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113-566: During Abbasid rule, some individuals from the tribe embraced Islam and were given governorships in parts of the Caliphate . By the mid-9th century, much of the Taghlib converted to Islam, partly as a result of the persuasion of the Taghlibi governor of Diyar Rabi'a and founder of al-Rahba , Malik ibn Tawk . Several Taghlibi tribesmen were appointed governors of Diyar Rabi'a and Mosul by

226-573: A bastion of Shia learning and politics. By 1000 they had become the chief political and ideological challenge to Sunni Islam and the Abbasids, who by this time had fragmented into several governorships that, while recognizing caliphal authority from Baghdad, remained mostly autonomous. The caliph himself was under 'protection' of the Buyid Emirs who possessed all of Iraq and Western Iran, and were quietly Shia in their sympathies. Outside Iraq, all

339-531: A carpet and trampled to death by horses on 20 February 1258. The caliph's immediate family was also executed, with the lone exceptions of his youngest son who was sent to Mongolia, and a daughter who became a slave in the harem of Hulagu. Similarly to how a Mamluk Army was created by the Abbasids, a Mamluk Army was created by the Egypt-based Ayyubid dynasty . These Mamluks decided to directly overthrow their masters and came to power in 1250 in what

452-466: A centre of learning. The Abbasid period was marked by the use of bureaucrats (such as the Barmakid family) for governing the territories as well as an increasing inclusion of non-Arab Muslims in the ummah (Muslim community). Despite this initial cooperation, the Abbasids of the late 8th century had alienated both non-Arab mawali (clients). The political power of the caliphs was limited with

565-531: A collection of fantastical folk tales, legends and parables compiled primarily during the Abbasid era. The collection is recorded as having originated from an Arabic translation of a Sassanian-era Persian prototype, with likely origins in Indian literary traditions. Stories from Arabic , Persian , Mesopotamian, and Egyptian folklore and literature were later incorporated. The epic is believed to have taken shape in

678-574: A mosque, all surrounding inner courtyards. Mesopotamia only has one surviving mausoleum from this era, in Samarra: an octagonal domed structured known as the Qubbat al-Sulaibiyya , which is the first known monumental tomb in Islamic architecture and may be the final resting place of al-Muntasir . Basus War The Basus War (often written al-Basus War ; Arabic : حرب البسوس ḥarb al-basūs )

791-833: A much more Persianate culture and statecraft. Only the central lands of Mesopotamia were under direct Abbasid control, with Palestine and the Hejaz often managed by the Tulunids. Byzantium, for its part, had begun to push Arab Muslims farther east in Anatolia . By the 920s, North Africa was lost to the Fatimid dynasty , a Shia sect tracing its roots to Muhammad's daughter Fatimah . The Fatimid dynasty took control of Idrisid and Aghlabid domains, advanced to Egypt in 969, and established their capital near Fustat in Cairo , which they built as

904-485: A result. Other influential Abbasid philosophers include al-Jahiz , and Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen). As power shifted from the Umayyads to the Abbasids, the architectural styles changed also, from Greco-Roman tradition (which features elements of Hellenistic and Roman representative style) to Eastern tradition which retained their independent architectural traditions from Mesopotamia and Persia. The Abbasid architecture

1017-632: A tribe, however, had disappeared from the historical record during the early Hamdanid period. The Banu Taghlib were originally a Bedouin (nomadic Arab ) tribe that inhabited the Najd . The tribe was named after its progenitor Taghlib ibn Wa'il, also known as Dithar ibn Wa'il. The tribe belonged to the Rabi'a confederation and thus traced its descent to the Nizar branch of the Adnanites . Their full genealogy

1130-520: Is "the style of philosophy produced within the framework of Islamic culture". Islamic philosophy, in this definition is neither necessarily concerned with religious issues, nor is exclusively produced by Muslims. Their works on Aristotle were a key step in the transmission of learning from ancient Greeks to the Islamic world and the West. They often corrected the philosopher, encouraging a lively debate in

1243-560: Is as follows: Taghlib/Dithār ibn Wāʾil ibn Qasit ibn Hinb ibn Afṣā ibn Duʿmī ibn Jadīla ibn Asad ibn Rabīʿa ibn Nizār ibn Maʿadd ibn Adnān. Their rival and brother tribe was the Banu Bakr ibn Wa'il . Information about the Taghlib's branches were in large part based on the records of the pre-Islamic Taghlibi genealogist al-Akhzar ibn Suhayma. Taghlib ibn Wa'il had three sons, Ghanm, Imran and al-Aws. However, in Arab genealogical literature, only

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1356-655: Is known as the Mamluk Sultanate . In 1261, following the devastation of Baghdad by the Mongols, the Mamluk rulers of Egypt re-established the Abbasid caliphate in Cairo . The first Abbasid caliph of Cairo was Al-Mustansir . The Abbasid caliphs in Egypt continued to maintain the presence of authority, but it was confined to religious matters. The Abbasid caliphate of Cairo lasted until the time of Al-Mutawakkil III , who

1469-674: Is traditionally seen as the approximate end of the Golden Age. Contemporary accounts state Mongol soldiers looted and then destroyed mosques, palaces, libraries, and hospitals. Priceless books from Baghdad's thirty-six public libraries were torn apart, the looters using their leather covers as sandals. Grand buildings that had been the work of generations were burned to the ground. The House of Wisdom (the Grand Library of Baghdad), containing countless precious historical documents and books on subjects ranging from medicine to astronomy,

1582-751: The An Lushan Rebellion against An Lushan . The Abbasids, or "Black Flags" as they were commonly called, were known in Tang dynasty chronicles as the hēiyī Dàshí , "The Black-robed Tazi" ( 黑衣大食 ) ("Tazi" being a borrowing from Persian Tāzī , the word for "Arab"). Al-Rashid sent embassies to the Chinese Tang dynasty and established good relations with them. After the war, these embassies remained in China with Caliph Harun al-Rashid establishing an alliance with China. Several embassies from

1695-538: The Banu Taghlib , Kulaib ibn Rabiah , had shot a prized she-camel with his arrow. This camel belonged to a woman named Basus , who was related to the chief of the Banu Shayban , a subdivision of Banu Bakr . Basus wrote and recited a poem which incited the chief of Banu Shayban, Jassas ibn Murrah , against Kulayb ibn Rabi'ah; this resulted in the former stabbing the latter to death. Kulayb's murder angered

1808-630: The First Muslim Civil War (656–661), members of the Taghlib fought on the side of Ali ibn Abi Talib at the Battle of the Camel (656) and the Battle of Siffin (657). However, at Siffin, a significant Taghlibi force also fought alongside Mu'awiya . The fact that the Muslim state exempted the Taghlib from jizya , while retaining their Christian faith, is notable. The Taghlib refused to pay

1921-559: The Golden Age of Islam . It was also during this period that Islamic manuscript production reached its height. Between the 8th and 10th centuries, Abbasid artisans pioneered and perfected manuscript techniques that became standards of the practice. This, in addition to housing several key academic institutions, including the House of Wisdom , as well as a multiethnic and multi-religious environment, garnered it an international reputation as

2034-492: The House of Wisdom in Baghdad, where both Muslim and non-Muslim scholars sought to translate and gather all the world's knowledge into Arabic . Many classic works of antiquity that would otherwise have been lost were translated into Arabic and Persian and later in turn translated into Turkish, Hebrew and Latin. During this period the Muslim world was a cauldron of cultures which collected, synthesized and significantly advanced

2147-700: The Mustansiriya School , in an attempt to eclipse the Seljuq-era Nizamiyya built by Nizam al Mulk . In 1206, Genghis Khan established a powerful dynasty among the Mongols of central Asia . During the 13th century, this Mongol Empire conquered most of the Eurasian land mass, including both China in the east and much of the old Islamic caliphate (as well as Kievan Rus' ) in the west. Hulagu Khan 's destruction of Baghdad in 1258

2260-771: The Qays–Yaman conflict , an episode of the civil war. However, after the Qaysi Banu Sulaym tribe encroached on their villages in the Khabur Valley and attacked the tribe with sanction from the anti-Umayyad leader Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr , the Taghlib turned against the Qays. The conflict with Qays likely precipitated the Taghlib's reconciliation with the Banu Bakr. The Taghlibi chieftain Hammam ibn al-Mutarrif secured

2373-571: The Samanids had begun the process of exercising independent authority in Transoxiana and Greater Khorasan , and the succeeding Saffarid dynasty of Iran. The Saffarids , from Khorasan, nearly seized Baghdad in 876, and the Tulunids took control of most of Syria. The trend of weakening of the central power and strengthening of the minor caliphates on the periphery continued. An exception

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2486-634: The siege of Baghdad by the Mongols under Hulagu Khan and the execution of al-Musta'sim . The Abbasid line of rulers re-centred themselves in the Mamluk capital of Cairo in 1261. Though lacking in political power, with the brief exception of Caliph al-Musta'in , the dynasty continued to claim religious authority until a few years after the Ottoman conquest of Egypt in 1517, with the last Abbasid caliph being al-Mutawakkil III . The Abbasid caliphs were descended from Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib , one of

2599-832: The 10th century and reached its final form by the 14th century; the number and type of tales have varied from one manuscript to another. All Arabian fantasy tales were often called "Arabian Nights" when translated into English, regardless of whether they appeared in The Book of One Thousand and One Nights . This epic has been influential in the West since it was translated in the 18th century, first by Antoine Galland . Many imitations were written, especially in France. Various characters from this epic have themselves become cultural icons in Western culture, such as Aladdin , Sinbad and Ali Baba . A famous example of Islamic poetry on romance

2712-580: The 40-year-war. It took them forty years to breed a new army and go back and finish off the battle with a final victory. The Himyarite ruler Marthad'ilan Yu'nim dispatched at least five hundred soldiers to assist Imru' al-Qays in his mission to reunite the tribes of Taghlib and Banu Bakr, with the goal of fighting against the Banu Asad . After the Banu Taghlib had suffered several defeats, their leading commander, Abu Layla al-Muhalhel fled but

2825-649: The Abbasid Caliphs to the Chinese court have been recorded in the Old Book of Tang , the most important being those of al-Saffah, al-Mansur, and Harun al-Rashid. In 762, al-Mansur suppressed a rebellion in the Hejaz led by al-Nafs al-Zakiyya , a descendant from Ali ibn Abi Talib , whose challenge to the Abbasid claim to leadership was based on his Alid lineage and thus presented a serious political threat. He

2938-469: The Abbasids and Husayn eventually gained a pardon and was appointed governor of Diyar Rabi'a in 910. He later revolted, was captured and executed in 916. Abu al-Hayja', meanwhile, was again made governor of Mosul in 920, serving until his death in 929. Upon Abu al-Hayja's death, his son Nasir al-Dawla , who ruled as his father's deputy ruler in Mosul, struggled to secure the governorship of that city. His rule

3051-657: The Abbasids for the titular authority of the Islamic ummah . They commanded some support in the Shia sections of Baghdad (such as Karkh ), although Baghdad was the city most closely connected to the caliphate, even in the Buyid and Seljuq eras. The challenge of the Fatimids only ended with their downfall in the 12th century. Despite the power of the Buyid amirs, the Abbasids retained a highly ritualized court in Baghdad, as described by

3164-399: The Abbasids in Baghdad. When the dynasty began to weaken in the 12th century, the Abbasids gained greater independence once again. While the caliph al-Mustarshid was the first caliph to build an army capable of meeting a Seljuk army in battle, he was nonetheless defeated and assassinated in 1135. The caliph al-Muqtafi was the first Abbasid Caliph to regain the full military independence of

3277-697: The Abbasids outside of Mosul and was imprisoned, but Husayn's good offices with al-Mu'tadid gained Hamdan a pardon. Husayn led or participated in Abbasid expeditions against the Dulafids , the Qarmatians and Tulunids during the reign of Caliph al-Muktafi ( r.  902–908 ), but fell from grace for taking part in the plot to install Abdallah ibn al-Mu'tazz as caliph in 908. Husayn's brothers Abu'l Hayja Abdallah (governor of Mosul in 905–913 and 914–916), Ibrahim (governor of Diyar Rabi'a in 919), Dawud (governor of Diyar Rabi'a in 920) and Sa'id remained loyal to

3390-646: The Abbasids. In the early 10th century, a Taghlibi family, the Hamdanids , secured the governorships of these regions, and in the 930s, the Hamdanid leader Nasir al-Dawla formed an autonomous emirate out of Mosul and the Jazira. Likewise, in 945, his brother, Sayf al-Dawla , created a northern Syrian emirate based in Aleppo . The Hamdanids ruled both of these emirates until their political demise in 1002. The Taghlib as

3503-878: The Attab, Utba, Itban, Awf and Ka'b lines; all of these lines were founded by the eponymous sons of Sa'd ibn Zuhayr ibn Jusham. The Attab, Utba and Itban sub-tribes formed the al-Utab grouping, while the Awf and Ka'b sub-tribes formed the Banu al-Awhad. Another leading Zuhayri sub-tribe was the al-Harith, whose eponymous founder was a son of Murra ibn Zuhayr. The Malik division also bore numerous tribal groupings, including al-Lahazim (descendants of Awf ibn Malik), al-Abna' (descendants of Rabi'a, A'idh and Imru' al-Qays, all sons of Taym ibn Usama ibn Malik), al-Qu'ur (descendants of Malik's sons Malik and al-Harith) and Rish al-Hubara (descendants of Qu'ayn ibn Malik). The Hamdanid dynasty traced its descent to

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3616-491: The Bakry chief Uday ibn Murrah, who called out all those Bakrys who backed off. Internal dissent occurred amongst the Banu Bakr, but it was eventually resolved. The decision was to retreat and hold a session. Due to the high number of losses, the decision was made for them to retreat, reproduce and then go back to war. So they did, they attacked some forty years later by their fresh younger generations and thats why its referred to as

3729-459: The Banu Taghlib continued their attacks on Banu Shayban, killing one of the important Banu Shayban members. Gradually, the whole group of Banu Bakr (including all subdivisions) participated in the war against Banu Taghlib. One of the first victories against Banu Taghlib was on a day known as Yawm 'ala Istirad , where a criminal from that tribe was killed. Some years later, some of the subdivisions of Banu Bakr pulled out from fighting. This angered

3842-497: The Banu Taghlib, and they attacked and provoked Banu Shayban hence bringing all the subdivisions of Banu Bakr against themselves. On a day known as Yawm al-Hazr , the Banu Taghlib carried out an assault against the Banu Shayban. They were victorious, and majority of the casualties were from the Banu Shayban. Then a few days later, the Banu Taghlib confronted the Arab tribe of Zubaid . No casualties were reported, and later on

3955-460: The Barmakids, who had wielded administrative power on his behalf. During the same period, several factions began either to leave the empire for other lands or to take control of distant parts of the empire. Still, the reigns of al-Rashid and his sons were considered to be the apex of the Abbasids. Domestically, Harun pursued policies similar to those of his father Al-Mahdi. He released many of

4068-492: The Buyid bureaucrat Hilal al-Sabi' , and they retained a certain influence over Baghdad as well as religious life. As Buyid power waned with the rule of Baha' al-Daula , the caliphate was able to regain some measure of strength. The caliph al-Qadir , for example, led the ideological struggle against the Shia with writings such as the Baghdad Manifesto . The caliphs kept order in Baghdad itself, attempting to prevent

4181-550: The Byzantines. Though his attempt to seize Constantinople failed when his fleet was destroyed by a storm, his military excursions were generally successful, culminating with a resounding victory in the Sack of Amorium . The Byzantines responded by sacking Damietta in Egypt, and Al-Mutawakkil responded by sending his troops into Anatolia again, sacking and marauding until they were eventually annihilated in 863. Even by 820,

4294-629: The Euphrates fortress town of al-Rahba (modern Mayadin ). In the 880s, a member of the Adi Taghlib, Hamdan ibn Hamdun , joined the Kharijite Rebellion against Caliph al-Mu'tadid . At the time, Hamdan held a number of forts in the Jazira, including Mardin and Ardumusht , but in 895, the Abbasids captured the former and afterward, Hamdan's son Husayn surrendered Ardumusht and joined al-Mu'tadid's forces. Hamdan surrendered to

4407-620: The Euphrates to Upper Mesopotamia (known to the Arabs as the "Jazira") after their chieftain Amr ibn Kulthum of the Jusham division assassinated the Lakhmid king Amr ibn al-Hind in 568. As late as the 8th century, Taghlibi tribesmen glorified Amr ibn Kulthum as among the most preeminent Arabs of the pre-Islamic era, and noted his poetic skills, his struggle against the kings of al-Hira and his feats in

4520-515: The Malik division via their ancestor Adi ibn Usama ibn Malik. In the pre-Islamic era (pre-630s), the Taghlib were among the strongest and largest Bedouin tribes in Arabia. Their high degree of tribal solidarity was reflected in the large formations they organized into during battle. The tribe was involved in several major battles during this period. As early as the 4th century CE, the Taghlib were within

4633-809: The Namir ibn Qasit tribe, the Taghlib's paternal kinsmen. A section of the Taghlib had already lived in the Lower Euphrates prior to the tribe's mass exodus. Concurrent with the Basus War was the rise of the Kindite Kingdom in central and northern Arabia. Both the Taghlib and the Bakr became subjects of the Kingdom during the reign of al-Harith ibn Amr ibn Hujr (early 6th century). After al-Harith's death (post 530), his sons Shurahbil and Salama contested

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4746-416: The Persian faction known as the Buyids from Daylam swept into power and assumed control over the bureaucracy in Baghdad. According to the history of Miskawayh , they began distributing iqtas ( fiefs in the form of tax farms) to their supporters. This period of localized secular control was to last nearly 100 years. The loss of Abbasid power to the Buyids would shift as the Seljuks would take over from

4859-412: The Persians. At the end of the eighth century, the Abbasids found they could no longer keep together a polity from Baghdad, which had grown larger than that of Rome . In 793 the Zaydi -Shia dynasty of Idrisids set up a state from Fez in Morocco, while a family of governors under the Abbasids became increasingly independent until they founded the Aghlabid Emirate from the 830s. Al-Mu'tasim started

4972-537: The Taghlib either the zakat or sadaqah (both taxes normally imposed on Muslims). Umar's exemption was widely approved by other senior early Muslims , and later Muslim jurists opined that a Muslim ruler could waive the jizya from non-Muslims so long as the ruler collected an alternate tax that was equivalent in amount. Yusuf Qaradawi argues that Muslim majority countries can apply this lesson to their non-Muslim citizens by charging non-Muslims not jizya but an equivalent tax instead (which would exempt non-Muslims from paying

5085-402: The Umayyad court. Under Abd al-Malik, al-Akhtal was the official poet of the Umayyad court and vigorously championed the Umayyads' against their opponents. The Taghlibi–Qaysi conflict culminated with a decisive Taghlibi victory at Yawm al-Hashshak in the Jazira near the Tigris River , in which the Sulaymi chief Umayr ibn al-Hubab was slain; the Taghlib sent the latter's head to Abd al-Malik, who

5198-410: The Umayyads and 'Alids his brother Al-Hadi had imprisoned and declared amnesty for all political groups of the Quraysh . Large scale hostilities broke out with Byzantium , and under his rule, the Abbasid Empire reached its peak. However, Harun's decision to split the succession proved to be damaging to the longevity of the empire. After Rashid's death, the empire was split by a civil war between

5311-434: The Umayyads at the Battle of Gorgan, the Battle of Nahavand and finally in the Battle of Karbala, all in the year 748. Ibrahim was captured by Marwan and was killed. The quarrel was taken up by Ibrahim's brother Abdallah, known by the name of Abu al-'Abbas as-Saffah , who defeated the Umayyads in 750 in the battle near the Great Zab and was subsequently proclaimed caliph . After this loss, Marwan fled to Egypt, where he

5424-411: The administrative changes needed to keep order of the political challenges created by the far-flung nature of the empire, and the limited communication across it. It was also during this early period of the dynasty, in particular during the governance of Al-Mansur, Harun al-Rashid, and al-Ma'mun , that its reputation and power were created. The position of wazir (vizier) developed in this period. It

5537-469: The al-Araqim were the Jusham (the largest), Malik (second largest), Amr, Tha'laba, al-Harith and Mu'awiya. Because of their size and strength, the Jusham and Malik were collectively referred to as al-Rawkān , which translated as "the two horns" or "the two numerous and strong companies". The smaller Amr division of the al-Araqim was known as al-Nakhābiqa . From the Jusham division came the Zuhayr branch, from which several large sub-tribes descended, including

5650-401: The autonomous provinces slowly took on the characteristic of de facto states with hereditary rulers, armies, and revenues and operated under only nominal caliph suzerainty, which may not necessarily be reflected by any contribution to the treasury, such as the Soomro Emirs that had gained control of Sindh and ruled the entire province from their capital of Mansura . Mahmud of Ghazni took

5763-424: The blood of Al-Musta'sim , a direct descendant of Muhammad's uncle Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib , and the last reigning Abbasid caliph in Baghdad, was spilled. The Shia of Persia stated that no such calamity had happened after the death of Husayn ibn Ali in the Battle of Karbala ; nevertheless, as a precaution and in accordance with a Mongol taboo which forbade spilling royal blood, Hulagu had Al-Musta'sim wrapped in

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5876-407: The caliph al-Amin and his brother al-Ma'mun , who had the support of Khorasan. This war ended with a two-year siege of Baghdad and the eventual death of Al-Amin in 813. Al-Ma'mun ruled for 20 years of relative calm interspersed with a rebellion in Azerbaijan by the Khurramites , which was supported by the Byzantines. Al-Ma'mun was also responsible for the creation of an autonomous Khorasan, and

5989-481: The caliph al-Qa'im was unable to defeat him without outside help. Toghril Beg , the Seljuq sultan, restored Baghdad to Sunni rule and took Iraq for his dynasty. Once again, the Abbasids were forced to deal with a military power that they could not match, though the Abbasid caliph remained the titular head of the Islamic community. The succeeding sultans Alp Arslan and Malikshah , as well as their vizier Nizam al-Mulk , took up residence in Persia, but held power over

6102-404: The caliph al-Radi (934–941) was forced to acknowledge their power by creating the position of "Prince of Princes" ( amir al-umara ). In addition, the power of the Mamluks steadily grew, reaching a climax when al-Radi was constrained to hand over most of the royal functions to the non-Arab Muhammad ibn Ra'iq . Al-Mustakfi had a short reign from 944 to 946, and it was during this period that

6215-454: The caliphal court in Baghdad during the early 9th century, while others such as al-Mutanabbi received their patronage from regional courts. Under Harun al-Rashid, Baghdad was renowned for its bookstores, which proliferated after the making of paper was introduced. Chinese papermakers had been among those taken prisoner by the Arabs at the Battle of Talas in 751. As prisoners of war, they were dispatched to Samarkand , where they helped set up

6328-507: The caliphate were minimal while the Byzantine Empire was fighting Abbasid rule in Syria and Anatolia , with focus shifting primarily to internal matters; Abbasid governors exerted greater autonomy and, using this increasing power, began to make their positions hereditary. While Baghdad remained the official capital, Harun al-Rashid chose to reside in Raqqa from 796 until the end of his reign. In 803, for reasons that remain unclear, Harun al-Rashid turned on and imprisoned or killed most of

6441-433: The caliphate, with the help of his vizier Ibn Hubayra . After nearly 250 years of subjection to foreign dynasties, he successfully defended Baghdad against the Seljuqs in the siege of Baghdad (1157) , thus securing Iraq for the Abbasids. The reign of al-Nasir (d. 1225) brought the caliphate back into power throughout Iraq, based in large part on the Sufi futuwwa organizations that the caliph headed. Al-Mustansir built

6554-511: The caliphs were wary of the Alid sympathies in the city and did not always reside here. In 752, al-Saffah built a new city called al-Hashimiyya, at an uncertain location, most likely near Kufa. Later that same year, he moved to Anbar , where he built a new settlement for his Khurasani soldiers and a palace for himself. It was al-Saffah's successor, Abu Ja'far al-Mansur ( r.  754–775 ) who firmly consolidated Abbasid rule and faced down internal challenges. His uncle, Abdallah ibn Ali ,

6667-400: The capital from Damascus to Baghdad. The Abbasids were influenced by the Qur'anic injunctions and hadith , such as "the ink of a scholar is more holy than the blood of a martyr", stressing the value of knowledge. During this period the Muslim world became an intellectual center for science, philosophy, medicine and education as the Abbasids championed the cause of knowledge and established

6780-466: The city of Raqqa , along the Euphrates . Finally, in 836, al-Mu'tasim moved the capital to a new site that he created along the Tigris, called Samarra. This city saw 60 years of work, with race-courses and game preserves to add to the atmosphere. Due to the dry remote nature of the environment, some of the palaces built in this era were isolated havens. Al-Ukhaidir Fortress is a fine example of this type of building, which has stables, living quarters, and

6893-422: The civil service. In 794, Jafa al-Barmak built the first paper mill in Baghdad, and from there the technology circulated. Harun required that paper be employed in government dealings, since something recorded on paper could not easily be changed or removed, and eventually, an entire street in Baghdad's business district was dedicated to selling paper and books. One of the common definitions for "Islamic philosophy"

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7006-441: The conflict with the Bakr. In 605, the Taghlib and Bakr fought on opposing sides in the Battle of Dhi Qar , with the Taghlib backing the Sasanians against the Bakr. The Taghlib's political influence receded considerably during the advent of Islam in the mid-7th century. Due to their distance from Mecca and Medina , the two cities that played the central role in Islam's development, the Taghlib were not involved in Islamic affairs in

7119-435: The continued repulsing of Byzantine forays. In the 9th century, the Abbasids created an army loyal only to their caliphate, composed of non-Arab origin people, known as Mamluks . This force, created by al-Ma'mun and his brother and successor al-Mu'tasim (833–842), prevented the further disintegration of the empire. The Mamluk army, though often viewed negatively, both helped and hurt the caliphate. Early on, it provided

7232-428: The descendants of Ghanm ibn Taghlib are discussed extensively. From Ghanm came the al-Araqim, which referred to the descendants of six sons of Bakr ibn Hubayb ibn Amr ibn Ghanm, all of whom had eyes that resembled those of arāqim (speckled snakes; sing. al-Arqām ). The al-Araqim were the most important group of the Taghlib and nearly all of the genealogical history of the Taghlib centers around them. The six divisions of

7345-427: The downward slide by using non-Muslim mercenaries in his personal army. Also during this period, officers started assassinating superiors with whom they disagreed, in particular the caliphs. By the 870s, Egypt became autonomous under Ahmad ibn Tulun . In the East, governors decreased their ties to the center as well. The Saffarids of Herat and the Samanids of Bukhara began breaking away around this time, cultivating

7458-418: The easterly region of Khorasan , far from the Levantine center of Umayyad influence. The Abbasid Caliphate first centered its government in Kufa , modern-day Iraq, but in 762 the caliph al-Mansur founded the city of Baghdad, near the ancient Babylonian capital city of Babylon and Sassanid city of Ctesiphon . Baghdad became the center of science , culture , and invention in what became known as

7571-400: The first Arab paper mill. In time, paper replaced parchment as the medium for writing, and the production of books greatly increased. These events had an academic and societal impact that could be broadly compared to the introduction of the printing press in the West. Paper aided in communication and record-keeping, it also brought a new sophistication and complexity to businesses, banking, and

7684-428: The first major changes effected by Abbasid rule was the move of the caliphate's center of power from Syria to Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq). This was closer to the Persian mawali support base of the Abbasids and the move addressed their demand for reduced Arab dominance in the empire. However, no definitive capital was yet selected. In these early Abbasid years, Kufa generally served as the administrative capital, but

7797-480: The following year. Nasir al-Dawla was deposed as governor of Mosul and the Jazira by his sons in 967. The province remained in Hamdanid hands until 1002. Meanwhile, Nasir al-Dawla's brother, Sayf al-Dawla founded the Hamdanid emirate of Aleppo and northern Syria in 945. His descendants would continue to rule the emirate until being deposed by the ghulam (slave soldier), Lu'lu' al-Kabir in 1002. The Hamdanids did not depend on their Taghlibi tribesmen for matters of

7910-442: The frontier and given animals and other gifts by the Byzantines, who were seeking to buttress their manpower along with frontier. Afterward, the Habib raided the Islamic side of the frontier, mainly Diyar Mudar, annually during harvest time and captured the forts of Hisn Ziyad and Hisn Mansur. In 942, Nasir al-Dawla became the effective ruler of the Abbasid Caliphate until being outmaneuvered by his rebellious Turkish officer, Tuzun ,

8023-409: The government with a stable force to address domestic and foreign problems. However, creation of this foreign army and al-Mu'tasim's transfer of the capital from Baghdad to Samarra created a division between the caliphate and the people they claimed to rule. Al-Mu'tasim's reign marked the end of the strong caliphs. He strengthened his personal army with the Mamluks and promptly restarted the war with

8136-465: The jizya like other Christian subjects and requested to pay the zakat (a tax paid by Muslims to the poor) instead. The Taghlib reasoned they were Arabs and should not be treated like non-Muslims, but instead wished to be treated like Muslims. Given that this tax issue had already caused some Christian Arabs to defect to the Byzantine empire, Caliph Umar conceded to their demand and instead applied on

8249-539: The knowledge gained from the Roman , Chinese, Indian , Persian , Egyptian , North African, Ancient Greek and Medieval Greek civilizations. According to Huff, "[i]n virtually every field of endeavor—in astronomy, alchemy, mathematics, medicine, optics and so forth—the Caliphate's scientists were in the forefront of scientific advance." The best-known fiction from the Islamic world is One Thousand and One Nights ,

8362-457: The latter to Adharbayjan . Both Hisham and Bistam were Muslims. Another Taghlibi Muslim, Abd al-Razzaq ibn Abd al-Hamid led an Abbasid expedition against the Byzantines in the summer of 793. In the early 9th century, the Adi ibn Usama line of the Malik division, known as the ʿAdī Taghlib or al-ʿAdawīyya gained political prominence in the Jazira. One of their members, al-Hasan ibn Umar ibn al-Khattab

8475-640: The outbreak of fitnas in the capital, often contending with the ayyarun . With the Buyid dynasty on the wane, a vacuum was created that was eventually filled by the dynasty of Oghuz Turks known as the Seljuqs . By 1055, the Seljuqs had wrested control from the Buyids and Abbasids, and took temporal power. When the amir and former slave Basasiri took up the Shia Fatimid banner in Baghdad in 1056–57,

8588-550: The peace and alliance of the two tribes by compensating the Bakr for their losses at the Battle of Dhi Qar. A leader of the Taghlib, Abd Yasu', served as the Taghlib and Bakr's joint envoy to Caliph Abd al-Malik ( r.  685–705 ). The Taghlib's champion during their conflict with the Qays was the well-known Taghlibi poet al-Akhtal , whose main poetic rival was the Qaysi Jarir , with whom he engaged in "verbal warfare" in

8701-759: The prophet Muhammad 's time. During the Ridda Wars (632–633) between the Muslims and the apostate Arab tribes, the Taghlib fought alongside the latter. Sections of the Taghlib, particularly the Utba line of the Zuhayr branch, fought the Muslim armies in Iraq and Upper Mesopotamia during the Islamic conquest of Persia . A daughter of the Utba chieftain Rabi'a ibn Bujayr named Umm Habib was taken captive and sent to Medina, where she

8814-474: The region also appear to have served as "capitals" under either al-Saffah or al-Mansur prior to the founding of Baghdad. Al-Mansur centralised the judicial administration, and later, Harun al-Rashid established the institution of Chief Qadi to oversee it. The Umayyad empire was mostly Arab; however, the Abbasids progressively became made up of more and more converted Muslims in which the Arabs were only one of many ethnicities. The Abbasids had depended heavily on

8927-520: The return of power to the family of Muhammad, the Hashemites , during the reign of Umar II . During the reign of Marwan II , this opposition culminated in the rebellion of Ibrahim al-Imam , the fourth in descent from Abbas. Supported by the province of Khorasan (Eastern Persia), even though the governor opposed them, and the Shia Arabs, he achieved considerable success, but was captured in

9040-604: The rise of the Iranian Buyids and the Seljuq Turks , who captured Baghdad in 945 and 1055, respectively. Although Abbasid leadership over the vast Islamic empire was gradually reduced to a ceremonial religious function in much of the caliphate, the dynasty retained control of its Mesopotamian domain during the rule of Caliph al-Muqtafi and extended into Iran during the reign of Caliph al-Nasir . The Abbasids' age of cultural revival and fruition ended in 1258 with

9153-800: The second half of the 9th century during the reign of al-Mu'tasim (r. 833–842). At around the same time, Malik ibn Tawk persuaded Sahl ibn Bishr, a great-grandson of al-Akhtal, to convert to Islam along with all of al-Akhtal's descendants. The Banu Habib converted to Christianity in 935 when they defected to Byzantium. The historian Asa Eger comments, "The idea that they [the Banu Habib] converted to Christianity may only partially be true, as many may still [have] retained their Christian past identities." Abbasid Caliphate The Abbasid Caliphate or Abbasid Empire ( / ə ˈ b æ s ɪ d , ˈ æ b ə s ɪ d / ; Arabic : الْخِلَافَة الْعَبَّاسِيَّة , romanized :  al-Khilāfa al-ʿAbbāsiyya )

9266-542: The small Taghlibi community of Kufa, some tribesmen in Qinnasrin and noted individuals, such as the Umayyad court poets Ka'b ibn Ju'ayl and 'Umayr ibn Shiyaym. The vast majority remained Christian during this period. Later in the Abbasid era, in the 9th century, significant numbers of Taghlibi tribesmen embraced Islam and attained higher office in the state. Apparently, the mass conversion of the Taghlib to Islam occurred in

9379-706: The sphere of influence of the Persian Sasanian Empire and their Arab clients, the Lakhmid kings of al-Hira . It is mentioned during this time that the Sasanian king Shapur II sent Taghlibi captives to live in Darin and al-Khatt , both in the region of Bahrayn (eastern Arabia). In the late 5th century, the Taghlibi chieftain Kulaib ibn Rabiah , from the al-Harith ibn Murra line of the Zuhayr branch,

9492-462: The spirit of ijtihad . They also wrote influential original philosophical works, and their thinking was incorporated into Christian philosophy during the Middle Ages, notably by Thomas Aquinas . Three speculative thinkers, al-Kindi , al-Farabi , and Avicenna , combined Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism with other ideas introduced through Islam, and Avicennism was later established as

9605-424: The state, relying instead on non-Arab ghilman and bureaucrats for military and fiscal affairs. After the early years of the Hamdanid dynasty, the Taghlib, like many Arab tribes established in the region before and after the 7th-century Muslim conquests, "disappeared into obscurity". Small numbers of Taghlibi tribesmen converted to Islam during the Umayyad era (661–750) and early Abbasid era (8th century), including

9718-528: The support of Persians in their overthrow of the Umayyads. Al-Mansur welcomed non-Arab Muslims to his court. While this helped integrate Arab and Persian cultures, it alienated many of their Arab supporters, particularly the Khorasanian Arabs who had supported them in their battles against the Umayyads. The Abbasid leadership had to work hard in the last half of the 8th century (750–800) under several competent caliphs and their viziers to usher in

9831-470: The throne. The Taghlib and Namir backed Salama against the Bakr who backed Shurahbil. Al-Saffah, a Taghlibi warrior from the Malik division, was commander of Salama's cavalry, while another Taghlibi, Usum ibn al-Nu'man, slew Shurahbil in battle. The Basus War ended in the mid-6th century when the Taghlib and Bakr signed a peace treaty at the Dhu al-Majaz market near Mecca . The Taghlib migrated further north along

9944-613: The title of sultan , as opposed to the "amir" that had been in more common usage, signifying the Ghaznavid Empire 's independence from caliphal authority, despite Mahmud's ostentatious displays of Sunni orthodoxy and ritual submission to the caliph. In the 11th century, the loss of respect for the caliphs continued, as some Islamic rulers no longer mentioned the caliph's name in the Friday khutba , or struck it off their coinage. The Isma'ili Fatimid dynasty of Cairo contested

10057-555: The treaty, then fended off multiple incursions during the first decade of the 9th century. These attacks pushed into the Taurus Mountains , culminating with a victory at the Battle of Krasos and the massive invasion of 806 , led by Rashid himself. Rashid's navy also proved successful, taking Cyprus . Rashid decided to focus on the rebellion of Rafi ibn al-Layth in Khorasan and died while there. Military operations by

10170-544: The victor over the Umayyads at the Battle of the Zab, was the most serious potential rival for leadership and al-Mansur sent Abu Muslim, the Khurasani revolutionary commander, against him in 754. After Abu Muslim successfully defeated him, al-Mansur then turned to eliminate Abu Muslim himself. He arranged to have him arrested and executed in 755. On the western frontier, the Abbasids were unable to re-assert caliphal control over

10283-484: The western and central Maghreb, which the Umayyads had lost in the 740s. One member of the Umayyad dynasty, Abd ar-Rahman, also managed to escape the purge of his family and managed to establish independent in rule in al-Andalus (present-day Spain and Portugal) in 756, founding the Umayyad Emirate of Córdoba . In 756, al-Mansur had also sent over 4,000 Arab mercenaries to assist the Chinese Tang dynasty in

10396-551: The year 747 and died, possibly assassinated, in prison. On 9 June 747 (15 Ramadan AH 129), Abu Muslim , rising from Khorasan, successfully initiated an open revolt against Umayyad rule, which was carried out under the sign of the Black Standard . Close to 10,000 soldiers were under Abu Muslim's command when the hostilities officially began in Merv. General Qahtaba followed the fleeing governor Nasr ibn Sayyar west defeating

10509-408: The youngest uncles of Muhammad and of the same Banu Hashim clan. The Abbasids claimed to be the true successors of Muhammad in replacing the Umayyad descendants of Banu Umayya by virtue of their closer bloodline to Muhammad. The Abbasids also distinguished themselves from the Umayyads by attacking their moral character and administration in general. According to Ira Lapidus , "The Abbasid revolt

10622-552: The zakat that is imposed on Muslims). The Taghlib's shared Christian faith and proximity to the Muslims' enemy, the Byzantine Empire , was the likely reason members of the tribe were not assigned important positions in the state during the Umayyad era. Nonetheless, they backed the Umayyads during the Second Muslim Civil War (680–692). Initially, they nominally supported the rebellious Qaysi tribes in

10735-602: Was Layla and Majnun , an originally Arabic story which was further developed by Iranian , Azerbaijani and other poets in the Persian , Azerbaijani , and Turkish languages. It is a tragic story of undying love much like the later Romeo and Juliet . Arabic poetry reached its greatest height in the Abbasid era, especially before the loss of central authority and the rise of the Persianate dynasties. Writers like Abu Tammam and Abu Nuwas were closely connected to

10848-543: Was a 40-year conflict between two cousin tribes in Arabia of Late Antiquity . It was caused by the slaughtering of a camel that was owned by a neighboring tribe, and the subsequent killing of the Taghlibi chief that came after it. This war is also remembered as a famous aphorism warning against familial discord and other family-related issues including grudges between relatives. An influential tribal chief and leader of

10961-498: Was appointed governor of Mosul by Caliph al-Amin in 813. Some years later, another Taghlibi linked to al-Hasan by marriage, Tawk ibn Malik of the Attab line of the Jusham division, became governor of Diyar Rabi'a under Caliph al-Ma'mun (r. 813–833). Tawk's son Malik ibn Tawk served as governor of Jund Dimashq (district of Damascus) and Jund al-Urdunn (district of Jordan) under caliphs al-Wathiq ( r.  842–847 ) and al-Mutawakkil ( r.  847–861 ). He later founded

11074-537: Was captured by a Madh'hiji tribe in Yemen and forced to marry a woman from that tribe. The Banu Taghlib tribe eventually dispersed into the lands of Iraq , where they stayed there for the rest of their lives. The fighting soon died down, and by the 530s, the war had already ended. Banu Taghlib were the victors of the war at first since they killed most of the Banu Bakr forces. But they eventually capitulated after forty years as Banu Bakr came for retaliation and started

11187-475: Was defeated by an Abbasid army led by Isa ibn Musa . It was after this victory, in 762, that al-Mansur finally established a proper Abbasid capital, Baghdad – officially called Madinat al-Salam ('City of Peace') – located on the Tigris River . Prior to this, he had continued to consider multiple sites for a capital, including al-Hashimiyya, which he used as a capital for a while. Various other sites in

11300-490: Was destroyed. Claims have been made that the Tigris ran red from the blood of the scientists and philosophers killed. Citizens attempted to flee, but were intercepted by Mongol soldiers who killed in abundance, sparing no one, not even children. The caliph Al-Musta'sim was captured and forced to watch as his citizens were murdered and his treasury plundered. Ironically, Mongols feared that a supernatural disaster would strike if

11413-518: Was initially akin to a secretary, but under the tenure of the Barmakids , an Iranian family close to the Abbasids, the position became powerful and Harun al-Rashid delegated state affairs to them for many years. This resulted in a more ceremonial role for many Abbasid caliphs relative to their time under the Umayyads; the viziers began to exert greater influence, and the role of the Caliph's aristocracy

11526-407: Was lost due to the ephemeral nature of the stucco and luster tiles. Another major development was the creation or vast enlargement of cities as they were turned into the capital of the empire, beginning with the creation of Baghdad in 762, which was planned as a walled city with four gates, and a mosque and palace in the center. Al-Mansur, who was responsible for the creation of Baghdad, also planned

11639-570: Was murdered by his brother-in-law, Jassas ibn Murra al-Shaybani of the Banu Bakr. This precipitated a long conflict, known as the Basus War , between the Taghlib and Bakr. Kulaib's brother Abu Layla al-Muhalhel assumed leadership of the Taghlib, but quit his position after the Taghlib's decisive defeat at the battle of Yawm al-Tahaluq, after which the bulk of the Taghlib fled Najd for the Lower Euphrates region. There, they lived alongside

11752-575: Was opposed by his uncles Sa'id and Nasr, the Banu Habib (a rival Taghlibi clan) and Caliph al-Muqtadir ( r.  908–929 ). By 935, Nasir al-Dawla had prevailed against them and was appointed by Caliph al-Radi ( r.  934–940 ) as governor of Mosul and all three provinces of the Jazira, i.e. Diyar Rabi'a, Diyar Mudar and Diyar Bakr . That year the Banu Habib, numbering 12,000 horsemen and their families, left Hamdanid-ruled Nisibin and defected to Byzantium. They were apportioned lands along

11865-468: Was particularly influenced by Sasanian architecture , which in turn featured elements present since ancient Mesopotamia. The Christian styles evolved into a style based more on the Sasanian Empire , utilizing mud bricks and baked bricks with carved stucco. Other architectural innovations and styles were few, such as the four-centered arch , and a dome erected on squinches . Unfortunately, much

11978-431: Was pleased with the death of the rebel leader. The last Umayyad caliph Marwan II ( r.  744–750 ) appointed the Taghlibi tribesman and descendant of al-Saffah, Hisham ibn Amr ibn Bistam, as governor of Mosul and the Jazira. The Abbasid caliph al-Mansur ( r.  754–775 ) reassigned Hisham ibn Amr to Sind . Caliph al-Mahdi ( r.  775–785 ) replaced Hisham with his brother Bistam, before reassigning

12091-576: Was purchased by Ali ibn Abi Talib ; she gave birth to Ali's twins, Umar al-Kabir and Ruqayya. At some point during the Muslim conquests , the Taghlib switched allegiance to the Muslims whilst retaining their Christian faith. Among the most prominent defectors was Utba ibn al-Waghl, a Kufa -based activist from the Sa'd line of the Jusham division. Much of the Taghlibi troops of the Muslim army settled in Kufa. During

12204-548: Was slowly replaced by a Baramkid bureaucracy. To the west, Harun al-Rashid agreed to grant the province of Ifriqiya (centered in present-day Tunisia) as a hereditary emirate to Ibrahim ibn al-Aghlab , who founded the Aghlabid dynasty there. Al-Mahdi restarted the fighting with the Byzantines , and his sons continued the conflict until Empress Irene pushed for peace. After several years of peace, Nikephoros I broke

12317-466: Was subsequently killed. The remainder of his family, barring one male, were also eliminated. Immediately after their victory, al-Saffah sent his forces to Central Asia , where his forces fought against Tang expansion during the Battle of Talas . Al-Saffah focused on putting down numerous rebellions in Syria and Mesopotamia . The Byzantines conducted raids during these early distractions. One of

12430-513: Was supported largely by Arabs, mainly the aggrieved settlers of Merv with the addition of the Yemeni faction and their Mawali ". The Abbasids also appealed to non-Arab Muslims, known as mawali , who remained outside the kinship-based society of the Arabs and were perceived as a lower class within the Umayyad empire. Muhammad ibn 'Ali , a great-grandson of Abbas, began to campaign in Persia for

12543-591: Was taken away as a prisoner by Selim I to Constantinople where he had a ceremonial role. He died in 1543, following his return to Cairo. The Abbasid historical period lasting to the Mongol conquest of Baghdad in 1258 CE is considered the Islamic Golden Age. The Islamic Golden Age was inaugurated by the middle of the 8th century by the ascension of the Abbasid Caliphate and the transfer of

12656-406: Was the 10-year period of Al-Mu'tadid 's rule ( r. 892–902). He brought parts of Egypt, Syria, and Khorasan back into Abbasid control. Especially after the " Anarchy at Samarra " (861–870), the Abbasid central government was weakened and centrifugal tendencies became more prominent in the caliphate's provinces. By the early 10th century, the Abbasids almost lost control of Iraq to various emirs , and

12769-672: Was the third caliphate to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad . It was founded by a dynasty descended from Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib (566–653 CE ), from whom the dynasty takes its name. They ruled as caliphs for most of the caliphate from their capital in Baghdad in modern-day Iraq, after having overthrown the Umayyad Caliphate in the Abbasid Revolution of 750 CE (132  AH ). The Abbasid Revolution had its origins and first successes in

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