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121-456: Arabic medical treatises , both those that were translations of Greek texts and those that were originally written in Arabic, had accumulated in the library of Montecassino , where they were translated into Latin ; thus the received lore of Hippocrates , Galen and Dioscorides was supplemented and invigorated by Arabic medical practice, known from contacts with Sicily and North Africa . As

242-492: A brake on the pesky work of medicines. The first sovereign act validating the college's prerogatives by granting legal recognition to the academic titles issued by it dates back to Emperor Frederick II in 1200. All the doctors in the city were "Alunni" and they also gradually had the right to enter the college. Usually the function of conferring graduates took place either in the Church of St. Peter at Court, or of St. Matthew or in

363-480: A collection of hygiene rules, based on its doctrine. The Medical College was an independent academic body of the School. Its aim was to submit students who had completed the required years of study to a rigorous examination to obtain the doctorate, not only to practice medicine but also to teach it. The Medical College was a professional organization for the defense of the medics' interests and dignity, and also to put

484-498: A consistent medical system from these works, and add this to the medical science of their period. However, starting already with Jabir ibn Hayyan in the 8th century, and even more pronounced in Rhazes's treatise on vision, criticism of Galen's ideas took on. in the 10th century, the physician 'Ali ibn al-'Abbas al-Majusi wrote: With regard to the great and extraordinary Galen, he has written numerous works, each of which only comprises

605-467: A distinction between medicus and medicus et clericus because they mark two distinct periods of Salerno medicine. A medicus was the traditional physician who practiced empiricism , and he uses concoctions to help the patient. Medicus et clericus is a doctor in the original sense of a scholar of art and doctrine. With Garioponto (who studied the ancient Latin writers who followed Hippocrates and Galen) Salernitan medicine begins its golden age. We see for

726-404: A few years later, into a monastery which the earl had founded at his persuasion. Orderic, on the other hand, felt for some time, as he asserts, like Joseph in a strange land. He did not know a word of French when he reached Normandy . His book, though written many years later, shows that he never lost his English cast of mind or his attachment to the country of his birth. When Orderic reached

847-460: A flood of light upon the manners and ideas of his own age, and he sometimes comments with shrewdness upon the broader aspects and tendencies of history. His narrative breaks off in the middle of 1141, though he added some finishing touches in 1142. He reports that he was then old and infirm (that year he would have reached the age of 67 years); he probably did not long survive the completion of his great work. The Historia Ecclesiastica , described as

968-410: A general therapy and drug preparation treatment. Matteo Plateario junior wrote Glosse Platearium , where he describes plants and various medicinal products. Musandino is the renowned master, destined to spread the dogmas of medicine. Other eminent figures were Romualdo Guarna , who was called twice to the bedside of William I of Sicily , and Antonio Solimena, who treated Queen Joanna II of Naples at

1089-419: A great deal of secular topics ranging from the violence of Norman conquest, the right to rule and inheritance, the strength of government, the make up of various courts and their military structure. Most of these writings were produced during the reign of King Henry I . Much of Orderic's intended audience included knights and nobility who would have had a vested interest in these topics. Knights that frequented

1210-671: A key role in the growth of the School: Salerno, a Mediterranean port, fused influences of Arab and Eastern Roman culture. Books of Avicenna and Averroes arrived by sea, and the Carthaginian physician Constantine the African (or Ifrīqiya) who arrived in the city for several years came to Salerno and translated many texts from Arabic: Aphorisma and Prognostica of Hippocrates, Tegni and Megategni of Galen, Kitāb-al-malikī (i.e. Liber Regius, or Pantegni) of Alī ibn'Abbās (Haliy Abbas),

1331-480: A lasting impact on Middle Eastern medicine. Intellectual thirst, open-mindness, and vigor were at an all-time high in this era. During the Golden Age of Islam, classical learning was sought out, systematised and improved upon by scientists and scholars with such diligence that Arab science became the most advanced of its day. Ophthalmology has been described as the most successful branch of medicine researched at

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1452-582: A legend. It is reported that a Greek pilgrim named Pontus had stopped in the city of Salerno and found shelter for the night under the arches of the Arcino aqueduct. There was a thunderstorm and an Italian traveller, named Salernus, wandered into the same place. He was hurt and the Greek, at first suspicious, approached to look closely at the dressings that the Latin applied to his wound. Meanwhile, two other travellers,

1573-590: A list of the works known to him in 872. Fortunately, his list also supplies a summary of the content, quotations, or even the entire text of the single works. The philosopher Al-Kindi wrote a book with the title at-Tibb al-Buqrati (The Medicine of Hippocrates), and his contemporary Hunayn ibn Ishāq then translated Galens commentary on Hippocrates. Rhazes is the first Arabic-writing physician who makes thorough use of Hippocrates's writings in order to set up his own medical system. Al-Tabari maintained that his compilation of hippocratic teachings ( al-Muʾālaḡāt al-buqrāṭīya )

1694-592: A pharmacological book, and fragments of two other books have been preserved. Hunayn ibn Ishāq has translated these works into Arabic. Another work, still existing today, by an unknown Syrian author, likely has influenced the Arabic-writing physicians Al-Tabari and Yūhannā ibn Māsawaiyh . The earliest known translation from the Syrian language is the Kunnāš of the scholar Ahron (who himself had translated it from

1815-446: A resting place for their last years. It routinely entertained visitors from southern Italy, where it had established new foundations, and from England, where it had extensive possessions. Thus Orderic, though he witnessed no great events, could be well informed about them. Orderic is a vivid narrator; his character sketches are admirable as summaries of current estimates. His narrative is full of digressions that surprise readers who expect

1936-464: A result, medicine was very individualistic as every person who sought medical help would receive different advice dependent not only on their ailment, but also according to their lifestyle. There was still some connection between treatments however, as medicine was largely based on humoral theory which meant that each person needed to be treated according to whether or not their humors were hot, cold, melancholic, or choleric. The use of plants in medicine

2057-425: A result, the medical practitioners of Salerno, both men and women, were unrivaled in the medieval Western Mediterranean for practical concerns. Founded in the 9th century, the school was originally based in the dispensary of a monastery . It achieved its greatest celebrity between the tenth and thirteenth centuries, from the last decades of Lombard power, during which its fame began to spread more than locally, to

2178-472: A section of the science. There are lengthy passages, and redundancies of thoughts and proofs, throughout his works. [...] None of them I'm able to regard [...] as being comprehensive. During the 10th century, Ibn Wahshiyya compiled writings by the Nabataeans , including also medical information. The Syrian scholar Sergius of Reshaina translated various works by Hippocrates and Galen, of whom parts 6–8 of

2299-539: A special statute. School teachers distinguished medicine in theory and practice. The first gave the necessary lessons to know the body structures, the parts that compose it, and their qualities; the second gave the means to preserve the health and to fight disease. And, in common with all other medical schools of the time, the basis of medical teaching was the principles of Hippocrates and Galen. The ancient texts of Salerno's masters do not deviate from this tradition. The spread of Salernitan medical doctrines to distant regions

2420-549: A strictly chronological ordering of events, but it has been argued that the digressions reflect Orderic's sense of the connections between events (between the foundation of Saint-Evroul and the Norman Conquest of Southern Italy, for example) and his desire to include as much of his monastic colleagues' memories in his History as possible. It would thus be a truly collective work. Orderic relays much invaluable information not provided by more methodical chroniclers. He throws

2541-799: A treatise on the ophthalmology of Hunayn bin Ishaq and the Viaticus of Ibn al-Jazzar . The most famous pharmacopeia of the Middle Ages, the Antidotarium Nicolai , also was written in the circles of the school. Among the physicians who trained at the Schola Medica Salernitana is Gilles de Corbeil . With the emergence of the University of Naples , the "School" began to lose importance. Over time its prestige

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2662-457: A young woman by the name of Theodonanda fell seriously ill. Her husband and relatives took her to Salerno to be treated by the great archiater Hyerolamus, who visits her and consults a great amount of books ("immensa volumina librorum"). From the 9th century there was a great legal culture in Salerno as well as the existence of lay teachers and an ecclesiastical school. Alongside the masters of

2783-539: Is accredited with several books on gynaecology and cosmetics, collectively known as The Trotula . De Passionibus Mulierum Curandorum was first published around 1100 AD and was a prominent text until a major revision by Louise Bourgoise, a midwife whose husband worked as assistant to Ambrose Paré in the early 1600s. A further 19 less definitive manuscripts by Trota can be found in European libraries today. Additional women physicians who attended this school became known as

2904-467: Is attested by documents such as a codex that is kept in the Capitolare di Modena from the abbey of Nonantola. These confirm the antiquity of medical teaching in Salerno, and prove that the tradition of Latin culture had not switched off and its dissemination center was Salerno. The most famous treatise produced by the school is Regimen Sanitatis Salernitanum . The work, in Latin verse, appears to be

3025-564: Is first recorded in Salerno under their name early in the 13th Century. Subsequent incarnations—c.1480 now found in Brussels; and in the early 1500s, published in Paris with art by Robinet Testard and now found in both Paris and St. Petersburg—bore the name "Livre des simples medecines". Facsimiles with commentary for both editions have been published by Opsomer and Stearn (1984) and by Moleiro (2001). Under this cultural thrust are rediscovered

3146-407: Is not connected to the religion. This type of medicine which was taken from Bedouins was not rely on science. The Sahih al-Bukhari , a collection of prophetic traditions, or hadith by Muhammad al-Bukhari refers to a collection of Muhammad's opinions on medicine, by his younger contemporary Anas bin-Malik. Anas writes about two physicians who had treated him by cauterization and mentions that

3267-409: Is rather poor. Little is known about the nature, lay or monastic, of doctors who were part of it, and it is unclear whether the "School" already had an institutionalized organization. Antonio Mazza dates the foundation of the school in 802. The Historia inventionis ac translationis et miracula Sanctae Trophimenae chronicle narrates that in the period in which Pulcari was prefect of Amalfi (867–878 c.)

3388-468: Is to say in arte aromatariae , the candidate was required to be of a moral and honest character, qualities which the School held in high esteem. Such a diploma was often held as evidence of the 'religious' character of a young graduate. The authenticity of the doctoral privileges, issued by the Collegio di Salerno, was attested by the notary, and was necessary to teach the subject. A doctorate not only had

3509-510: The Abbey of Saint-Evroul often were waiting for their inheritance to come about or others who hoped to increase their standing through their service to a household. This would explain why we see the subject of inheritance and right to rule in his works. Orderic echoed the reasoning of William's conquest while still taking issue with several aspects of the conquest. Specifically, he spoke on the acquisitions of English lands by Norman lords, describing

3630-550: The Abbey of Saint-Evroul , he is credited with writing the Historia Ecclesiastica, a work detailing the history of Europe and the Mediterranean from the birth of Jesus Christ into his own age. The son of a cleric, he was born into a noble family, claiming both English and Norman heritage. While he is known primarily for the Historia Ecclesiastica , he also was able to ascend to various positions within

3751-517: The Ashtanga Hridaya ( Sanskrit : अष्टांग हृदय, aṣṭāṇga hṛdaya ; "The eightfold Heart"), one of the most important books on Ayurveda, translated between 773 and 808 by Ibn-Dhan. Rhazes cites in al-Hawi and in Kitab al-Mansuri both Sushruta and Charaka besides other authors unknown to him by name, whose works he cites as "min kitab al-Hind" , "an Indian book". Meyerhof suggested that

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3872-598: The Council of Winchester whereby clerics who were already married were allowed to keep their wives, while marriage was henceforth forbidden for unmarried clerics. As a result, Odelerius was able to retain his family. Orderic was one of the few monks who were of mixed parentage as his mother was of English heritage. Although the identity of his mother is unknown, it is known that she was English and Orderic idenfified with this heritage. Despite this, historians such as Marjorie Chibnall have inferred an animosity toward his mother from

3993-619: The Far East . The adoption by the newly forming Islamic society of the medical knowledge of the surrounding, or newly conquered, "heathen" civilizations had to be justified as being in accordance with the beliefs of Islam. Early on, the study and practice of medicine was understood as an act of piety, founded on the principles of īmān (faith) and tawakkul (trust). The Prophet not only instructed sick people to take medicine, but he himself invited expert physicians for this purpose. Muhammad 's opinions on health issues and habits in regard to

4114-616: The House of Wisdom ( Arabic : بيت الحكمة ; Bayt al-Hikma ) in Baghdad , modelled after the Academy of Gondishapur. Led by the Christian physician Hunayn ibn Ishaq , and with support by Byzance , all available works from the antique world were translated, including Galen, Hippocrates, Plato, Aristotle, Ptolemy and Archimedes . It is currently understood that the early Islamic medicine

4235-518: The Norman Conquest is balanced, he is sympathetic to both sides. This attitude persists in his Historia Ecclesiastica . At some time between 1110 and 1115, Orderic's superiors ordered him to write the history of Saint-Evroul . The work, the Historia Ecclesiastica ( Ecclesiastical History ), grew under his hands until it became a general history of his own age. Saint-Evroul was a house of wealth and distinction. War-worn knights chose it as

4356-537: The Renaissance of the 12th century . Medieval Islamic physicians largely retained their authority until the rise of medicine as a part of the natural sciences , beginning with the Age of Enlightenment , nearly six hundred years after their textbooks were opened by many people. Aspects of their writings remain of interest to physicians even today. Medicine was a central part of medieval Islamic culture. This period

4477-523: The history of medicine , " Islamic medicine " Also known as " Arabian medicine " is the science of medicine developed in the Middle East , and usually written in Arabic , the lingua franca of Islamic civilization. Islamic medicine adopted, systematized and developed the medical knowledge of classical antiquity , including the major traditions of Hippocrates , Galen and Dioscorides . During

4598-480: The materia medica for some centuries. In his Kitāb aṣ-Ṣaydalah (Book of Remedies) from the 10./11. century, Al-Biruni refers to collected poems and other works dealing with, and commenting on, the materia medica of the old Arabs. The most famous physician was Al-Ḥariṯ ben-Kalada aṯ-Ṯaqafī, who lived at the same time as the prophet. He is supposed to have been in touch with the Academy of Gondishapur , perhaps he

4719-481: The post-classical era , Middle Eastern medicine was the most advanced in the world, integrating concepts of Modern Greek , Roman , Mesopotamian and Persian medicine as well as the ancient Indian tradition of Ayurveda , while making numerous advances and innovations. Islamic medicine, along with knowledge of classical medicine, was later adopted in the medieval medicine of Western Europe , after European physicians became familiar with Islamic medical authors during

4840-579: The " Women of Salerno ", or the mulieres Saleritanae, and included women such as Abella , Constance Calenda , Rebecca de Guarna , and Mercuriade . Books made the Salernitan school famous. They had a strong start with the Pantegni , Constantine's translation and adaptation of the Al-malaki of Haly Abbas , ten volumes of theoretical medicine and ten of practical medicine. He had also translated

4961-523: The 10th century. One of the first books which were translated from Greek into Syrian, and then into Arabic during the time of the fourth Umayyad caliph Marwan I by the Jewish scholar Māsarĝawai al-Basrĩ was the medical compilation Kunnāš , by Ahron, who lived during the 6th century. Later on, Hunayn ibn Ishaq provided a better translation. The physician Paul of Aegina lived in Alexandria during

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5082-452: The Abbot of Montecassino Desiderio (future Pope Victor III ) and bishop Alfano I . In this context, the "School" of Salerno grew until it became a point of attraction of both sick and students from all over Europe. The prestige of doctors in Salerno is largely witnessed by the chronicles of the time and the numerous manuscripts kept in the major European libraries. In 1231, the authority of

5203-515: The Arabic physicians. Founded, according to Gregorius Bar-Hebraeus , by the Sassanid ruler Shapur I during the 3rd century AD, the academy connected the ancient Greek and Indian medical traditions . Arabian physicians trained in Gondishapur may have established contacts with early Islamic medicine. The treatise Abdāl al-adwiya by the Christian physician Māsarĝawai (not to be confused with

5324-474: The Chapel of St. Catherine. But at the beginning of the year 1000 the conferment took place in the palace of the city. The oath represented the highest moral conception of the doctor's function, who swore to give his help to the poor without asking for anything and at the same time was a sublime affirmation before God and men to maintain an honest life and strict conduct. In order to obtain a pharmacy license, that

5445-452: The Gospel. Many Salernitan works were lost. The masters of the school have the great merit of dictating for the first time the norms that the doctor must follow when he is at the patient's bed. They are a precious document that reveals how dedicated were these teachers to the physician's mission and their spirit of observation and profound knowledge of the human body. It is necessary to make

5566-899: The Grammarian , who lived in the 6th century AD was attributed the role of a commentator on the Summaria Alexandrinorum . This is a compilation of 16 books by Galen, but corrupted by superstitious ideas. The physicians Gessius of Petra and Palladios were equally known to the Arabic physicians as authors of the Summaria . Rhazes cites the Roman physician Alexander of Tralles (6th century) in order to support his criticism of Galen. The works of Aëtius of Amida were only known in later times, as they were neither cited by Rhazes nor by Ibn al-Nadim , but cited first by Al-Biruni in his "Kitab as-Saidana", and translated by Ibn al-Hammar in

5687-585: The Greek), which was translated into the Arabian by Māsarĝawai al-Basrĩ in the 7th century. [Syriac-language, not Syrian, who were Nestorians] physicians also played an important role at the Academy of Gondishapur ; their names were preserved because they worked at the court of the Abbasid caliphs . Again the Academy of Gondishapur played an important role, guiding the transmission of Persian medical knowledge to

5808-583: The Indian and the Arabic medicine Recent studies have shown that a number Ayurvedic texts were translated into Persian in South Asia from the 14th century until the Colonial period. From the 17th century onward, many Hindu physicians learnt Persian language and wrote Persian medical texts dealing with both Indian and Muslim medical materials (Speziale 2014, 2018, 2020). Medicine in the medieval Islamic world

5929-482: The Indian medicine, like the Persian medicine, has mainly influenced the Arabic materia medica , because there is frequent reference to Indian names of herbal medicines and drugs which were unknown to the Greek medical tradition. Whilst Syrian physicians transmitted the medical knowledge of the ancient Greeks, most likely Persian physicians, probably from the Academy of Gondishapur, were the first intermediates between

6050-521: The Islamic parts of our world. Their ideas about the conduct of physicians, and the doctor–patient relationship are discussed as potential role models for physicians of today. Ali ibn Musa al-Rida (765–818) is the 8th Imam of the Shia. His treatise " Al-Risalah al-Dhahabiah " ("The Golden Treatise") deals with medical cures and the maintenance of good health, and is dedicated to the caliph Ma'mun . It

6171-433: The Islamic world. The Islamic medical tradition arose during the medieval period ( c. 650–1500) and had a major impact on humans along with setting the foundation for future medicine including the current modern Western Medicine. This tradition had a lasting impact in that it contributed to the European medicine along with continuing to influence medical practices today. Very few sources provide information about how

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6292-524: The Jew Helinus and the Arab Abdela had come. They also showed interest in the wound and at the end it was discovered that all four were dealing with medicine. They then decided to create a partnership and to give birth to a school where their knowledge could be collected and disseminated. The origins of the "School" should date back to the 9th century, though the documentation for this first period

6413-520: The Prophet – God bless him! – says with regard to the entire medical tradition, as commonly known by all physicians, even if this is contested by the religious scholars. These are his words: "The stomach is the House of Illness, and abstinence is the most important medicine. The cause of every illness is poor digestion." Ibn Khaldun says that there was a medicine which was practiced at that time, though it

6534-588: The Viaticum of al-Jazzār (Algizar), the Liber divisionum and the Liber experimentorum of Rhazes (Razī), the Liber dietorum, Liber urinarium and the Liber febrium of Isaac Israel the Old (Isaac Iudaeus). Johannes (d. February 2, 1161) and Matthaeus Platearius , possible father and son, resided in Salerno at this time when they apparently published their famous "Liber de Simplici Medicina" (a.k.a. "Circa Instans") which

6655-583: The abbey. Orderic's first literary efforts were a continuation and revision of William of Jumièges ' Gesta normannorum ducum , a broad history of the Normans and their dukes from the founding of Normandy, which Orderic carried forward into the early twelfth century. He also added information about earlier periods from other sources, for example William of Poitiers ' Gesta Guillelmi , and included information not found elsewhere. As Orderic used Norman sources but wrote from an English perspective, his account of

6776-480: The acquisitions as plunder. On the subject of plunder, Orderic stands out amongst his peers for his critique of Bohemond I of Antioch whom he believed to have used the mission of the crusades as an excuse to gain power for himself. He also spoke on the role of clerics in the battlefield. He emphasized his reasoning for only contributing to violence on behalf of the king, laymen, or other clerics. Orderic's thoughts on marriage permeated into his writing, probably from

6897-404: The body. 'Ali ibn al-'Abbas al-Majusi reviewed the al-Hawi in his own book Kamil as-sina'a : Orderic Vitalis Orderic Vitalis ( Latin : Ordericus Vitalis ; 16 February 1075 – c.  1142 ) was an English chronicler and Benedictine monk who wrote one of the great contemporary chronicles of 11th- and 12th-century Normandy and Anglo-Norman England . Working out of

7018-665: The books he mentions differ from those chosen by Hunayn ibn Ishāq for his own translations, thus suggesting earlier translations must have existed. Hunayn frequently mentions in his comments on works which he had translated that he considered earlier translations as insufficient, and had provided completely new translations. Early translations might have been available before the 8th century; most likely they were translated from Syrian or Persian. Within medieval Islamic medicine, Hunayn ibn Ishāq and his younger contemporary Tabit ben-Qurra play an important role as translators and commentators of Galen's work. They also tried to compile and summarize

7139-479: The church including script master, librarian, and cantor. A prolific writer, he addressed various topics in his writings, both religious and secular . Modern historians view him as a reliable source. Orderic was born on 16 February 1075 in Atcham , Shropshire , England, the eldest son of a French priest, Odelerius of Orléans . He was followed by his two younger brothers Benedict and Everard. Odelerius had entered

7260-501: The classical works long forgotten in the monasteries. Thanks to the "Medical School", medicine was the first science discipline to come out of the abbeys to confront again with the world and experimental practice. Monks of Salerno and of the nearby Badia di Cava were of great importance in Benedictine geography, for we note in the city in the eleventh century the presence of three important figures of this order: Pope Gregory VII ,

7381-406: The crusades, Robert was struck by a poisoned arrow . Because his condition had become serious, he returned to Salerno to consult physicians, whose response was drastic: the only way to save his life was to suck away the poison from the wound, but who would have done it would have died in his place. Roberto dismissed everyone, preferring to die, but his wife Sibylla of Conversano sucked his poison over

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7502-571: The doctors' opinion. After a long voyage, the whole court came to Salerno and Henry, before attending the Medical school, wanted to go to the Cathedral to pray on the tomb of St. Matthew . Here, in a vision, he found himself miraculously cured of evil and married Elsie on the same altar of the saint. Another tradition is that of the Legend of Robert of Normandy and Sibylla of Conversano . During

7623-460: The emerging Islamic world to Damascus may have facilitated this contact, as Syrian medicine was part of that ancient tradition. The names of two Christian physicians are known: Ibn Aṯāl worked at the court of Muawiyah I , the founder of the Umayyad dynasty . The caliph abused his knowledge in order to get rid of some of his enemies by way of poisoning. Likewise, Abu l-Ḥakam, who was responsible for

7744-508: The end of the 14th century. Distinguished for his doctrine, he was raised to the high office of Maestro Razionale della Magna Curia . Another noble figure was Giovanni da Procida. There are many Salernitan masters in the centuries who lent their work to war operations. At the service of the army of Robert of Anjou , Duke of Calabria, operating in Sicily in 1299 there are Bartolomeo de Vallona and Filippo Fundacario. This most celebrated legend

7865-401: The epithet Angligena ("English-born"). Orderic became a deacon in 1093, and a priest in 1107. He left his cloister on several occasions, speaking of having visited Croyland , Worcester , Cambrai (1105) and Cluny Abbey (1132). He turned his attention at an early date to literature, and for many years appears to have spent his summers in the scriptorium . Eventually Orderic earned

7986-467: The examination date but also the year of the Pope's accession. This was because the civil calendar varied by state, but not the papal date, especially as regards the diplomas of graduates in foreign countries. The diplomas always bore the seal of the college in wax. In the middle of these circular seals is clearly visible the coat of arms of the city, represented by the patron Saint Matthew in the act of writing

8107-507: The expanding Islamic society received any medical knowledge. A physician called Abdalmalik ben Abgar al-Kinānī from Kufa in Iraq is supposed to have worked at the medical school of Alexandria before he joined ʿUmar ibn ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz's court. ʿUmar transferred the medical school from Alexandria to Antioch . It is also known that members of the Academy of Gondishapur travelled to Damascus. The Academy of Gondishapur remained active throughout

8228-406: The experience he had with his father's clerical marriage and the absence of his mother. One example of his marriage views come from the arrangement of Bertrade of Montfort . When her uncle, William, Count of Éverux , arranged for Bertrade to marry Fulk of Anjou , Orderic wrote disparagingly of Fulk's character in recognition of how she was being used for the sake of power. When Bertrade eloped with

8349-477: The fall of the Hohenstaufen . The arrival in Salerno of Constantine Africanus in 1077 marked the beginning of Salerno's classic period. Through the encouragement of Alfano I, Archbishop of Salerno and translations of Constantine Africanus, Salerno gained the title of "Town of Hippocrates " ( Hippocratica Civitas or Hippocratica Urbs ). People from all over the world flocked to the "Schola Salerni", both

8470-551: The famed Salerno physicians, as told in the Gesta episcoporum Virdunensium . Richerus tells the story of a Salernitan physician at the French court in 947, whose medical knowledge he describes rooted in practical experience rather than books. In his Historia Ecclesiastica, Orderic Vitalis (1075 – c.  1142 ) states that in Salerno "the most ancient school of medicine has long flourished". Geographic location certainly played

8591-489: The first time a woman, the famous Trotula de Ruggiero , who ascends to the honors of the chair, and gives instructions to women in labor. At the beginning of 1000 A.D. in Salerno there was a well-ordered school or society which arose by practitioners of medical disciplines. The first constitution of the Societas was formed by those jatrophysici , who took office on the hill Bonae diei and Salernitam Scholam scripsere , laid

8712-450: The first translations were performed of Indian works about medicine and pharmacology. In one chapter on Indian medicine , Ibn al-Nadim mentions the names of three of the translators: Mankah, Ibn Dahn, and ʾAbdallah ibn ʾAlī. Yūhannā ibn Māsawaiyh cites an Indian textbook in his treatise on ophthalmology. al-Tabarī devotes the last 36 chapters of his Firdaus al-Hikmah to describe the Indian medicine, citing Sushruta , Charaka , and

8833-593: The foundation of the school to four masters: the Jewish Helinus, the Greek Pontus, the Arab Abdela, and the Latin Salernus . In the school, besides the teaching of medicine (in which women too were involved, as both teachers and students), there were courses of philosophy , theology , and law . The most famous female doctor and medical author at the school is Trota or Trotula de Ruggiero, who

8954-540: The foundations of that school and leaving to posterity the Flos Medicinae , a monument of greatness and piety. The teaching of medicine in Salerno in the Middle Ages was carried out by private professors whose name was assigned to doctors. At that time the number of doctors was low, and many simply followed the traditional family cure from several generations. The Schola was an institute with an independent organization, consisting of teachers with particular merit and

9075-402: The great classical works of Islamic medicine, it was free of magical and astrological ideas and thought to represent Galenism of Arabic medicine in the purest form. This book was translated by Constantine and was used as a textbook of surgery in schools across Europe. The Royal Book has maintained the same level of fame as Avicenna's Canon throughout the Middle Ages and into modern time. One of

9196-420: The greatest English social history of the Middle Ages, falls into three sections: The historian Marjorie Chibnall states that Orderic used now-lost pancartes (cartularies or collections of charters) of various Norman monastic houses as sources for his historical writings. Orderic addressed both contemporaries and future generations, intending for his work to be studied by monks and novices learning about

9317-599: The greatest contributions Haly Abbas made to medical science was his description of the capillary circulation found within the Royal Book. Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi (Latinized: Rhazes) (born 865) was one of the most versatile scientists of the Islamic Golden Age. A Persian-born physician, alchemist and philosopher, he is most famous for his medical works, but he also wrote botanical and zoological works, as well as books on physics and mathematics. His work

9438-408: The history of the monastery and its benefactors. The work as a whole was not widely read in the Middle Ages, though individual parts of it were popular and circulated. The Historia Ecclesiastica is usually cited by abbreviation of the author's name rather than the title; that is, either as Ord. Vitalis or Ord. Vit. followed by volume and page numbers. Throughout his writings, Orderic spoke on

9559-423: The individual case, stressing that each patient must be treated individually, and his emphasis on hygiene and diet reflect the ideas and concepts of the empirical hippocratic school. Rhazes considered the influence of the climate and the season on health and well-being, he took care that there was always clean air and an appropriate temperature in the patients' rooms, and recognized the value of prevention as well as

9680-640: The law there were also those who cared for the body and taught the dogmas of the art of health. By the 10th century the city of Salerno was already very famous for its healthy climate and its doctors, and the fame of the medical school had reached northern Europe. We are told that "they were devoid of literary culture but provided with great experience and innate talent", and their fame was based more on their practical, observational, and experimental knowledge of medicine and successful cures rather than from ancient books and learning. In 988, Adalbero II of Verdun  [ it ] went to Salerno to have himself cured by

9801-829: The leader of a team of translators at the House of Wisdom in Baghdad played a key role with regard to the translation of the entire known corpus of classical medical literature. Caliph Al-Ma'mun had sent envoys to the Byzantine emperor Theophilos , asking him to provide whatever classical texts he had available. Thus, the great medical texts of Hippocrates and Galen were translated into Arabian, as well as works of Pythagoras , Akron of Agrigent, Democritus , Polybos, Diogenes of Apollonia , medical works attributed to Plato , Aristotle , Mnesitheus of Athens , Xenocrates , Pedanius Dioscorides , Kriton, Soranus of Ephesus , Archigenes , Antyllus , Rufus of Ephesus were translated from

9922-435: The leading of a healthy life were collected early on and edited as a separate corpus of writings under the title Ṭibb an-Nabī ("The Medicine of the Prophet"). In the 14th century, Ibn Khaldun , in his work Muqaddimah provides a brief overview over what he called "the art and craft of medicine", separating the science of medicine from religion: You'll have to know that the origin of all maladies goes back to nutrition, as

10043-415: The legal age for profession as a monk, his monastic superiors gave him the religious name of "Vitalis" (after a member of the legendary Theban Legion of Christian martyrs ) because they found it difficult to pronounce his English baptismal name of Orderic, a name he says was the same as the priest who baptised him. In the title of his great chronicle, he prefixes the old to the new name and proudly adds

10164-402: The medical language of Islamic medicine. As well as al-Tabari, Rhazes rarely uses Persian terms, and only refers to two Persian works: Kunnāš fārisi und al-Filāha al-fārisiya . Indian scientific works, e.g. on Astronomy were already translated by Yaʿqūb ibn Ṭāriq and Muḥammad ibn Ibrāhīm al-Fazārī during the times of the Abbasid caliph Al-Mansur . Under Harun al-Rashid , at latest,

10285-434: The minister of public instruction for the newborn Kingdom of Italy . The curriculum studiorum consisted of 3 years of logic, 5 years of medicine (including surgery and anatomy), and a year of practice with an experienced physician. Also, every five years, an autopsy of a human body was planned. Lessons consisted in the interpretation of the texts of ancient medicine. But while medicine was slow, in Salerno there appeared

10406-429: The need for psychotherapy and counseling in the therapeutic treatment of patients. His encyclopedia also discussed the influence of Sushruta and Charaka on medicine, including psychotherapy. Al-Tamimi, the physician (d. 990) became renown for his skills in compounding medicines, especially theriac , an antidote for poisons. His works, many of which no longer survive, are cited by later physicians. Taking what

10527-431: The need for a careful diagnosis and prognosis. In the beginning of an illness, chose remedies which do not weaken the [patient's] strength. [...] Whenever a change of nutrition is sufficient, do not use medication, and whenever single drugs are sufficient, do not use composite drugs. The kitab-al Hawi fi al-tibb ( al-Hawi الحاوي , Latinized: The Comprehensive book of medicine , Continens Liber , The Virtuous Life )

10648-399: The new art of surgery which was elevated to the dignity of a true science by Ruggiero di Fugaldo. He wrote the first treatise on national surgery that spread throughout Europe. Therefore, since the 12th century, Salerno was the target of particularly German students. But with Arabic books becoming more common, the scientific influence of the school, which was believed to be of a Latin tradition,

10769-465: The night, dying for her beloved husband. This legend is depicted in a miniature on the cover of the Canon of Avicenna , in which one sees Roberto with his court, who greets and thanks the doctors at the gates of the city, while in the background the ships are ready to go; on the left, four other doctors deal with Sibylla, recognizable by the crown, struck down by poison. Islamic medicine In

10890-469: The omission of mention of her in his writings, whereas he expressed admiration for his father in his writings . When Orderic was five, his parents sent him to an English monk, Siward by name, who kept a school in the Abbey of SS Peter and Paul at Shrewsbury . Orderic received from Siward a basic education in reading and writing as well as the history of the English people. At the age of ten, Orderic

11011-525: The original texts, other works including those of Erasistratos were known by their citations in Galen's works. The works of Oribasius , physician to the Roman emperor Julian , from the 4th century AD, were well known, and were frequently cited in detail by Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi (Rhazes). The works of Philagrius of Epirus , who also lived in the 4th century AD, are only known today from quotations by Arabic authors. The philosopher and physician John

11132-505: The poem Regimen sanitatis Salernitanum gave a Salernitan provenance to his poem in order to advertise his work and give validity to it. The school kept the Greek - Latin medical tradition going, merging it with the Arab and Jewish medical traditions. The meeting of different cultures led to a synthesis and the comparison of different medical knowledge, as evidenced by a legend that ascribes

11253-439: The position of master scribe, copying numerous works as well as overseeing and working with other scribes at the monastery. According to Charles Rozier, Orderic also served as librarian and cantor for the abbey. As librarian he catalogued the large collection of works at Saint-Evroul's library and provided edits to some of the works himself. His role as cantor included overseeing daily liturgy and duties of officials during mass at

11374-575: The preparation of drugs, was employed by Muawiah. His son, grandson, and great-grandson were also serving the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphate . These sources testify to the fact that the physicians of the emerging Islamic society were familiar with the classical medical traditions already at the times of the Umayyads. The medical knowledge likely arrived from Alexandria , and was probably transferred by Syrian scholars, or translators, finding its way into

11495-424: The prophet wanted to avoid this treatment and had asked for alternative treatments. Later on, there are reports of the caliph ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān fixing his teeth with a wire made of gold. He also mentions that the habit of cleaning one's teeth with a small wooden toothpick dates back to pre-Islamic times. The " Prophetic medicine " was rarely mentioned by the classical authors of Islamic medicine, but lived on in

11616-661: The school was sanctioned by Emperor Federico II . In his constitution of Melfi it was established that the activity of a doctor could only be carried out by doctors holding a diploma issued by the Medical School Salernitana. In 1280 Charles II of Anjou approved the first statute in which the School was recognized as a General Study in Medicine. Its fame crossed borders, as proved by the Salernitan manuscripts kept in many European libraries, and by historical witnesses. The twelfth- or thirteenth-century author of

11737-515: The service of Roger de Montgomery, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury , and had received from his patron a chapel there in 1082. Clerical marriage during the 11th century was slowly being restricted throughout Europe and resistance that officials in Rouen faced from the clerical community in 1072 caused the Archbishop of Canterbury to take a more cautious approach. This led to a policy announced in 1076 by

11858-485: The sick, in the hope of recovering, and students, to learn the art of medicine. The school was based on the synthesis of the Greek-Latin tradition supplemented by notions from Arab and Jewish cultures. The approach was based on the practice and culture of prevention rather than cure, thus opening the way for the empirical method in medicine. The foundation of the school is traditionally linked to an event narrated by

11979-505: The subjects, seeing him now destined to certain death, renamed him "Poor Henry". The prince had a dream one night: the devil personally suggested that he be taken care of by the Salernitian doctors, intimating to him that he would only be healed if he had bathed in the blood of a young virgin who had died for him voluntarily. Though Elsie was immediately offered for the horrific sacrifice, Henry refused disdainfully, preferring to listen to

12100-501: The theory and practice of medicine Islamic medicine was initially built on tradition, chiefly the theoretical and practical knowledge developed in Arabia in the time of Muhammad , ancient Hellenistic medicine such as Unani , ancient Indian medicine such as Ayurveda , and the ancient Iranian Medicine of the Academy of Gundishapur . The works of ancient Greek and Roman physicians Hippocrates , Galen and Dioscorides also had

12221-416: The time of the Arab expansion . His works seem to have been used as an important reference by the early Islamic physicians, and were frequently cited from Rhazes up to Avicenna . Paul of Aegina provides a direct connection between the late Hellenistic and the early Islamic medical science. The early Islamic physicians were familiar with the life of Hippocrates and were aware of the fact that his biography

12342-473: The time of the Abbasid caliphate, though. An important source from the second half of the 8th century is Jabir ibn Hayyans "Book of Poisons". He only cites earlier works in Arabic translations, as were available to him, including Hippocrates , Plato , Galen , Pythagoras , and Aristotle , and also mentions the Persian names of some drugs and medical plants. In 825, the Abbasid caliph Al-Ma'mun founded

12463-486: The time, with the works of Ibn al-Haytham retaining an authority in the field until early modern times. Overall, Islamic Medicine is a combination of medicines from Greece , Persia , Syria , India , and Byzantine . The literary and scientific lingua franca was adapted, changed and most important “ islamicized ”.The effect of it was not only spread in Islamic lands, but was also spread in Europe , Asia , China , and

12584-447: The translator M. al-Basrĩ) is of some importance, as the opening sentence of his work is: These are the medications which were taught by Greek, Indian, and Persian physicians. In his work Firdaus al-Hikma (The Paradise of Wisdom), Al-Tabari uses only a few Persian medical terms, especially when mentioning specific diseases, but a large number of drugs and medicinal herbs are mentioned using their Persian names, which have also entered

12705-550: Was a more appropriate summary. The work of Hippocrates was cited and commented on during the entire period of medieval Islamic medicine. Galen is one of the most famous scholars and physicians of classical antiquity . Today, the original texts of some of his works, and details of his biography, are lost, and are only known to us because they were translated into Arabic. Jabir ibn Hayyan frequently cites Galen's books, which were available in early Arabic translations. In 872 AD, Ya'qubi refers to some of Galen's works. The titles of

12826-400: Was by Persian scientist Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari 's Firdous al-Hikmah ( "Paradise of Wisdom" ), written in seven parts, c.  860 dedicated to Caliph al-Mutawakkil. His encyclopedia was influenced by Greek sources, Hippocrates, Galen, Aristotle, and Dioscurides. Al-Tabari, a pioneer in the field of child development , emphasized strong ties between psychology and medicine, and

12947-472: Was called the Golden Age of Islam and lasted from the eighth century to the fourteenth century. The economic and social standing of the patient determined to a large extent the type of care sought and the expectations of the patients varied along with the approaches of the practitioners. Responding to circumstances of time and place/location, Islamic physicians and scholars created an extensive and complex medical literature exploring, analyzing, and synthesizing

13068-577: Was decreasing, superseded by universities in Northern Italy. Alumni such as Bruno da Longobucco also helped disseminate its teaching. The "School", besides teaching medicine (where women were admitted as both teachers and students), also taught philosophy, theology and law, and that is why some also consider it as the first University ever founded. The teaching subjects in the Salernitan Medical School are known to us through

13189-468: Was entrusted as an oblate to the Abbey of Saint-Evroul in the Duchy of Normandy , which Montgomery had formerly despoiled but, in his later years, was loading with gifts. The parents paid thirty marks for their son's admission; he expresses the conviction that they imposed this exile upon him from an earnest desire for his welfare. Odelerius's respect for the monastic life is attested to by his own entry,

13310-462: Was even trained there. He reportedly had a conversation once with Khosrow I Anushirvan about medical topics. Most likely, the Arabian physicians became familiar with the Graeco-Roman and late Hellenistic medicine through direct contact with physicians who were practicing in the newly conquered regions rather than by reading the original or translated works. The translation of the capital of

13431-433: Was handed down by the medieval German minstrels, and written in the 1190s as the narrative poem Der arme Heinrich (Poor Henry) by Hartmann von Aue . The story was then "rediscovered" by Longfellow and published as The Golden Legend (1851). Henry, prince of Germany, was a beautiful and strong young man, engaged with the young princess Elsie. One day, however, he was struck by leprosy and began to swell quickly, so that

13552-451: Was highly respected by the 10th/11th century physicians and scientists al-Biruni and al-Nadim , who recorded biographical information about al-Razi, and compiled lists of, and provided commentaries on, his writings. Many of his books were translated into Latin, and he remained one of the undisputed authorities in European medicine well into the 17th century. In medical theory, al-Razi relied mainly on Galen , but his particular attention to

13673-428: Was in part a legend. Also they knew that several persons lived who were called Hippocrates, and their works were compiled under one single name: Ibn an-Nadīm has conveyed a short treatise by Tabit ben-Qurra on al-Buqratun ("the (various persons called) Hippokrates"). Translations of some of Hippocrates's works must have existed before Hunayn ibn Ishaq started his translations, because the historian Al-Yaʾqūbī compiled

13794-580: Was known at the time by the classical Greek writers, Al-Tamimi expanded on their knowledge of the properties of plants and minerals, becoming avant garde in his field. 'Ali ibn al-'Abbas al-Majusi (died 994 AD), also known as Haly Abbas, was famous for the Kitab al-Maliki translated as the Complete Book of the Medical Art and later, more famously known as The Royal Book . Considered one of

13915-418: Was mainly informed directly from Greek sources from the Academy of Alexandria , translated into the Arabic language; the influence of the Persian medical tradition seems to be limited to the materia medica, although the Persian physicians were familiar with the Greek sources as well. Various translations of some works and compilations of ancient medical texts are known from the 7th century. Hunayn ibn Ishaq ,

14036-749: Was obscured by that of younger universities, especially Montpellier , Padua , and Bologna . The Salernitan institution, however, remained alive for several centuries until, on November 29, 1811, it was abolished by Gioacchino Murat during the reorganization of public education in the Kingdom of Naples . The last seat was the Palazzo Copeta. The remaining "Doctors of Medicine and Law" at the Salerno Medical School operated in Salerno's "National Convitto Tasso" for fifty years, from 1811 until their closure in 1861, by Francesco De Sanctis ,

14157-422: Was often directly related to horticulture . Fruits and vegetables were related to health and well-being, although they were seen as having different properties than what modern medicine says now. The use of the humoral theory is also a large part of medicine in this period, shaping the diagnosis and treatments for patients. This kind of medicine was largely holistic , focused on schedule, environment, and diet. As

14278-416: Was one of al-Razi's largest works, a collection of medical notes that he made throughout his life in the form of extracts from his reading and observations from his own medical experience. In its published form, it consists of 23 volumes. Al-Razi cites Greek, Syrian, Indian and earlier Arabic works, and also includes medical cases from his own experience. Each volume deals with specific parts or diseases of

14399-494: Was quite common in this era with most plants being used in medicine being associated with both some benefits and consequences for use as well as certain situations in which they should be used. The authority of the great physicians and scientists of the Islamic Golden age has influenced the art and science of medicine for many centuries. Their concepts and ideas about medical ethics are still discussed today, especially in

14520-417: Was regarded at his time as an important work of literature in the science of medicine, and the most precious medical treatise from the point of view of Muslimic religious tradition. It is honoured by the title "the golden treatise" as Ma'mun had ordered it to be written in gold ink. In his work, Al-Ridha is influenced by the concept of humoral medicine The first encyclopedia of medicine in Arabic language

14641-743: Was responsible for the Praeses . It was a merit of seniority when the Prior was created as the supreme dignity of the college. But the Praeses had nothing in common with the Prior, since its authority came later within the college. The medical doctrines spread by Garioponto and his contemporaries did not disappear with them; other masters followed their footsteps. In the second half of the twelfth century three illustrious masters honored their predecessors: Master Salerno, Matteo Plateario junior and Musandino. Salerno's Tabulae Salernitanae and Compendium formulated

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