes of Solomon was written. The writer was likely a very early convert from the Essene community into Christianity. The book reflects a mixture of mystical ideas of the Essene community with Christian concepts. Both the Essenes and Christians practiced voluntary celibacy and prohibited divorce. Both also used concepts of "light" and "darkness" for good and evil. A few have argued that
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